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Skirgiello

Skirgiello

] ] Skirgiello (Skirhajla, Skirgaila, Iwan; ca 1354 – 11 January 1397 Kijow; baptized 1383/1384) was the Grand Prince of Lithuania 1386 – 1392, Prince of Trakai, 1382 – 1395, Polatsk 1387 - 1397, Kiev 1395 – 1397, regent of Lithuania 1392 - 1401. He was brother of Demetrius I Starszy and Wladyslaw II Jagiello.

Mother

: Maria of Witebsk (? – 1346)

Father

:Algirdas (ca 1296 – end of May 1377), Grand Prince of Lithuania 1345 – 1377

Brothers

:Demetrius I Starszy (1327 – 12 May 1399 Battle of the Vorskla River), Prince of Trubczewsk 1357 – 1399, Bryansk 1357 – 1379, Starodub 1370 – 1399, Druck 13?? – 13?? :Andrzej (14th century – 12 August 1399), Prince of Polock 1342 – 1387, Pskow 1341 – 1343, 134? – 1348, 1377 – 1379, 1394 – 1396 :Konstanty (14th century – before 30 October 1390), Prince of Czartorysk :Wlodzimierz (14th century – after October 1398), Prince of Kiev, Kopylsk, Sluck :Fiodor (Theodore; 14th century – 1399), Prince of Rylsk 1370 – 1399, Ratnie 1387 – 1394, Briansk 1393 :Wladyslaw II Jagiello (ca 1351 – 1 June 1434 Grodek Jagiellonski), Grand Prince of Lithuania 1377 – 1381, 1382 – 1392, King of Poland 1386 – 1434 :Korybut (Dymitr; after 1350 – after 1404), Prince of Novgorod-Seversky 1386 – 1392/93 :Lingweni (Szymon; 14th century – after 19 June 1431), Prince of Mscislaw, regent of Great Novgorod :Korygiello (Kazimierz; after 1350 – 1390), Prince of Mscislaw, regent :Wigunt (Aleksander; after 1350 – 28 June 1392), Prince of Kiernow :Swidrygiello (Svitrigaylo, Boleslaw; ca 1370 – 10 February 1452 Łuck), Prince of Witebsk 1392 – 1393, 1430 – 1436, Podolia 1400 – 1402, Novgorod-Seversky 1404 – 1408, 1420 – 1438, Czernichow 1419 – 1430, Grand Prince of Lithuania 1430 – 1432, pan Volynia 1437 – 1452

Sisters

:Fiedora (born 14th century) :Nowosielska (14th century – ?) :Agrypina (Maria; 14th century – 1393) :Kenna (Joanna; ca 1350 – 27 April 1368), Princess of Slupsk :Helena (after 1350 – 15 September 1438), Princess of Borowsko-Sierpuchowsk and third part of the Principality of Moscow, Princess of Wolock and Rzewsk 1389 – 1405, Horodeck and Uglick 1405 – 1410 :Maria (after 1350 - ?), Princess of Lithuania :Wilheida (Katarzyna; after 1350 – after 4 April 1422), Princess of Lithuania :Aleksandra (after 1350 – 19 June 1434), Princess of Czersk, Rawsk, Sochaczewsk, Plock, Gostynin, Plonsk, Wisk, Kujawsk and Belsk :Jadwiga of Oswiecim (after 1350 – after 1407), Princess of Oswiecim 1395/96 – 1405

1354

Events

- October 8 - Cola di Rienzo, self-proclaimed "tribune" of Rome, is killed by an angry mob
- End of reign of John VI Cantacuzenus, as Byzantine emperor.
- The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang is established.

Births

- Constance of Castile, wife of John of Gaunt (died 1394)
- Beyazid I, sultan of the Ottoman Empire (died 1403)

Deaths

- Cola di Rienzi, Roman tribune Category:1354 ko:1354년

1397

Events

- February 10 - John Beaufort becomes Earl of Somerset.
- September 29 John Holland, Earl of Huntingdon is created Duke of Exeter by his half-brother Richard II of England.
- September 29 - Thomas Holland, 3rd Earl of Kent is created Duke of Surrey by Richard II of England.
- Richard Whittington aka Dick Whittington is elected Lord Mayor of London
- The Kalmar Union unifies Norway, Sweden and Denmark.

Births

- May 6 - Sejong the Great of Joseon, ruler of Korea (died 1450)
- June 29 - King John II of Aragon (died 1479)
- August 10 - Albert II of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1439)
- November 15 - Pope Nicholas V (died 1455)
- Chimalpopoca, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlán (died 1427)
- Tlacaelel, Aztec nobleman (died 1487)
- Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, Italian mathematician (died 1482)
- Paolo Uccello, Florentine painter (died 1475)

Deaths

- January 11 - Skirgiello, Grand Prince of Lithuania
- June 3 - William Montacute, 2nd Earl of Salisbury, English military leader (born 1328)
- June 16 - Philip of Artois, Count of Eu, French soldier (b. 1358)
- September 2 - Francesco Landini, Italian composer
- September 21 - Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel, English military leader (executed) (born 1346)
- King Peter IV of Aragon (born 1319)
- Enguerrand VII de Coucy (born 1340)
- Robert de Vere, 1st Duke of Ireland
- Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent (born 1350) Category:1397 ko:1397년 simple:1397

Baptize

Baptism is a water purification ritual practiced in certain religions such as Christianity, Mandaeanism, and Sikhism, and has its origins with the Jewish ritual of mikvah. The word baptize derives from the Greek word βάπτειν (the infinitive; also listed as the 1st person singular present active indicative βαπτίζω), which loosely means "to dip, bathe, or wash". To some groups it is a matter of religious conviction to assert that baptism is precisely equivalent to, to plunge something entirely into the water, so that the water closes over it. Today, baptism is most readily identified with Christianity, where it symbolizes the cleansing (remission) of sins, and the union of the believer with Christ in His death, burial and resurrection so that he becomes one of Christ's Faithful. The Christian ritual of baptism traces back to the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist, who the Bible says baptized Jesus, as well as many Jewish Israelites and Gentiles in the Jordan River. Baptism among Christians is performed by aspersion (sprinkling water over the head), infusion (pouring water over the head) or full immersion (lowering the entire body into a pool of water). The choice to be baptized is made by a 'confessing believer' (believer baptism, or credobaptism), regardless of age, as a 'confession' or public profession of his or her faith in the Messiah that God would provide; or on behalf of the child by his or her parents (paedobaptism) if the parents had themselves been baptized, and professed faith. Some churches practice credobaptism and some practice paedobaptism, and some churches practice both. Some practice immersion, some practice pouring, and some practice sprinkling. There are differences in views about the nature and practice of Christian baptism. Martin Luther, for example, placed great importance on baptism. Luther states in The Large Catechism of 1529, :"To put it most simply, the power, effect, benefit, fruit, and purpose of Baptism is to save. No one is baptized in order to become a prince, but as the words say, to 'be saved.' To be saved, we know, is nothing else than to be delivered from sin, death, and the devil and to enter into the kingdom of Christ and live with him forever." In contrast, some Baptist groups deny that baptism has any such power, but rather only testifies outwardly to the operation of God's power, which is invisible, internal, and completely 'separate' from the rite itself. Other Baptist groups teach and preach that the baptism 'ceremony' is 'meaningful and necessary'. For Christians who baptize by pouring or sprinkling, the washing with water from above pictures the cleansing of one's sins by the blood of Christ, by the Holy Spirit, who unites the baptized person to Christ in his death, and in His resurrection from the dead. It is administered from above to point to that gift of the life-giving Spirit, and to portray baptism as an act not of man, but of God. In contrast, a person baptized by immersion is enclosed under the water and brought out, to signify cleansing through death and burial with Christ, and consequent raising again in newness of life by the Holy Spirit. Baptism is a public rite, in testimony to others of the grace of God bestowed upon the person, and as a seal of God's promises in Christ to those who believe.

