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Somalia

Somalia

Somalia (Somali: Soomaaliya; Arabic: الصومال, As-Sumal), formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic, is a coastal nation in East Africa. Continentally, it is entirely surrounded by Ethiopia and Djibouti on the north and mid-west, and Kenya on its south-west; with the Gulf of Aden on its east. It currently exists solely in a de jure capacity. Somalia has no recognized central government authority, no national currency, nor any other feature associated with an established nation state. De facto authority resides in the hands of the governments for the unrecognized entities of Somaliland, Puntland, and other rival warlords.

History

Main article: History of Somalia Independence of Somaliland from Britain was proclaimed on June 26, 1960, and on July 1, 1960, unification of the British and ex-Italian Somali protectorates took place. The government formed with Abdullahi Isse, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar was appointed President and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister. Later, during 1967, Mohammed Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister in Aden Abdullahi Osman (nicknamed Aden Adde)'s government. Egal was later chosen as President of a self-declared Somaliland. He died in a hospital in Pretoria on May 3, 2002. In late 1969, a military government assumed power following the assassination of Shermarke who chosen for and served as President during 1967-1969. Mohamed Siad Barre, a General in the armed forces who was an ally to and helped protect Aden Abullahi Osman's government, became the President in 1969 following a coup d'état. The revolutionary army leaders, headed by Barre, established large-scale public works programmes. They also successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, in which they helped to dramatically increase the literacy rate from a mere 5% to 55% by the mid-1980s. 1980s Somali National Movemonent (SNM) overthrow the Siyaad Barre Government in 1989. Intermittent civil war has been a fact of life in Somalia since 1977. In 1991, the northern portion of the country declared its independence as Somaliland; although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government. In 1990, the military government was forced out by Mohammed Farah Aidid who was officer from the Banadir region and the leader of United Somali Congress (USC) United Somali Congress Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions. The UN withdrew in Operation United Shield by March 3 1995, having suffered significant casualties, and order has not yet been restored. Yet another secession from Somalia took place in the northeastern region. The self-proclaimed state took the name Puntland after declaring "temporary" independence in 1998, with the intention that it would participate in any Somali reconciliation to form a new central government. A third secession occurred in 1998 with the declaration of the state of Jubaland. The territory of Jubaland is now encompassed by the state of Southwestern Somalia and its status is unclear. A fourth self-proclaimed entity led by the Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA), was set up in 1999, along the lines of the heat or desert Puntland. This "temporary" secession was reasserted in 2002, leading to de facto autonomy of Southwestern Somalia. The RRA had originally set up an autonomous administration over the Bay and Bakool regions of south and central Somalia in 1999. Somalia was one of the many countries devastated by the tsunami which struck the Indian Ocean coast following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, destroying entire villages and killing an estimated 300 people.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Somalia Somalia has had no effective national government in 15 years. In the northwest, there is the breakaway republic of Somaliland. In the rest of the country there are various warlords, cf. Puntland and Southwestern Somalia. In 2000, the international community recognised the Transitional National Government, originally headed by Abdulkassim Salat Hassan, as the government for the entire country. Currently however it controls only part of the capital, Mogadishu. On October 10, 2004 Somali MPs elected warlord Abdullahi Yusuf, previously president of Puntland, to be the next president. Because of the chaotic situation in Mogadishu, the election was held in a sports centre in Nairobi, Kenya. Yusuf was elected transitional President by Somalia's transitional parliament. He won 189 of the 275 votes from members of parliament. The session of Parliament was also held in neighbouring Kenya. His government is recognized by most western nations as the country's legitimate rulers, though his actual authority is extremely questionable. Many other small political organizations exist, some clan-based, others seeking a Somalia free from clan-based politics (such as the United Somali Front). Many of them have come into existence since the new president was chosen. See also List of notable Somali leaders.

Population

List of notable Somali leaders Somalia has a population of around 8,591,000. However, estimates are very difficult because of the continuing situation. The last census was in 1975. Most outside analysts use this estimate but Somalia is one of the fastest growing countries in Africa and the world. Some estimates range between 6 to 15 million. Because of the war, Somalia has a large diaspora. Ethnic Somalis have lived for centuries in large areas of what is now Ethiopia and Kenya. They are also a majority in Djibouti, where they share area with the Afars. There are over a million Somalis (including the minorities) outside Africa. Somalia now has among one of the largest diaspora communites of the whole continent. All of these factors and the mostly nomadic nature of the Somalis has made proper estimates very difficult.