Background in Jewish ritual

Although the term baptism is not used to describe the Jewish rituals, the purification rites (or Mikvah - ritual bath) in Jewish laws and tradition, this is where the ritual of baptism can find its origins. In the Tanakh, and other Jewish texts, bathing for ritual purification was established for specified circumstances – in order to be restored to a condition of 'ritual purity'. For example, Jews who become ritually 'defiled' by contact with a corpse (according to the Law of Moses), had to use the mikvah before being alowed to participate in the Holy Temple. Immersion is required for converts to Judaism as part of their conversion. Through practices such as these, immersion in the mikveh represent purification and restoration, and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community. (See Numbers Chapter 19) In modern times, the adherence and observance of the laws, rituals, and customs regarding the mikvah differ greatly among the Jewish denominations. Due to the destruction of the Holy Temple, these days, immersion in a Mikvah has no practical purpose; but many Orthodox and Haredi Jews do so anyway, in order to 'increase purity'. The only modern exception is that after menses, women need to immerse in a mikvah in order to be permitted to her husband. For more details see niddah.

Explanation

The Christian explanation of baptism as the definitive rite, by which the baptized person is indicated to be fully- qualified for participation in the life of the Church, begins with the career of John the Baptist, who was the cousin of Jesus. Those who believe that John was a prophet identify baptism with his message concerning repentance in preparation for the coming of the Messiah. :"He [John] went into all the country around the Jordan, preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. As is written in the book of the words of Isaiah the prophet: "A voice of one calling in the desert, 'Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him. Every valley shall be filled in, every mountain and hill made low. The crooked roads shall become straight, the rough ways smooth. And all mankind will see God's salvation.'" [http://bible.gospelcom.net/cgi-bin/bible?passage=Luke+3%3A3-6&x=12&y=8&NIV_version=yes&language=english Luke 3:3-6, NIV] :"Produce fruit in keeping with repentance." [http://bible.gospelcom.net/cgi-bin/bible?passage=Luke+3%3A8&x=12&y=8&NIV_version=yes&language=english Luke 3:8, NIV] John declared that repentance was necessary, prior to forgiveness. There must be a return to God. This implies that the stain of sin is not ineradicable, but can be removed by putting off polluting acts and returning to the way of the Lord, all of which was symbolized in his baptism. Christians believe that John also taught that his baptism was not finally sufficient, and that repentance would not attain to its goal of separation from sin, apart from a greater baptism which it was not in his power to give. According to the Gospel of Luke, John taught, "I baptize you with water; but one comes who is stronger than I, of whom I am not worthy to untie the strap of his sandals; he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire; his winnowing fork is in his hand to clean out his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his storehouse, but the chaff he will burn with inextinguishable fire." (Luke 3,16-17) Christians believe that John's baptism shows that the effort to make oneself acceptable to God by repentance would be superseded, made complete by the coming of the Lamb of God that 'takes away' (not 'covers over') sins. According to the Gospel of John, after John baptized Jesus, he testified concerning him, :"I have seen the Spirit coming down as a dove from heaven, and it remained upon him. And I had not known him, but the one who sent me to baptize with water, that one said to me, On whomever you see the Spirit coming down and remaining upon him,this is the one baptizing with the Holy Spirit. And I have seen, and I have testified that this is the son of God." ( John 1,32-34) :"Behold the Lamb of God, that takes away the sins of the world." From this point on, water baptism became identified with the followers of Jesus, who preached "Repent, for the kingdom of God is near," and explicitly identified the coming of the kingdom with his own appearing. At the end of his recorded ministry, Jesus charged the Apostles to baptize "in the name of Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in the Great Commission ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=Matthew+28:19 Matthew 28:19]), which has become the common formula for baptizing. The Apostles are recorded baptizing only in the name of Jesus in the Book of Acts ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=acts+2:38;acts+8:16;acts+10:48;acts+19:5 Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5]) - a fact which figures prominently among groups who reject the trinitarian formula.

Ecumenical statement

One ecumenical statement prepared by representatives across a spectrum of Christians, Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestants traditions of Christianity, attempts to express a common understanding of baptism, as it is derived from the New Testament. : " ... according to Acts 2:38, baptisms follow from Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus and lead those baptized to the receiving of Christ's Spirit, the Holy Ghost, and life in the community: "They devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers" (2:42) as well as to the distribution of goods to those in need (2:45). Those who heard, who were baptized and entered the community's life, were already made witnesses of and partakers in the promises of God for the last days: the forgiveness of sins through baptism in the name of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh (2:38). Similarly, in what may well be a baptismal pattern, 1 Peter testifies that proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus Christ and teaching about new life (1:3-21) lead to purification and new birth (1:22-23). This, in turn, is followed by eating and drinking God's food (2:2-3), by participation in the life of the community — the royal priesthood, the new temple, the people of God (2:4-10) — and by further moral formation (2:11 ff.). At the beginning of 1 Peter the writer sets this baptism in the context of obedience to Christ and sanctification by the Spirit (1:2). So baptism into Christ is seen as baptism into the Spirit (cf. 1 Cor. 12:13). In the fourth gospel Jesus' discourse with Nicodemus indicates that birth by water and Spirit becomes the gracious means of entry into the place where God rules (John 3:5)." [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/faverg.html] The most commonly cited reference for the command justifying the continuing practice of baptism by Christians, is the "Great Commission," found in the book of St. Luke chapter 24, verses 47-49. It is typically viewed as the rite by which a person is joined to Jesus and his body, the Church, in connection with which the baptized person who has received the Holy Spirit is considered to be a Christian.

Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist baptism

ecumenical.]] The liturgy of baptism in the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican, and Methodist traditions makes clear reference to baptism as not only a symbolic burial and resurrection, but an actual supernatural transformation, one that draws parallels to the experience of Noah and the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea divided by Moses. Thus baptism is literally and symbolically not only cleansing, but also dying and rising again with Christ. Catholics believe that baptism is necessary for the cleansing of the taint of original sin, and for that reason infant baptism is a common practice. The Orthodox also practice infant baptism on the basis of various texts such as Matthew 19:14 which are interpreted to condone full Church membership for children, and so baptism is immediately followed by Chrismation and Communion at the next Divine Liturgy regardless of age. Anglicans believe that Baptism is also the entry into the Church and therefore allows them access to all rights and responsibilites as full members, including the privilege to receive Holy Communion. Most Anglicans agree that it also cleanses the taint of original sin, though those Anglicans who agree with a more Eastern understanding of original sin think it exactly the same was as the Eastern Orthodox. Divine Liturgy. In this church the baptismal font had recently been expanded by the addition of a pool that allows for baptism to be performed by immersion.]] Catholics generally baptize by infusion (pouring); Orthodox by immersion. However immersion is gaining in popularity within the Catholic Church. In newer churches, the baptismal font may be designed to expressly allow for baptism by immersion. Older church building may feature this as well by either building a new baptismal font or expanding an existing one. Anglicans practice a myriad of ways to be baptized, from immersion to sprinkling. According to Holy Tradition, if baptism through immersion cannot be done, it should be done through pouring (and if that isn't possible, through sprinkling). In addition, cold water is preferred over warm. The water must be in a state of motion (living water implies motion), so immersion in stagnent water is thought less than pouring or even sprinkling. Both the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican churches practice a triple baptism in the name of the Holy Trinity.

Baptism and salvation

In Catholic teaching, baptism plays an essential role in salvation. The Church teaches that "baptism is necessary for salvation" (Catechism, 1257) and entry into heaven; and therefore, a person who knowledgeably, willfully and unrepentedy rejects baptism has no hope of salvation. Three forms of baptism are acknowledged by the Church. Baptism by water refers to the traditional baptism where the individual is immersed or infused with water in the name of the Trinity. The Church also recognizes two other forms of baptism: "baptism of blood" and "baptism of desire." Baptism of blood refers to unbaptized individuals who are martyred for the Faith, while baptism of desire refers to catechumens who die before they can be baptized. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes these two forms: catechumen

The Church has always held the firm conviction that those who suffer death for the sake of the faith without having received Baptism are baptized by their death for and with Christ. This Baptism of blood, like the desire for Baptism, brings about the fruits of Baptism without being a sacrament. (1258)

For catechumens who die before their Baptism, their explicit desire to receive it, together with repentance for their sins, and charity, assures them the salvation that they were not able to receive through the sacrament. (1259)

As for unbaptized infants, the Church is unsure of their fate; "the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God" (Catechism, 1261).

Conditions of the validity of a baptism

Since the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglicans believe that baptism is a sacrament having actual spiritual and salvific effects, certain criteria must be complied with for it to be valid (i.e. to actually have those effects.) These criteria are actually broader than the ordinary practice. Violation of some rules regarding baptism renders the baptism illicit (in violation of the church's laws) but still valid. For example, if a Priest introduces some variation in the authorised rite for the ceremony, the baptism will be valid (provided certain key criteria are met). One of the criteria for validity is that the correct form of words be used. Roman Catholics use the form "I baptise you.."; some Eastern-Rite Catholics and the Orthodox use the form "Let this servant of Christ be baptised..." or "This person is baptised by my hands...". However, both churches recognise the other's form as valid. The Catholic church teaches that the use of the verb "baptise" is essential. It is also considered essential that the Trinitarian formula is used; thus they do not accept as valid baptisms of non-Trinitarian churches such as Oneness Pentecostals. There was an ancient controversy over baptism using the formula that Oneness Pentecostals use, with some ancient authorities holding it to be valid. However, this was motivated by the apparent use of that formula at some places in scripture, not by anti-Trinitarian intentions (which would certainly be considered an invalidation of the baptism, regardless of the superficial validity of the formula). The most significant part, some theologians have argued, is not so much the Trinitarian wording, as the Trinitarian intention, and the recognition that the baptism involves all three Persons. Another condition is that water be used. Some Christian groups historically have rejected the use of water for baptism, for example the Albigensians. These baptisms would not be valid, nor would a baptism in which some other liquid was used. However, the Church has determined that emergency baptism performed with a liquid other than water (only where water is not available) is vaild. In one such case, antifreeze from a car radiator was used under extraordinary necessity, and declared valid. Another requirement is that the celebrant intends to perform baptism. This requirement entails that the theology of baptism that the baptiser holds be sufficiently similar to that of the Catholic Church, although an exact identity is not required. However, where another denomination has a somewhat different, somewhat similar, theology of baptism, it can be difficult to be sure whether the requirement of intention is met. This is why conditional baptisms are often performed in these cases. Some conditions expressly do not effect validity: whether immersion, infusion or aspersion is used; whether there is a single immersion or a triple immersion. Some theologians have also argued that sprinkling on a part of the body other than the head in an emergency would also be valid. According to the church, the act of baptism imparts an indelible "seal" upon the soul of the baptized. Thus, once baptised, an individual cannot be baptised again. There was an ancient practice in some areas of rebaptising those who had returned to the church from heresy, but that practice has been rejected.

Baptism by other denominations

The Catholic, Orthdox, Anglican, and Methodist churches accept baptism performed by other denominations as valid, subject to certain conditions. It is only possible to be baptized once, thus people with valid baptisms from other denominations may not be baptized again upon conversion or transfer. Instead, for these individuals, either the sacrament of confirmation or a reaffirmation of faith is performed. However, in some cases it can be difficult to decide if the original baptism was in fact valid; if there is any doubt, a conditional baptism is employed, in which the officiant says something of the form of "if you are not yet baptised, I baptise you...". The need for conditional baptisms is motivated not only by factual uncertainties regarding the original baptism, but also by the uncertainty of some of the baptismal theology regarding the precise conditions for the validity of baptism (the Church holds one cannot be certain that opinions offered by pious theologians, but on which the Church has not made an authoritative pronouncement, are in fact correct, and even authoritative pronouncements can have multiple interpretations which the Church has neither definitively endorsed or rejected).

Who may administer a baptism

In normal circumstances, a licit baptism must be performed by a priest (for the Orthodox) or by a priest or deacon (for Roman Catholics and Anglicans) or by a duly ordained or appointed pastor (for Methodists). However, in cases of a genuine emergency, anyone may perform the baptism - if, for example, an unbaptised person, in danger of imminent death, desires baptism, but a priest is not available to perform one, and there is a real danger the person may die before a priest can baptise them. However, if a baptism by a layperson is performed, it will often be followed if possible by a conditional baptism by a priest, in case there was any deficiency in the performance of the sacrament by the layperson. The Catholic Church teaches that even when a baptism is illicit, it may be valid if done by the proper form, with intent to baptize, by any person, even a non-Christian.

Baptist and other protestant baptism

conditional baptism] Baptist groups derive their name either from the restrictions that they traditionally place on the mode and subjects of the ordinance of baptism or from a shortening of the term Anabaptist which means to rebaptize. Anabaptists were labeled such because they rebaptized people who had received infant baptism or sprinkling by another denomination. Immersion of confessing believers is regarded as the only legitimate, biblical baptism. People of other faiths often assume that baptism is not administered to children, but this is an error. Baptists instead require that a person make a credible confession of saving faith in Christ prior to being baptized, regardless of the confessor's age. Such a person is understood to be born again (John 3:1-8). Baptists believe that salvation is an actual event both at the cross of Christ in history, and in the confessing believer's life, whether or not an actual conversion experience can be discerned. Those who hold views influenced by the Baptists, may perform the ceremony indoors in a baptismal, a swimming pool, or bathtub, or outdoors in a creek or river: as long as there is water, nothing prevents the performance of Baptism. Protestant groups influenced by these convictions usually emphasize that it memorializes the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus (Romans 6), which according to the grace of God has become the basis of repentance and new life for those who have professed belief in Him, symbolizing spiritual death with regard to sin and a new life of faith in God. They typically teach that baptism does not accomplish anything in itself, but is an outward sign or testimony, a personal act, indicating the invisible reality that the person's sins have already been washed away by the cross of Christ, and applied to their life according to their profession of faith. It is also understood to be a covenantal act, signifying entrance into the New Covenant of Christ (Jeremiah 31:31-34; Hebrews 8:8-12, Romans 6). For Baptists, baptism is a requirement for church membership, rather than a necessary requirement for salvation. The above description applies not just to those denominations using Baptist in their title, but also to a wide variety of other Protestant denominations deriving from the Anabaptist tradition, including Mennonites and Pentecostals.

Reformed and Covenant Theology view

Paedobaptist Covenant Theologians see the administration of all the biblical covenants, including the New Covenant, as including a principle of familial, corporate inclusion or "generational succession." The biblical covenants between God and man include signs and seals that visibly represent the realities behind the covenants. These visible signs and symbols of God's covenant redemption are administered in a corporate manner (for instance, to households), not in an exclusively individualistic manner. Baptism is considered by Covenant Theologians as the visible sign of entrance into the New Covenant and therefore may be administered individually to new believers making a public profession of faith. Paedobaptists further believe this extends corporately to the households of believers which typically would include children, or individually to children or infants of believing parents (see Infant baptism). In this view, baptism is thus seen as the functional replacement and sacramental equivalent of the Abrahamic rite of circumcision and symbolizes the internal cleansing from sin, among other things. Baptist Covenant Theologians (such as John Gill) hold that baptism is only for those who can understand and profess their faith, and they argue that the regulative principle of worship, which many paedobaptists also advocate and which states that elements of worship (including baptism) must be based on explicit commands of Scripture, is violated by infant baptism. Furthermore, because the New Covenant is described in Jeremiah [http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=jer+31:31-34 31:31-34] as a time when all who were members of it would have the law written on their hearts and would know God, Baptist Covenant Theologians believe only those who are born again are members of the New Covenant.