Provinces

Main article: Regions of Somalia Somalia is divided into 18 regions (singular gobolka, plural gobollada):
- Awdal
- Bakool
- Banaadir
- Bari
- Bay
- Galguduud
- Gedo
- Hiiraan
- Jubbada Dhexe
- Jubbada Hoose
- Mudug
- Nugaal
- Sanaag
- Shabeellaha Dhexe
- Shabeellaha Hoose
- Sool
- Togdheer
- Woqooyi Galbeed

Geography

Woqooyi Galbeed Main article: Geography of Somalia Somalia is located on the east coast of Africa on and north of the Equator between the Gulf of Aden on the north and Indian Ocean on the east. Together with Ethiopia and Djibouti it is often referred to as the Horn of Africa. It borders Djibouti on the northwest, Ethiopia on the west, and Kenya on southwest. Somalia comprises Italy's former Trust Territory of Somalia and the former British Protectorate of Somaliland (now seeking recognition as an independent state). The coastline extends 2,720 kilometres (1,700 mi) -- the longest coastline in Africa. The northern part of the country is hilly, and in many places the altitude ranges between 900 and 2,100 metres (3,000 ft.-7,000 ft.) above sea level. The central and southern areas are flat, with an average altitude of less than 180 metres (600 ft.). The Juba and the Shebelle Rivers rise in Ethiopia and flow south across the country towards the Indian Ocean. The Shebelle, however, does not reach the sea except during seasons of high rain. Major climatic factors are a year-round hot climate, seasonal monsoon winds, and irregular rainfall with recurring droughts. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 30°C to 40°C (85° F-105°F), except at higher elevations and along the east coast. Mean daily minimums usually vary from about 15°C to 30°C (60°F-85°F). The southwest monsoon, a sea breeze, makes the period from about May to October the mildest season at Mogadishu. The December-February period of the northeast monsoon is also relatively mild, although prevailing climatic conditions in Mogadishu are rarely pleasant. The "tangambili" periods that intervene between the two monsoons (October-November and March-May) are hot and humid.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Somalia Economy of Somalia Somalia has a market economy. It has long been one of the world's poorest and least developed countries and has relatively few natural resources. Though one of the poorest countries in the world in 1991 before the civil war, poverty was even further aggravated by the hostilities. Though Somali remains one of the poorest countries in the world, when extreme poverty was measured in 1998 (percentage of individuals living on less than PPP$1 a day) it fared better than West Africa and neighboring countries. Despite the absence of a state the private sector has flourished. Agriculture is the most important sector, with livestock accounting for about 40% of GDP and about 65% of export earnings. Nomads and semi-nomads, who are dependent upon livestock for their livelihood, make up a large portion of the population. After livestock, bananas are the principal export; sugar, sorghum, maize, and fish are products for the domestic market. The small industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural products, accounts for 10% of GDP. Journalist Kevin Sites, after a recent trip to Somalia, reported: "Somalia, though brutally poor, is a kind of libertarian's dream. Free enterprise flourishes, and vigorous commercial competition is the only form of regulation. Somalia has some of the best telecommunications in Africa, with a handful of companies ready to wire home or office and provide crystal-clear service, including international long distance, for about $10 a month." However, despite modest gains, Somalia continues to have one of the highest child mortality rates in the world, with 10% of children dying at birth and 25% of those surviving birth dying before age five. Medecins Sans Frontieres has further stated that the level of daily violence in the lack of legitimate security structures is "catastrophic." Infrastructure, such as roads are as numerous as those in neighboring countries but of much lower quality. A World Bank report states that the private sector has found it too hard to build roads due to high transaction costs and the fact that those who pay road fees are not the only ones using the road (see free rider problem), presenting a problem with recuperation of investment. The telecommunications is private and highly developed, offering wireless service and internet cafés. Competing phone companies have agreed on interconnection standards, which were brokered by the United Nations funded Somali Telecom Association. Electricity is furnished by entrepreneurs, who have purchased generators and divided cities into manageable sectors ([http://www.somalianarchy.com/viewtopic.php?t=16 photo]). In 1989, before the collapse of the government, the national airline had only one airplane. Now the there are approximately 15 airlines, over 60 aircraft, 6 international destinations, and more domestic routes. The private sector also supplies drinking water. However, a statistic from 2000 indicated that only 21% of the population had access to safe drinking water at that time. With the collapse of the central government, the educations system is now private. A World Bank study reports "modest gains in education." As last measured in 2001, primary school enrollment, which stood at 17%, was nearly at pre-war levels, and secondary school enrollment had been increasing since 1998. However, "adult literacy is estimated to have declined from the already low level of 24% in 1989 to 17.1% in 2001." [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/03/25/000112742_20040325090551/Rendered/PDF/282760Somalia0Country0reengagement0note.pdf] A more recent 2003 study repored that the literacy rate had risen to 19%. [http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf] In comparison, literacy is at 49% in wealthier West Africa and 35% among its neighbours. Higher education ended completely in the civil war of 1991, but Mogadishu University reopened in 1998 and its first class graduated in 2001. Other universities have opened in other cities. In addition to customer fees, much of the funding for the education system comes from international Islamic charities such as Al-Islah.[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35382.htm] The main problem affecting economic growth is the lack of stability. An example of this is that in Mogadishu, some businessmen would prefer to pay taxes to a government to maintain security rather than to pay warlords for protection from bandits. Remittance services has become a large industry in Somalia. Successful people from the world-wide diaspora who fled because of the war contribute to the economy around $2 billion annually. Wireless communications has also become a giant economic force in Somalia. Because of the war, nobody really knows the size of the economy or how much it is growing. References: [http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf Anarchy and Invention: How Does Somalia's Private Sector Cope without Government?]