Latter Day Saint baptism

In the Latter Day Saint movement (Mormonism), baptism is recognized as one of the four basic principles of the gospel, in addition to faith in Jesus, repentance, and the gift of the Holy Spirit. As with many other Restorationist faiths, baptism must be by immersion for the remission of sins (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance. Latter Day Saint baptisms also must occur only after an "age of accountability," or the age at which a child begins to know right from wrong which Mormonism normally defines as the age of eight years. Mormonism strongly rejects infant baptism. In addition, Mormonism requires that baptism may only be performed with one who has been called and ordained by God with priesthood authority. During the actual baptism ceremony, the priest performing the baptism says a prayer before immersing the baptisee entirely under the water. The reported form of this prayer has varied through time. The earliest instance in the Book of Mormon, the prayer was as follows: :"I baptize thee, having authority from the Almighty God, as a testimony that ye have entered into a covenant to serve him until you are dead as to the mortal body; and may the Spirit of the Lord be poured out upon you; and may he grant unto you eternal life, through the redemption of Christ, whom he has prepared from the foundation of the world." (Mosiah 18:13). Later in the Book of Mormon, the prayer was given as follows: :"Having authority given me of Jesus Christ, I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen." (3 Nephi 11:25). In modern times 1835, the prayer was revealed as "Having been commissioned of Jesus Christ, I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost." (D&C 20:73). Latter Day Saints do not generally believe that the gift of the Holy Spirit occurs immediately after baptism; rather, the gift is given by the laying on of hands in a separate confirmation ritual after baptism. The process of repentance and sanctification continues by partaking of the Sacrament every Sunday which Latter Day Saints consider to be a renewal of one's baptismal covenant with God. They also believe that baptism is symbolic both of Jesus's death, burial and resurrection and of the baptisee's death and burial of the natural or sinful man and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus.

Baptism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the largest denomination of Mormonism, baptism and confirmation are only the first of several ordinances believed to be required for exaltation. Membership into the LDS Church is granted only by baptism whether a person has been raised in the Church or not. The church also practices baptism for the dead along with all other Church ordinances members of the LDS Church perform "vicariously" or "by proxy" in their temples for everyone who has not received these ordinances while living. Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done in a font although they can be perfomed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. In Latter-day Saint temples the fonts are laid out on the sculptures of twelve oxen representing the twelve tribes of Israel. Great care is taken in the execution of the baptism; if the baptism is not executed properly it must be redone. The person administering the baptism must recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, hair and clothing of the person being baptised. If there are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being baptised is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone. In addition to the baptizer, two authorized priesthood officers witnesses to ensure that the baptism is conducted properly.

Jehovah's Witnesses

Baptism is also done by Jehovah's Witnesses, who believe that baptism is required to wash their sins away and to show that they serve Jehovah. They become baptised only when they are old enough to make the decision that they want to be baptized and are ready to dedicate their life to Jehovah.

Baptism in Churches of Christ

Claiming to date back to the establishment of the Church in the first century on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2), Churches of Christ believe they are following the exact practice as established in the first century Church and as commanded in the New Testament. They teach the following about baptism: :
- Baptism, as commanded in the great commission (Matthew 28:18-20) is a full immersion in water (Acts 8:38) and is for the remission of sins (Acts 2:38). :
- Baptism is valid only after the belief and confession that "Jesus is the Son of God" and repentance of sin. :
- As stated in Matthew 28:19, baptism is performed in the name of "the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit". This does not, however, mean that this phrase must be recited verbatim at baptism, but that it is done "by the authority of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit." Reciting the phrase "in the name of Jesus Christ" is also Biblical and has the same meaning, since the Son shares the same authority as the Father and the Holy Spirit. :
- Upon baptism the believer receives the "Gift of the Holy Spirit." This wording from Acts 2:38 is believed by some to mean that the Holy Spirit as given to the new Christian either literally or symbolicly as a gift, and believed by others to refer to salvation as the gift from the Holy Spirit. Regardless, it is never understood to mean that the new Christian receives any miraculous power such as speaking in tongues. :
- When one is baptized he or she is saved and added by the Lord to the church. According to Church of Christ interpretation, Acts 2:38 teaches that repentance and baptism precede the remission of sins. This belief is further explained by 1 Peter 3:21 in which Peter says that "Baptism doth also now save us", seemingly indicating that it is essential to salvation. Romans 6:3 also states that baptism puts one "into Christ". Valid baptism may be administered by any member of the Church as long as it is administered according to the scriptures and church teaching. Some members would assert that even a non-Christian may perform baptism, leading to the possibility that two isolated non-Christians could baptize each other, or even that a single non-Christian might baptize himself. Most would concur that the important actor in baptism is God, not the person doing the baptizing. Baptism is therefore a salvific ordinance in the Churches of Christ, though no mention is made of "baptismal regeneration" as is known in the Roman Catholic Church.

Other baptisms

Non-christian religions

Although baptism as a rite, is Christian, many cultures practice or have practiced rites similar to baptism, including the ancient Egyptian, the Hebraic/Jewish, the Babylonian, the Mayan and the Japanese cultures. In some, such evidence may be archaeological and descriptive in nature, rather than a modern practice.
- Mandaeans, who abhor Jesus and Moses as false prophets, revere John the Baptist and practice frequent baptism.
- The Sikh (a hindu-muslim-christian syncretism) baptism ceremony, dating to 1699, was established when the religion's tenth leader (Guru Gobind Singh) baptised 5 followers of his faith and then was baptised himself by his followers, similar to Jesus' baptism by John the Baptist. The Sikh baptism ceremony is called Amrit Sanskar or Amrit Sanchar. The Sikh is said to have taken Amrit once they have been baptised. In Sikhism, the baptised Sikh is also called an Amritdhari literally meaning Amrit Taker or one who has Taken on Amrit.

Non-religious baptism

Although even the use of water is often absent, the term baptism is also used for various initiations as rate of passage to a walk of secular life.
- In the Flemish variety of Dutch, for example, one word for academic hazing is schachtendoop ('pledge baptism'), while it generally involved more soiling ("baptizing" with objects such as rotten food) and other abuse than cleansing.
- See also baptised by fire

External links

- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Baptism]
- [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=222&letter=B&search=baptism Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism]
- [http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/node/view/162 Adult Baptism in the Early Church: Some evidence from Ireland]
- [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/babtism.html Articles on Baptism from a conservative Calvinist perspective]
- [http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ Articles on Baptism from the Catholic perspective]
- [http://www.kensmen.com/catholic/baptism.html Baptism] (Catholic)
- [http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,859-84,00.html Mormon Baptism]
- [http://www.aljc.org/art-faith.htm Assemblies Of The Lord Jesus Christ articles of faith, including doctrine of baptism]
- [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/Baptism.asp Baptism - Catholic Sacrament of Initiation - Christening]
- [http://www.gbod.org/worship/articles/water_spirit/ By Water & the Spirit: A United Methodist Understanding of Baptism]
- [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/baptism.html Catechism of the Catholic Church on Baptism]
- [http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=2590 Frequently Asked Questions Concerning Baptism] from Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod
- [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/31-35/31-2-9.htm John Wesley's Evangelical Theology of Infant Baptism] by G. Stephen Blakemore
- [http://www.fisheaters.com/baptism2.html The Traditional Catholic Rite of Baptism] used before Vatican II and by traditional Catholics today
- [http://www.upci.org/doctrine/baptism.asp United Pentecostal Church International Baptism]
- [http://www.gotquestions.org/baptism.html Christian Baptism] by GotQuestions.org (Calvinist perspective)
- [http://www.bebaptized.org Campbellite perspective] Category:Sacraments Category:Christian theology Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services Category:Latter Day Saint ordinances, rituals, and symbolism Category:Seven sacraments Category:Ceremonies ko:세례 ja:洗礼

1384

Events

- May / September 3 - Siege of Lisbon by the Castilian army, during the 1383-1385 Crisis.
- November 16 - Hedwig is crowned King of Poland, although she is a woman.

Births

- Antoine, Duke of Brabant (died 1415)
- St Frances of Rome (died 1440)
- Khalil Sultan, ruler of Transoxiana (died 1411)

Deaths

- January 1 - King Charles II of Navarre (b. 1332)
- January 30 - Louis II of Flanders (b. 1330)
- June 8 - Kanami, Japanese actor and playwright (born 1333)
- August 20 - Geert Groote, Dutch founder of the Brethren of the Common Life (born 1340)
- September 20 - King Louis I of Naples (b. 1339)
- December 31 - John Wycliffe, English theologian and Bible translator
- Joanna of Dreux, Countess of Penthievre and nominal Duchess of Brittany (born 1319)
- John of Fordun, Scottish chronicler
- Lubart, King of Galicja
- Peter of Enghien, Count of Lecce
- Ruaidri mac Tairdelbach Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht Category:1384 ko:1384년

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

" in Lithuanian and "Pogoń" in Polish]] Pogoń The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė, Belarusian: Вялі́кае Кня́ства Літо́ўскае (ВКЛ), Ukrainian: Велике Князівство Литовське (ВКЛ), Polish: Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie) was an Eastern European state of the 12th - 18th centuries. Founded by pagan, Baltic Lithuanians in the second half of the 12th century it soon expanded beyond the boundaries of the traditional area of Lithuanian settlement, acquiring large parts of former Kievan Rus. In this way it covered the territory of present-day Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Transnistria and parts of Poland and Russia during the period of its greatest extent in the 15th century. In the Union of Krewo in 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania made a personal union with the Kingdom of Poland. Under the Lublin Union in 1569, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became a sovereign State in the Federation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In this Federation, the GDL had a separate government, laws, army and treasury. In 1795, this Commonwealth was destroyed by partition among Imperial Russia, Prussia and Austria . The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a multinational state which initially expanded by largely peaceful means, into the power vacuum left by the collapse of Mongol power. The many ethnic and religious populations (Catholic Lithuanians and Poles, Orthodox and Uniate Eastern Slavs, Jews, Armenians, Germans etc.) contributed to a diverse cultural and political life. The multinational character of the state and the cosmopolitan philosophy of its cultural elite after the end of 14th century generated debate over the national legacy of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 19th - 20th centuries. This debate involved largely Polish, Russian, Lithuanian, and Belarusian historians and overflowed into national politics. The debate reached its peak during the wars for independence from 1917 to 1920, and contributed to very local disputes such as those involving the Curzon line and politics in Central Lithuania. The expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into modern White Ruthenia united peoples of very similar culture and language. Both peoples, the forefathers of modern Lithuanians and modern Belarusians, called themselves Lithuanians in their own tongue (respectively lietuviai in Lithuanian and litviny in Belarusian). At that time "Lithuanian" had a double meaning. One meant an inhabitant of the GDL, and the other meant a person of Lithuanian culture and language. Such Lithuanians lived in the region of modern Lithuania, but also East Prussia and large parts of modern Belarus. In East Prussia it was used refer primarily to the large Lithuanian minority (Lithuania Minor), while in the Slavic lands of GDL the first usage was more common. In Belarus, Belarusians (especially catholics) regarded themselves as Lithuanian, while other populations there such as Ukrainians, referred to themselves only as Ruthenians or by some other ethnonym. The usage of term "Lithuanian" and the number of people considering themselves to be Lithuanians dropped with time due to adoption of Polish culture and language, which was regarded as more sophisticated. Eventually most of the GDL nobility considered themselves to be Poles. Lithuanian nationalism and self-determination revived in the nineteenth century. By then however the term was only associated with cultural Lithuanians. Belarusians, who had a national revival at about the same time, started to see themselves as a different nation. This division has lead to border disputes between the Lithuania and Belarus regarding both political and cultural boundaries. ethnonym

History

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania began its rise to great power status under the reign of the king Mindaugas (or Mindoŭh in Belarusian) beginning in 1238. The duchy expanded both south and east, incorporating large quantities of former Rus lands in both directions. Expansion reached its height under Gediminas (Belarusian language: Hiedzimin) who created a strong central government and succeed in creating and empire that spread from the Black to the Baltic sea. The ease with which Lithuania built up an empire can be accredited to the diplomatic and tactical skill of Lithuanian grand dukes as well as to the Mongols and their weakening of all the Rus lands. Lithuania was in an ideal position to take advantage of the weakness of the other Eastern Slavs. While almost every other state around it had been pillaged or defeated by the Mongols, the hordes never reached as far north as Lithuania and its territory was left untouched. Lithuania's expansion was also accelerated because of the weak control the Mongols had over the areas they had conquered. (Ruthenia was never incorporated directly into the Golden Horde. Instead, it was always a vassal state with a fair degree of independence.) The rise of Lithuania occurred at the ideal time when they could expand while meeting very little Ruthenian resistance and only limited opposition from the Mongols. The Lithuanian Empire was not one built upon military aggression. The Grand Duchy's existence always depended upon diplomacy just as much as upon arms. Most cities it annexed were never defeated in battle but agreed to be vassals of Lithuania. Since most of them were already vassals of the Golden Horde or of Muscovy this decision was not one of giving up independence but rather of exchanging one master for another. This can be seen in the case of Novgorod, it was often brought into the Lithuanian sphere of influence and became an occasional dependency of Lithuania, but Lithuanian armies never attacked the city. Rather Lithuanian control was the result of internal factions within the city looking to escape domination by Muscovy. This method of empire building was, however, quite unstable. Changing internal politics within a city would often see it pull out of Lithuania's control, as happened on a number of occasions with Novgorod and other Rus cities. Teutonic Knights in 1387", oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1889, Royal Castle in Warsaw.]] Lithuania reached its height under Vytautas the Great (Vitaŭt, Vitovt, Witold) who reigned from 1392 to 1430. The territory spread from the Baltic to the Black sea. Muskovys speedy expansion soon put it into a position to rival Lithuania, however, and after the annexation of Novgorod in 1478 Muscovy was unquestionably the preeminent state in North East Europe. Between 1492 and 1508 Ivan III seized a part of the former Rus lands from Lithuania. The loss of land to Muscovy and the continued pressure from the expanding Russian state made a real threat of destroying the state of Lithuania, as it was forced to pursue ever closer alliances with Poland until it was united with its western neighbour in the Commonwealth of Two Nations (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) in the Union of Lublin of 1569. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania retained many rights in that federation (including separate government, treasury and army) until the May Constitution of Poland was passed in 1791. The chancery languages of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was Ruthenian (reffered to as Old Belarusian by Belarusians and as Chancery Slavic by Lithuanians) and Latin. First was used for correspondence to eastern countries and later also the local needs, such as writting laws (Lithuanian statutes). Latin and german was used for correspondence to western countries. The Ruthenian language was chosen for inner laws and such because of more developed Eastern Slavic culture and writting by the time; as Lithuanian nation was pagan for long, culturally, from a western standpoint, it was behind the orthodox Slavs. It is stated that King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander I could understand and speak lithuanian, after him there are no valid evidences. Also, at the time nationalism was not present, and the nobles who migrated from one place to another would adapt to a new locality and take local religion and culture. Therefore those Lithuanian nobles who moved to Slavic areas took up their culture. It is very hard to determinate what languages these nobles spoke in their lifes because there are no available information about that, therefore this is frequently disputed by Lithuanian, Belarusian and Polish historians. Ethnically at the start of the country Lithuanians made 70% of population. With the acquisition of new slavic populated territories, this part decreased to 50% and with the acquisition of even more lands to 30%. An other major nation were Tatars (by Dykra). By the time of late Grand Duchy, Slavs made overal majority. Because of this, as well as the usage of Slavic language to write laws, in some historical sources the late GDL is often called a Slavic country among Poland, Russia etc.