Demographics and languages

Main article: Demographics of Somalia As early as the seventh century, indigenous Cushitic peoples began to mingle with Arab and Persian traders who had settled along the coast. Interaction over the centuries led to the emergence of a Somali culture bound by common traditions, a single language, and the Islamic faith. Today, about 60% of all Somalis are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists who raise cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. About 25% of the population are settled farmers who live mainly in the fertile agricultural region between the Juba and Shebelle rivers in southern Somalia. The remainder of the population (15%-20%) is urban. Sizable ethnic groups in the country include Bantu agricultural workers, several thousand Arabs and some hundreds of Indians and Pakistanis. Apart from the Brava people who speak a language similar to Swahili, nearly all inhabitants speak the Somali language. A population of Italian descent, which dated back to Somalia's colonial era, began to emigrate following independence and by the outbreak of war most Italian Somalis had left the country. The language remained unwritten until October 1973, when the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) proclaimed it the nation's official language and decreed an orthography using Latin letters. Somali is now the language of instruction in schools, which are few. Arabic, English, and Italian also are used extensively.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Somalia
- Islam in Somalia
- List of writers from Somalia
- Music of Somalia
- Female genital mutilation

Telecommunications

Somalia's public telecommunications system was almost completely destroyed or dismantled; however, private wireless companies exist in most major cities and actually provide better services than in neighbouring countries, despite (or perhaps due to) Somalia's lack of government. Somalia has the cheapest cellular calling rates in Africa, with some companies charging less than a cent a minute. Some of the factors that have created this situation are lack of a government-granted monopoly and taxation, and the neutrality of telecommunication firms vis-a-vis the warlords [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm]. Companies providing telecommunication services are:
- Galkom
- Global Internet Company
- Hormuud
- Telcom
- Nationlink
- Netco
- STG

External links

News

- [http://allafrica.com/somalia/ AllAfrica.com - Somalia] news headline links
- [http://www.banadir.com/ Banadir] news headline links
- [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/41/ IFEX: Somalia]

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072592.stm BBC News Country Profile - Somalia]
- [http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/africa/2004/somalia/default.stm BBC News In Depth - Somalia: Emerging from Ruins?]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/so.html CIA World Factbook - Somalia]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/so/ US State Department - Somalia] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Directories

- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Somalia.html Columbia University Libraries - Somalia] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Somalia/ Open Directory Project - Somalia] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/somalia.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Somalia] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Somalia/ Yahoo! - Somalia] directory category

Tourism

Other

- [http://rru.worldbank.org/PapersLinks/Open.aspx?id=3762 Anarchy and Invention: How Does Somalia's Private Sector Cope Without Government? (PDF version)] [http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:Y6b4hmt1RicJ:rru.worldbank.org/PapersLinks/ HTML version] A World Bank study
- [http://www.liberalia.com/htm/mvn_stateless_somalis.htm From nation-state to stateless nation: The Somali Experience]
- [http://www.mogadishuuniversity.com Mogadishu University] One of Somalia's largest universities describes itself as a "non-profit, non-sectarian and non-governmental institution of higher education."
- [http://www.somalianarchy.com SomaliAnarchy - "Defending and Celebrating Somalis' Freedom and Prosperity"]
- [http://www.radiodaljir.com/ Somalia Online] "giving the nomads their piece of the net!"
- [http://www.petermaass.com/core.cfm?p=1&mag=51&magtype=1 Ayn Rand Comes to Somalia] by Peter Maass for Atlantic Monthly Category:Arab League Category:African Union member states
- zh-min-nan:Somalia ko:소말리아 ms:Somalia ja:ソマリア simple:Somalia th:ประเทศโซมาเลีย

Somali language

The Somali language is a member of the East Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. It is spoken mostly in Somalia and adjacent parts of Djibouti (majority), Ethiopia, and Kenya. Because of the civil war and migration, speakers are found all over the world. The exact number of speakers is unknown but is estimated to be between 15 and 25 million.

Classification

Somali is an Afro-Asiatic language, of the East Cushitic branch. It is most closely related to Oromo and Afar. Somali has borrowed a certain number of words from Arabic since the arrival of Islam, mainly in the religious domain. It has also borrowed words from English and Italian from colonial times. Academic studies of Somali began to be published around 1900. Important later scholars are Abraham and Andrzejewski. Compared to other Cushitic languages, Somali is relatively well-documented.

Geographic distribution

Somali is spoken mostly in Somalia and Somaliland (which broke off from Somalia in 1991, but is not yet recognized as a country), eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Kenya, but speakers are found all over the world because of the Somali civil war. Somali communities around the world, include, but are not limited to, the Middle East, Europe, North America and Australia. There are between 15 and 25 million Somali speakers.

Official status

Somali is an official language in Somalia. While not official, Somali is also important in Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya.

Dialects

Saeed (1999) divides the dialects into 3 main groups: Northern, Benaadir and Maay. Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) is also known as Common or Standard Somali. Benaadir is also known as Coastal Somalia - it is spoken on the Banaadir Coast (from Cadale to south of Baraawe, including Mogadishu), and in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additional phonemes which do not exist in Common Somali. The Digil and Mirifle (sometimes called the Rahanwayn) live in the southern areas of Somalia. Recent research (Diriye Abdullahi, 2000) has shown that, although previously classified with Somali, their languages and dialects are incomprehensible to Somali speakers. The most important language of the Digil and Mirifle is Maay. Other languages in this category are the Jiido, the Dabare, the Garre, and Tunni Central. Of all these, the Jiido is the most incomprehensible to Somali speakers. One important aspect in which the languages of the Digil and Mirifle differ from Somali is the lack of pharyngeal sounds. The retroflex /ɖ/ is also replaced by /r/ in some positions. Of the Somali dialect groups, the most widely used is Common Somali. Common Somali is spoken in most of Somalia, and in adjacent territories (Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti), and is used by broadcasting stations in Somalia and in Somali-language broadcasts originating outside the country.

Phonology

Somali has 22 consonant phonemes including at least one at every place of articulation on the IPA chart. It has 20 pure vowel phonemes and 20 diphthongs. They occur in front and back, and long and short pairs. It uses a system of tones which is usually classified as a pitch accent system. It also has front-back vowel harmony in word roots.

Grammar

Somali is an agglutinative language. The basic grammatical categories are:
- Noun
- Clitic pronoun
- Verb
- Adjective
- Verbal adposition
- Determiner
- Focus word
- Sentence type marker
- Conjunction
- Adverb Somali has several strategies to indicate where the intention or the interest or the focus is located in the phrase: a topic-comment or focus construction. The words baa, ayaa, and waxaa put the focus on nouns and noun phrases. Example: #John baa baxay - John Focus (baa) went out #John ayaa baxay - John Focus (ayaa) went out #Waxaa baxay John - Focus (waxaa) went out John Thus, the words baa, ayaa, and waxaa unconsciously raise the question of who went out? Therefore the noun. Somali also has the word waa which puts the focus on verbs and verb phrases. Example: John waa baxay - John Focus (waa) went out Waa is different from other previous one we have just seen, because it raises the question of what did John do? Therefore the verb.