Military

Despite Lithuania's mainly peaceful conquest of much of its Rus holdings it could call upon potent military strength if needed and were the only power in Eastern Europe that could contend with the Golden Horde as equals. While very few armies in the world could oppose the Mongols at their height, the Golden Horde was an easier rival, and one Lithuania could match. When the Golden Horde did try to prevent Lithuanian expansion they were often rebuffed. In both 1333 and 1339 the Lithuanians defeated large Mongol forces attempting to regain Smolensk from the Lithuanian sphere of influence. Even when victorious the Mongols rarely had the power to stop Lithuania for long. A large victory in 1399, for instance, only briefly delayed Lithuanian control spreading all the way to the Black Sea. Due to of Lithuanian power the Mongols could not exert military dominance over northwestern Russia, and partially for this reason Smolensk, Pskov, Novgorod, and Polacak were some of the few major cities never to be ravaged by the Mongols.

Religion

Until 1387 Lithuanians professed their own religion, which was non-Christian (pagan) and was somewhat different than any other religion in the world, though clearly a polytheistic religion based on deification of natural phenomena. Lithuanians were also a nation very dedicated to its faith. The pagan beliefs needed to be firmly entrenched to survive strong pressure from missionaries and foreign powers. Lands of modern-day Belarus and Ukraine, as well as local dukes (princes) in said regions, were firmly Orthodox Christians (Greek Catholic after the Union of Brest), though. Crusades were also launched against the Lithuanians, most notably by the Teutonic Knights. While pagan beliefs in Lithuania were strong enough to survive centuries of pressure from crusaders and missionaries, they did eventually succumb. After its union with Poland, Lithuania converted to Catholicism, while most of the Belarusian lands stayed Greek Catholic. The Teutonic Knights were crushed by the Poles and Lithuanians at the battle of Tannenberg in 1410.

Culture

One of the oldest universities in Eastern Europe, Vilnius University, was founded by Stefan Batory, Grand duke of Lithuania and king of Poland, in 1579. Due to the work of the Jesuits during the Counter-reformation the university soon developed into one of the most important scientific and cultural centres of the region and the most notable scientific centre of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Legacy

Counter-reformation According to some historians (especially in Russia) one of the most crucial effects of Lithuania's power was upon ethnic divisions amongst inhabitants of former Kievan Rus'. From this point of view creation of Grand Duchy of Lithuania played a major role in division of the Eastern Slavs. After the mongolian conquest of Rus' the Mongols attempted to keep the East Slavs unified and succeeded in conquering majority of the former Rus lands. Prussian tribes (one of the Balts) were attacking Masovia, and that was the reason for Masovian Duke (Konrad of Masovia) invited the Teutonic Knights to settle near Prussian border. Fight with Prusians gave time to unite the more distant Lithuanian gentes. Because of strong enemies south, and north, newly formed Lithuanian state concentrated most of its military and diplomatic effort on expantion east. The rest of former Ruthenian lands (Belarusian principalities) joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the very beginning, some other lands in the Ukraine were vassalized by Great Lithuania later. This separation of the East Slavs among two powers created substantial differences that persist to this day. According to this claim while during Kievan Rus there were certainly substantial regional differences, it was the Lithuanian "annexation" of much of southern and western Rus that led to the permanent division between Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians. Kiev and other southern cities of Rus had not enough resources to avoid annexation to Russia like Novgorod, a city which also had strong regional differences to Vladimir-Suzdal', but ones that were erased by total Muscovite regional domination. However, presence of a strong empire prevented quick reunification of land of Rus before the separate national identities formed. This claim seems to be highly controversial as on the same basis it can be claimed that the reason of creation of separate Russian state was the fact that Muscovy remained under Mongol political and cultural influence. From this point of view the reason of divisions amongst inhabitants of Rus' was Mongolian influence on Muscovy rather than Lithuanian on other parts of Rus'. Besides, ethnic and linguistic divisions amongst inhabitants of Rus were not initiated by division of this area between Mongols and Lithuania, and are much older than creation of Grand Duchy of Lithuania. And finally ethnic and linguistic frontier between Ukrainians, Belarusians and Russians, until 20th century did not cover with any political borders.

Sources

- Rowell, S.C. Lithuania Ascending a pagan empire within east-central Europe, 1295-1345. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

External links

- [http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/papers/grandduchy.htm Cheryl Renshaw. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania 1253-1795]
- [http://www.stankiewicz.e.pl/index.php?kat=8&sub=78 Grand Duchy of Lithuania]
- [http://www.istorija.net/ Pages and Forums on the Lithuanian History] Category:Empires Lithuania, Grand Duchy of Category:History of Lithuania Category:History of Poland Category:History of Ukraine Category:History of Belarus ja:リトアニア大公国

1392

Events

- December 16 - Emperor Go-Kameyama of Japan abdicates in favor of rival claimant Go-Komatsu, ending the nanboku-cho period of competing imperial courts
- James of Jülich is boiled alive for pretending to be a bishop and ordaining his own priests
- Korean founder of the Joseon Dynasty General Yi Seonggye leads a coup d'état, overthrowing the kingdom of Goryeo and founding the kingdom of Joseon
- Afyonkarahisar in western Turkey is conquered by Sultan Beyazid I
- Louis de Valois is created the 1st Duke of Orléans, the second time this title was created
- Erfurt University is founded in Erfurt, central Germany

Births

- February 3 - Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland (died 1455)
- Alain Chartier, French poet and political writer (approximate date; died c. 1430)
- Flavio Biondo, Italian humanist and historian (died 1463)
- John de Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk (died 1432)
- Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan (died 1447)

Deaths

- Abbot Methodius of Peshnosha, Eastern Orthodox saint
- Jeong Mong-ju, Goryeo diplomat and poet (born 1337) Category:1392 ko:1392년

Prince

:For other meanings, see Prince (disambiguation). The term prince (the female form is princess), from the Latin root princeps, when used for a member of the highest aristocracy, has several fundamentally different meanings - one generic, and several types of titles.

Historical background and the two main species of princes

The Latin word Princeps, kin to "primus" and "first among equals", was established as the title of the more or less informal leader of the senate some centuries BCE. Emperor Augustus established the formal position of monarch on basis of principate, not dominion. He also tasked his grandsons as summer rulers of the city when most of the government were on holiday in country or making religious rituals, and for that task, granted the title Princeps. In Latin-based languages, Prince has two basic meanings: it could be a substantive title and a courtesy title. Substantive princes are in some cases reigning monarchs, and in some cases heads of their noble house. Courtesy princes may be members of a royal or a highly noble family, sharing their title with several relatives in similar position. Many other languages have (at least) two separate words for these two distinct meanings.

Abstract notion

The original but least common use is as a generic (descriptive, not formal) term, one originating in the application of terminology from Roman (actually Byzantine) law and classical "ideology" to the European feudal society. In this sense, it can in principle be used for any ruling (hereditary or elective) monarch, regardless of his title and protocolary rank. :Example: The early Renaissance title of Niccolò Machiavelli's book Il Principe (The Prince) refers to this meaning of prince. The following parts of this article are only concerned with the use usages as a formal nobiliary (or analogous) title.