Writing system

See also: History of Somalia#The Language and Literacy Issue for more information about the selection of the script. Three different writing systems have been devised for Somali: an Arabic-based one, a Latin-based one and a native one, Osmanya. Before the colonial period, educated Somalis and religious fraternities used the Arabic script (for example, Sayid Mohamed Addule Hassan's letter to a scholar, betraying him to the colonial powers, was in Arabic). The Qur'an was taught throughout Somalia, so children were exposed to the Arabic alphabet from a young age. Material discovered in 1940, mainly ancient letters and tomb inscriptions, demonstrates that the Somali language was written with the Arabic alphabet, like the Urdu and Persian languages. But this was not certainly "codified", and questions remain about the extent of its use. Further investigation is required. The Osmanya alphabet was created in the 1920s by Cismaan Yuusuf Keenadiid. Following long debate, in 1972 the Latin-based script was finally adopted as the official one as part of a larger literacy program. This sets Somali apart from the languages near it, which use either the Ge'ez (Ethiopic) abugida or the Arabic alphabet. The Somali latin alphabet is:
', B, T, J, X, KH, D, R, S, SH, DH, C, G, F, Q, K, L, M, N, W, H, Y, A, E, I, O, U. The following letters represent sounds which do not correspond with the same letter as the IPA symbol (eg B represents /b/):
- ' - /ʔ/
- J - /tʃ/
- X - /ħ/
- KH - /χ/
- SH - /ʃ/
- DH - /ɖ/
- C - /ʕ/
- Q - /G/
- W - /w/ or the second element in a diphthong
- Y - /j/ or the second element in a diphthong
- A - /æ/ or /ɑ/
- E - /e/ or /ɛ/
- I - /i/ or /ɪ/
- O - /ɞ/ or /ɔ/
- U - /ʉ/ or /u/ The alphabet does not use the following letters of the Latin alphabet: P, V and Z. There are 3 consonant digraphs: DH, KH and SH. Tone is not marked and a word-initial glottal stop is also not shown. For consonants there is a one-to-one correspondence between graphemes and phonemes. Long vowels are written by doubling the vowel but the distinction between front and back vowels is not represented. Diphthongs are represented using Y or W as the second element (AY, AW, EY, OY and OW) and long diphthongs are shown with the first vowel doubled. There is no standardized orthography so variations occur. Particularly -ay and -ey are freely interchangeable at the end of a word. Capital letters are used for names and at the beginning of a sentence.

Reference

- Diriye Abdullahi, Mohamed. 2000. Le Somali, dialectes et histoire, PH.D. dissertation, Université de Montréal
- Saeed, John Ibrahim. Somali Reference Grammar. Springfield, VA: Dunwoody Press, 1993. (ISBN 0931745977)
- Saeed, John Ibrahim. Somali. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, B.V., 1999.

External links

- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=som Ethnologue report on Somali]
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Somali-english/ Somali - English Dictionary]
- [http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Louvre/2521/somali.html Somali Language Page]
- [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/somali.htm Omniglot page on Osmanya and the Somali Latin alphabet] Category:East Cushitic languages Category:Languages of Somalia Category:Languages of Ethiopia ja:ソマリ語

East Africa

East Africa often refers to Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, but depending on geography or geopolitics, may also include:
- Burundi and Rwanda (sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
- Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia (sometimes considered The Horn of Africa or North East Africa)
- Mozambique, Malawi and Madagascar (usually considered part of Southern Africa)
- Sudan (usually considered North East Africa, and sometimes North Africa) The East African Community (EAC), an intergovernmental organisation and trading bloc, consists of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.

Geography

Some parts of East Africa have been renowned for their concentrations of wild animals, such as the "big five" of elephant, giraffe, lion, zebra and rhinoceros, though populations have been declining under increased stress in recent times, particularly the rhino and elephant. The geography of East Africa is often stunning and scenic. Shaped by global forces that have created the Great Rift Valley, East Africa is the site of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, the two tallest peaks in Africa. The unique geography and apparent suitability for farming made East Africa a target for European exploration and exploitation in the nineteenth century. Today, tourism is an important part of the economies of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.

Politics

Until recently most governments were illiberal and corrupt, and several countries were riven with political coups and ethnic violence. Since the end of colonialism, the region has endured:
- Ethiopian Civil War (Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front against the Derg)
- Ogaden War
- Second Sudanese Civil War
- Somali Civil War
- Burundi Civil War
- Lord's Resistance Army insurgency in Uganda
- 1998 American embassy bombings in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam
- Eritrean-Ethiopian War Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have enjoyed relatively stable government. The Awdal region of Somalia too has seen relative prosperity.

Ethiopia

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (Amharic ኢትዮጵያ Ityopp'ya) is a country situated in the Horn of Africa. It has one of the most extensive known histories as an independent nation on the continent, or indeed in the world. Unique among African countries, Ethiopia maintained independence during the Scramble for Africa, and continued to do so except for a 5 year period when it was under Italian occupation. Ethiopia was historically called Abyssinia. The English name "Ethiopia" is derived from the Greek word Αἰθιοπία Æthiopia, from Αἰθίοψ Æthiops ‘an Ethiopian’ -- sometimes parsed by Westerners as a purely Greek term meaning "of burnt (αιθ-) visage (ὄψ)"; however, older Ethiopian sources state that the name is derived from "'Ityopp'is", a son of Cush, son of Ham who according to legend founded the city of Aksum.

History

The Kingdom of Aksum, the first verifiable kingdom of great power to rise in Ethiopia, rose during the first century AD. The Persian religious figure Mani listed Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his time. It was in the early 4th century that a Syro-Greek castaway, Frumentius, was taken to the court and eventually converted king Ezana to Christianity, thereby making it official. For this accomplishment, he received the title "Abba Selama". At various times, including a period in the 6th century, Axum controlled most of modern-day Yemen just across the Red Sea. The line of rulers descended from the Axumite kings was broken several times: first by the Jewish Queen Gudit around 950, then by the Zagwe dynasty. Around 1270, the Solomonid dynasty came to control Ethiopia, claiming descent from the kings of Axum. They called themselves Neguse Negest ("King of Kings," or Emperor), basing their claims on their direct descent from Solomon and the queen of Sheba. During the reign of Emperor Lebna Dengel, Ethiopia made its first successful diplomatic contact with a European country, Portugal. This proved to be an important development, for when the Empire was subjected to the attacks of the Somali General and Imam, Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (called "Grany", or "the Left-handed"), Portugal responded to Lebna Dengel's plea for help with an army of 400 men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule. However, Jesuit missionaries eventually offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians, and in the mid-17th century Emperor Fasilidos expelled these missionaries. At the same time, the Oromo people began to question the Ethiopian Christian authorities in the Abyssinian territories, and demanded to keep their own religion. All of this contributed to Ethiopia's isolation during the 1700s. The Emperors became figureheads, controlled by warlords like Ras Mikael Sehul of Tigray. Ethiopian isolationism ended following a British mission that concluded an alliance between the two nations; however, it was not until the reign of Tewodros II that Ethiopia began to take part in world affairs once again. Tewodros II The 1880s were marked by the European colonization of Africa and some modernisation, when the Italians began to vie with the British for influence in bordering regions. Assab, a port near the southern entrance of the Red Sea, was bought from the local sultan in March 1870 by an Italian company, which by 1882 led to the Italian colony of Eritrea. Conflicts between the two countries resulted in the Battle of Adowa in 1896, whereby the Ethiopians surprised the world by defeating the colonial power and remaining independent. Italy and Ethiopia signed a provisional treaty of peace on October 26, 1896. The early 20th century was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I, who undertook the rapid modernization of Ethiopia — interrupted only by the brief Italian occupation (1936–1941). British and patriot Ethiopian troops liberated the Ethiopian homeland in 1941, and Ethiopia's regained sovereignty was recognised by Britain upon the signing of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement in December 1944. Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a pro-Soviet Marxist-Leninist military junta, the "Derg", deposed him and established a one-party socialist state. The ensuing regime suffered several bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and a massive refugee problem. In 1977 Somalia attacked Ethiopia in the Ogaden War, but Ethiopia defeated them with Cuban military assistance the following year. The Derg regime was finally defeated in 1991 by the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), a coalition of rebel forces. In 1993, the Province of Eritrea became independent from Ethiopia, following a referendum, ending more than 20 years of armed conflict. In 1994, a constitution was adopted, that led to Ethiopia's first multiparty elections in the following year. In May 1998, a dispute over the undemarcated border with Eritrea led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War that lasted until June 2000. This has hurt the nation's economy, but strengthened the ruling coalition. On May 15, 2005, Ethiopia held another multiparty election, and resulted in the EPRDF's disputed return to power. In early June and again in November, police under the command of the EPRDF shot and killed demonstrators who were protesting the alleged election fraud.
- See also: Rulers and Heads of State of Ethiopia

Politics

The election of Ethiopia's 547-member constituent assembly was held in June 1994. This assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. The elections for Ethiopia's first popularly-chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995. Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections, ensuring a landslide victory for the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so. The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995. The first President was Negasso Gidada. The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles Zenawi has promoted a policy of ethnic federalism, devolving significant powers to regional, ethnically-based authorities. Ethiopia today has 9 semi-autonomous administrative regions that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues. Under the present government, Ethiopians enjoy greater political participation and freer debate than ever before in their history, although some fundamental freedoms, including freedom of the press, are, in practice, somewhat circumscribed. Zenawi's government was re-elected in 2000 in Ethiopia's first multi-party elections. The incumbent President is Girma Wolde-Giorgis. Since 1991, Ethiopia has established warm relations with the United States and western Europe and has sought substantial economic aid from Western countries and World Bank. In 2004, the government began a drive to move more than two million people away from the arid highlands of the east, proposing that these resettlements would reduce food shortages [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/3640227.stm]. Ethiopia held another general election in May 2005, were deemed by one international observer team (EU) to fall substantially short of international standards for fair and free elections. The oppostion and some observers led by Ana Gomez charged that the ruling EPRDF engaged in wide spread vote rigging and intimidation. In June 2005, with the results of the election still unclear, a group of university students protested these alleged discrepancies despite a ban on protests imposed by the government. This led to the arrest of thousands of protesters. On June 8, police killed 42 people in Addis Ababa. On September 5, 2005, the National Elections Board of Ethiopia released the final election results in which the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front retained its control of the government, but opposition parties increased their share of parliamentary seats. When street protests broke out as a result of the ensuing political stalemate beginning November 1, government forces once again opened fire with live bullets, killing at least 42 people in Addis Ababa and elsewhere in the country. Tens of thousands were arrested in various detention centers across the country. See also: Foreign relations of Ethiopia