Genealogical Princes, by birth or equivalent

A Prince of the blood (in some monarchies, however, this is an actual title in its own right, of more restricted use; thus Prince du sang in the French kingdom, restricted to the royal descendents in the male line) is a male member of royalty, i.e. of a princely house, such as an imperial - or royal family. Depending on individual national tradition, this may either be restricted (often to one or two generations after the monarch, and/or the line of succession), or it may be allowed to run into very high numbers (as often applies in oriental dynasties). Generally, when such a prince takes a (royal, imperial, etc.) throne he stops being styled a mere "Prince" when he becomes the ruling (or at least titular) monarch, King, Emperor, Grand Duke or one of many other ruler-styles, usually of higher rank, except in the case of a ruler styled "Prince" (see below) of a principality (idem: "Princess" becoming a Queen).
- The female form is "princess", but this is also generally used for the spouse of any Prince (of the blood, or of a principality), and also the daughter of any monarch, though in some monarchies (by law and/or tradition) the award is explicit, not automatic. Inversely, the husband of a born princess is (or was) in many monarchies not as readily styled prince (although it certainly occasionally happened). To complicate matters, the style Royal Highness, normally accompanying the title "Prince" in a dynasty (if of royal or imperial rank, that is), can be awarded separately (as a compromise or consolation prize, in some sense). In these systems, a prince can be:
- The son of a monarch and in the direct line of succession.
- Other members of the royal family, styled a Royal Highness, and also in the order of succession (although more distant). (In constitutional monarchies the precise rules for succession are fixed by law, possibly even the constitution, but may involve parlamenary assent)
- The husband of a reigning queen is usually titled "prince" or prince consort. Although the definition above is the one that is most commonly understood, there are also different systems: depending on country, epoch and translation other meanings of "Prince" are possible. Over the centuries foreign-language titles such as Italian principe, French prince, German Fürst, Russian kniaz, etc., are often rendered as "prince" in English. Many princely styles and titles are used in various monarchies, often changing with a new dynasty, even altered during one's rule, especially in conjunction with the style of the ruler. Indeed, various princely titles are derived from the ruler's, such as (e)mirza(da), khanzada, nawabzada, sahibzada, shahzada (all using the Persian patronymic sufix -zada, "son, descendant", (maha)rajkumar from Raja, or even from a unique title, e.g. mehtarjao. However, often such style is used in a way that may surprise as not apparently logical, such as adopting a style for princes of the blood which is not pegged to the ruler's title, but rather continues an old tradition, asserts genealogical descendency from and/or claim of political succession to a more lofty monarchy, or simply is assumed 'because we can'.
- In some monarchic dynasties, a very specific title is used, some official, such as Infante in Iberia. This can be a style in existence for a 'princely' -at least originally- feudal entity, possibly still nominally linked to one, Archduke in the Habsburg empire, Grand Prince (often rendered, less correctly, as Grand Duke) in tsarist Russia; see also Porphyrogenetos. On the other hand, an existing style can be used without retaining any of its intrinsic qualities, e.g. Sultan for ordinary members of the Ottoman dynasty (ruler mainly styled Padishah)
- Sometimes a specific title is commonly used in a region, e.g. Mian in various of the Punjabi princely Hill States (lower Himalayan region in British India)
- Other titles are unique to one dynasty, even tough the ruler's titel isn't, such as Moulay (French form; also Mulay in English) in the Sherifian sultanate (now kingdom ruled by a of a Malik) of Morocco,
- Some monarchies also commonly awarded somo of their princes of the blood various lofty titles, some of which were reserved for royalty, other also open to the most trusted commoners and/or the highest nobility, as in the Byzantine empire (e.g. Protosebastos reserved). :
- For the often specific terminology concerning a probable future successor, see Crown Prince and links there.

Princes of principalities

Other princes (or the same, see below) derive their title not from their dynastic position as such (which must often be shared with brothers, etc), but from their claim to a unique title of formal princely rank, one named after a specific principality, not after the suzerain/sovereign state, even if they belong to one.

Princes as ruling Monarchs

A prince or princess who is the head of state in a monarchy is a reigning prince, which had no other specific, formal (rank) title, and their domain, typically smaller than a kingdom, is called a "principality". This can be a regular nation, even sovereign, rather than as a grand duchy. :Example: Prince Albert II of the principality of Monaco. In the same tradition/vein many micronation 'monarchs' establish themselves as (usually merely nominal) 'princes'. :Example: Prince Roy of Sealand The term "prince" has also been used to describe, in languages like English that lack a specific word for this concept, the head of a feudal (vassal) state of lower rank; for example, it has been used as a synonym for duke at times. In German, such a prince is also called "Fürst" (capital obligatory in German grammar), and there are equivalents in most languages in the tradition of the Holy Roman Empire, where these abounded.

Countries of Western Europe

In several countries of the European continent, notably in Germany and in France, a prince can be the title of someone having a high rank of nobility, but not necessarily royal, which makes comparing it with e.g. the British system of "royal" princes difficult. :Examples: Princess de Polignac (France); Prince Bismarck (Germany, translation of Fürst Bismarck)

Russia

In the Russian system, knyaz (translated as "prince"), is the highest degree of nobility, and sometimes, represents a mediatization of an older native dynasty which became subject to the Russian imperial dynasty. Rurikid branches used the knyaz title also after they were succeeded by the Romanovs as the Russian imperial dynasty. :Examples: Prince Potemkin

Titular royal princedoms

One type of prince belongs in both the genealogical royalty and the territorial princely styles. A number of nobiliary territories, carrying with them the formal style of prince, are not (or no longer) actual (political, administrative, etc. principalities, but are maintained as essentially hononary titles (though some land, income etc. may be attached to them), and are awarded traditionally (or occasionally) to princes of the blood, as an appanage. This is done in particular for the heir to the throne (creating a de facto primogeniture), who is often awarded a particular principality in each generation, so that it becomes synonymous with the first in line for the throne, even if there is no automatic legal mechanism to do so. :Examples: :
- UK (originally England) : Prince of Wales :
- Netherlands : Prins van Oranje (Prince of Orange, once a real principality around the homonymous city in southern France) :
- Spain : Principe de Asturias (Prince of the Asturias, once a separate kingdom) Some states have an analogous tradition, where they confer another princely title, such as the British 'royal duchies' (for various royal princes), and formerly the French Dauphin (again, through de facto primogeniture). Both systems may occur, as in Belgium, where "Prince of Liège=Luik" is one of the traditional titles for royal sons (alongside Duke of Brabant, the highest title, being handed down through primogeniture if it is not yet taken; Count of Flanders is similarly used for the second in rank).

Prince in both meanings in various (western tradition) languages

In each case, the title is followed (when available) by the female form and then (not always available, and obviously rarely applicable to a prince of the blood without a principality) the name of the territorial associated with it, each separated by a slash. If a second title (or set) is also given, then that one is for a Prince of the blood, the first for a principality. Be aware that the absence of a separate title for a prince of the blood may not always mean no such title exists; alternatively, the existence of a word does not imply there is also a reality in the linguistic territory concerned; it may very well be used exclusively to render titles in other languages, regardless whether there is a historical link with any (which often means that linguistic tradition is adopted) Etymologically, we can discern the following traditions (some languages followed a historical link, e.g. within the Holy Roman Empire, not their linguistic family; some even fail to follow the same logic for certain other aristocratic titles):
- Languages (mostly Romance) only using the Latin root princeps:
- English Prince /Princess Prince /Princess
- French Prince /Princesse Prince /Princesse
- Albanian Princ /Princeshë Princ /Princeshë
- Catalan Príncep /Princesa Príncep /Princesa
- Irish Prionsa /Banphrionsa Prionsa /Banphrionsa
- Italian Principe /Principessa Principe /Principessa
- Maltese Princep /Principessa Princep /Principessa
- Monegasque Principu /Principessa Principu /Principessa
- Portuguese Príncipe /Princesa Príncipe /Princesa
- Rhaeto-Romanic Prinzi /Prinzessa Prinzi /Prinzessa
- Romanian Principe /Principesă Principe /Principesă
- Spanish Príncipe /Princesa Príncipe /Princesa
- Languages (mainly Germanic) that use (generally alongside a princeps-derivate for princes of the blood) an equivalent of the German Fürst:
- Danish Fyrste /Fyrstinde Prins /Prinsesse
- Dutch Vorst /Vorstin Prins /Prinses
- Estonian [Finnish-Ugrian family] Vürst /Vürstinna Prints /Printsess
- German Fürst /Fürstin Prinz /Prinzessin
- Icelandic Fursti /Furstynja Prins /Prinsessa
- Luxemburgish [German dialect] Fürst /Fürstin Prënz /Prinzessin
- Norwegian Fyrste /Fyrstinne Prins /Prinsesse
- Swedish Furste /Furstinna Prins /Prinsessa
- Slavonic and (related) Baltic languages
- Belorussian Tsarevich, Karalevich, Prynts /Tsarewna, Karalewna, Pryntsesa
- Bulgarian Knyaz /Knaginya Tsarevich, Kralevich, Prints /Printsesa
- Croatian, Serbian Knez /Kneginja Kraljević, Princ /Kraljevna, Princeza
- Czech Kníže /Kněžna Králevic, Princ /Králevična, Princezna
- Latin (post-Roman) Princeps/
- Princeps/
-
- Latvian Firsts /Firstiene Princis /Princese
- Lithuanian Kunigaikštis /Kunigaikštiene Princas /Princese
- Macedonian Knez /Knezhina Tsarevich, Kralevich, Prints /Tsarevna, Kralevna, Printsesa
- Polish Książę /Księżna Książę, Królewicz /Księżna, Królewna
- Russian Knyaz /Knyagina, Knyazhnya Tsarevich, Korolyevich, Prints /Tsarevna, Korolyevna, Printsessa
- Slovak Knieža /Kňažná Kráľovič, Princ /Princezná
- Slovene Knez /Kneginja Kraljevič, Princ /Kraljična, Princesa
- Ukrainian Knyaz /Knyazhnya Tsarenko, Korolenko, Prints /Tsarivna, Korolivna, Printsizna
- other (incl. Finnish-Ugrian .. ) languages :
- Finnish Ruhtinas /Ruhtinatar Prinssi /Prinsessa
- Greek (New) Igemonas /Igemonida Pringipas /Pringipesa
- Hungarian (Magyar) Herceg /Hercegnő Herceg /Hercegnő

Oriental and other native counterparts

One must bear in mind that all of the above is essentialy the story of European, christian dynasties and other nobility, also 'exported' to their colonial and other overseas territories and otherwise adopted by rather westernized societies elsewhere (e.g. Haiti). However, the practise of applying these essentially western concepts and even terminology to other cultures, even when they don't, is common but in many respects rather dubious. The reality is that their different (historical, religious ...) backgrounds have also begot significantly different dynastic and nobiliary systems, which are poorly represented by the 'closest' western analogy. It therefore makes sense to treat these per civilization.

Islamic traditions

- Arabian tradition since the caliphate
- Malay countries
- In the Ottoman empire, the sovereign of imperial rank (incorrectly known in the west as (Great) sultan) was styled padishah with a host of additional titles, reflecting his claim as political successor to the various conquered states. Princes of the blood, male and female, were given the style sultan (normally reserved for muslim rulers)
- & other Near East
- etc

Far East (Confucianist, Hindu, Buddhist, etc.)

- China In ancient China, the title of prince developed from being the highest title of nobility (synonymous with duke) in the Zhou Dynasty, to five grades of princes (not counting the sons and grandsons of the emperor) by the time of the fall of the Qing Dynasty.
- Japan In Japan, the title of prince (kôshaku 公爵) was used as the highest title of kazoku(華族Japanese modern nobility) before the present constitution. The title kôshaku, however, is more commonly translated as duke to avoid confusion with the royal ranks in the imperial household, shinnô (親王(literally king of the blood) female;naishinnô(内親王(literally queen(by herself) of the blood) and shinnôhi親王妃(literally consort of king of the blood)) or ô (王(literaly king) female;nyoô(女王(literaly queen (by herself)) and ôhi(王妃(literally consort of king)). The former is the higher title of a male member of the Imperial family and the latter is the lower.
- Korea
- See princely states for the (often particular, mainly hindu) title on the Indian subcontinent in (former British) India (including modern Pakistan and Bangladesh) as well as Burma and Nepal ...
- Indochina : Cambodja, Vietnam, Laos
- Thailand
- and many other

Africa

Except for the Arabized, muslim North and some other monarchies that simply adopted islamic practices, usually the styles, or even the systems, are completely independent or almost.

Ecclesiastic and other religious princes

See Prince of the Church for the christian version

Sources and References

- [http://www.almanach.be/search/Search.aspx|Almanach de Bruxelles] (now a paying site)
- [http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/ Princely States in British India and talaqdars in Oudh]
- [http://4dw.net/royalark/|RoyalArk] thorough on a limited number of dynasties
- [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ World Statesmen] select the present state, often navigate within for a former polity Category:Monarchy Category:Noble titles
- Category:Titles Category:Positions of authority ja:王子

1382

Events

- End of the reign of Emperor Go-En'yu of Japan, fifth and last of the Northern Ashikaga Pretenders
- Emperor Go-Komatsu ascends to the throne of Japan
- John Wyclif's teachings are condemned by the Synod of London.
- The Ottomans take Sofia.
- August: Our Lady of Częstochowa is brought to the Jasna Góra monastery.
- September, 30: Trieste being donated by his inhabitants to Leopold III von Habsburg.

Births

- Duke Frederick IV of Austria (died 1439)
- Dawit I of Ethiopia (died 1413)
- Eric of Pomerania, King of Norway, Sweden and Denmark (died 1459)
- Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick (died 1439)

Deaths

- April 5 - Janusz Suchywilk, Polish nobleman
- May 12 - Queen Joan I of Naples (born 1327)
- August 3 - Kestutis, Grand Prince of Lithuania (born 1297)
- August 13 - Eleanor of Aragon, queen of John I of Castile (born 1358)
- October 13 - King Peter II of Cyprus
- Philip van Artevelde, Flemish patriot (born 1340)
- King Louis I of Hungary (born 1326)
- Nicolas Oresme, French philosopher (born 1325) Category:1382 ko:1382년

Polatsk

Polatsk (Belarusian: По́лацак, По́лацк, also spelt as Polacak;

Skirgiello

Mother

Father

Brothers

Sisters

See also

1354

Events

Births

Deaths

1397

Events

Births

Deaths

Baptize

Background in Jewish ritual

Explanation

Ecumenical statement

Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist baptism

Baptism and salvation

Conditions of the validity of a baptism

Baptism by other denominations

Who may administer a baptism

Baptist and other protestant baptism

Reformed and Covenant Theology view

Latter Day Saint baptism

Baptism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Jehovah's Witnesses

Baptism in Churches of Christ

Other baptisms

Non-christian religions

Non-religious baptism

See also

Related articles and subjects

People and ritual objects

Resources

External links

1384

Events

Births

Deaths

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

History

Military

Religion

Culture

Legacy

See also

Sources

External links

1392

Events

Births

Deaths

Prince

Historical background and the two main species of princes

Abstract notion

Genealogical Princes, by birth or equivalent

Princes of principalities

Princes as ruling Monarchs

Countries of Western Europe

Russia

Titular royal princedoms

Prince in both meanings in various (western tradition) languages

Oriental and other native counterparts

Islamic traditions

Far East (Confucianist, Hindu, Buddhist, etc.)

Africa

Ecclesiastic and other religious princes

See also

Sources and References

1382

Events

Births

Deaths

Polatsk