Regions

Main article: Subdivisions of Ethiopia Ethiopia has been divided by the EPRDF into 9 ethnically-based administrative regions (kililoch; singular: kilil):
- Afar
- Amhara
- Benishangul-Gumaz
- Gambela
- Harari
- Oromia
- Somali
- Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region
- Tigray Additionally, there are two chartered cities (astedader akababiwoch, singular: astedader akababi): Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Ethiopia

Map of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is 1,127,127 km² in size, and is the major portion of the Horn of Africa, which is the eastern-most part of the African landmass. Within Ethiopia is a massive highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley, which runs generally southwest to northeast and is surrounded by lowlands, steppes, or semidesert. The great diversity of terrain determines wide variations in climate, soils, natural vegetation, and settlement patterns. Elevation and geographic location produce three climatic zones: the cool zone above 2,400 meters where temperatures range from near freezing to 16°C; the temperate zone at elevations of 1,500 to 2,400 meters with temperatures from 16°C to 30°C; and the hot zone below 1,500 meters with both tropical and arid conditions and daytime temperatures ranging from 27°C to 50°C. The normal rainy season is from mid-June to mid-September (longer in the southern highlands) preceded by intermittent showers from February or March; the remainder of year generally dry. Ethiopia is an ecologically diverse country. Lake Tana in the north is the source of the Blue Nile. It also has a large number of endemic species, notably the Gelada Baboon, the Walia Ibex and the Ethiopian wolf (or Simien fox).

Economy

Ethiopian wolf Main article: Economy of Ethiopia Ethiopia remains one of Africa's poorest nations: many Ethiopians rely on food aid from abroad. After the 1974 revolution, the economy of Ethiopia was run as a socialist economy: strong state controls were implemented, and a large part of the economy was transferred to the public sector, including most modern industry and large-scale commercial agriculture, all agricultural land and urban rental property, and all financial institutions. Since mid-1991, the economy has evolved toward a decentralized, market-oriented economy, emphasizing individual initiative, designed to reverse a decade of economic decline. In 1993, gradual privatization of business, industry, banking, agriculture, trade, and commerce was underway. Agriculture accounts for almost 41 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP), 80 percent of exports, and 80 percent of the labor force. Many other economic activities depend on agriculture, including marketing, processing, and export of agricultural products. Production is overwhelmingly of a subsistence nature, and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector. Principal crops include coffee, pulses (e.g., beans), oilseeds, cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, and vegetables. Exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities, coffee is the largest foreign exchange earner. Ethiopia's livestock population is believed to be the largest in Africa, and as of 1987 accounted for about 15 percent of the GDP.

Demographics

1987 Main article: Demographics of Ethiopia Ethiopia's population is highly diverse. Most of its people speak a Semitic or Cushitic language. The Oromo, Amhara, and Tigrayans make up more than three-fourths of the population, but there are more than 80 different ethnic groups within Ethiopia. Some of these have as few as 10,000 members. Semitic-speaking Ethiopians (as well as some Eritreans) collectively refer to themselves as Abesha or Habesha, though others reject these names on the basis that they refer only to certain ethnicities [http://www.abesha.com/abesha18/aboutus.php]. The name is said to have originally signified "mixture", i.e. of HAm with (BE) SHem, as applied to tribes of partly Cushitic and partly Semitic extraction. The Arabic form of this term is the etymological basis of "Abyssinia," the former name of Ethiopia in English and other European languages.[http://www.time.com/time/europe/timetrails/selassie/hs260809.html] The Axumite Kingdom was one of the first nations to officially adopt Christianity, when St. Frumentius of Tyre converted Ezana of Axum during the fourth century CE. Islam in Ethiopia dates back almost to the founding of the religion; in 616, a band of Muslims were counseled by the Prophet Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Abyssinia, which was ruled by, in the Prophet's estimation, a pious Christian king. Moreover, Islamic tradition states that Bilal, one of the foremost companions of the Prophet Muhammad, was from present-day Ethiopia. A small group of Jews, the Beta Israel, lived in Ethiopia for centuries, though most emigrated to Israel in the last decades of the 20th century. There are numerous indigenous African religions in Ethiopia. In general, most of the Christians live in the highlands, while Muslims and adherents of traditional African religions tend to inhabit lowland regions.

Languages

Ethiopia has 84 indigenous languages. Some of these are: English is the most widely spoken foreign language and is taught in all secondary schools. Amharic was the language of primary school instruction, but has been replaced in many areas by local languages such as Oromifa and Tigrinya.

Culture

Tigrinya and a drum.]] Main article: Culture of Ethiopia In April 2005, the Axum obelisk, one of Ethiopia's religious and historical treasures, was returned to Ethiopia by Italy [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4458105.stm]. Italian troops seized the obelisk in 1937 and took it to Rome. Italy agreed to return the obelisk in 1947 in a UN agreement. Ethiopia is the spiritual homeland of the Rastafari movement, that believes Ethiopia is Zion. Rastafari view Emperor Haile Selassie I as Jesus, the human incarnation of God.
- Cuisine of Ethiopia
- Music of Ethiopia
- Islam in Ethiopia
- Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

Miscellaneous topics

- List of Ethiopian companies
- Military of Ethiopia
- Monarchies of Ethiopia
- National parks in Ethiopia
- Communications in Ethiopia
- Transportation in Ethiopia

External links

Relief Organizations
- [http://www.thedenanproject.com/ The Denan Project - Provides Qualified Medical Relief For The People Of Denan] Government
- [http://www.ethiopianembassy.org/index.shtml Embassy of Ethiopia in Washington DC] information about the Ethiopian government
- [http://www.mfa.gov.et/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ethiopia]
- [http://www.moinfo.gov.et/ Ministry of Information of Ethiopia]
- [http://www.ethiopiancrown.org/ The Crown Council of Ethiopia] official monarchy site
- [http://www.ethiopar.net/ The Parliament of Ethiopia] official site News
- [http://www.addistribune.com/ Addis Tribune] newspaper with a weekly online edition
- [http://allafrica.com/ethiopia/ allAfrica - Ethiopia] news
- [http://www.ena.gov.et/ Ethiopian News Agency (ENA)] government agency
- [http://www.nazret.com Nazret.com] Ethiopian news portal
- [http://ethiopianreview.homestead.com/ Ethiopian Review]
- [http://www.helmmagazine.com/ Helm Magazine] art, culture, fashion and talent from Ethiopia
- [http://www.waltainfo.com/ Walta Information Center] news Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072164.stm BBC News - Country profile: Ethiopia]
- [http://www.ethiopiantreasures.toucansurf.com Ethiopian Treasures - History, Culture, Language, Religion - Ethiopia]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/et.html CIA - The World Factbook: Ethiopia]
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/ethiopia2000/0,2759,181415,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Ethiopia 2000]
- [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ettoc.html Library of Congress - Country Study: Ethiopia] most data as of July 1991 Directories
- [http://www.ethiosearch.com Ethio Search ]Ethiopian on-line directory and search engine
- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065672/us559917/ LookSmart - Ethiopia] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Ethiopia/ Open Directory Project - Ethiopia] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ethio.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Ethiopia] directory category
- [http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Ethiopia/index.html The Index on Africa - Ethiopia] directory category
- [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Ethiopia.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: Ethiopia] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/countries/ethiopia/ Yahoo! - Ethiopia] directory category Tourism
- [http://www.tourismethiopia.org Ethiopian Tourism Commission] government agency
- Portals
- [http://www.CyberEthiopia.com CyberEthiopia.com] (Ethiopic)
- [http://www.ethiopianreporter.com/ Ethiopian Reporter]
- [http://www.ethiosearch.com EthioSearch.com] (Amharic and English)
- [http://www.ethioindex.com/ EthioIndex.com] (News, Directory, Forums)
- [http://www.ethiozena.net/ EthioZena.net]
- [http://www.myethiopia.info/ myethiopia.info] Other
- [http://www.amharicsoftwares.com Amharic software store] download free Unicode standard Geez software
- [http://electionsinfo.com/election-information/viewforum.php?f=44 ElectionsInfo.com - Forum]
- [http://ethiopundit.blogspot.com/ Ethiopundit] blog of "Eclectic Ethiopian & Ethio-American Commentary"
- [http://www.rastafarian.nl/ethiopia/ethiopia.asp rastafarian.nl - Ethiopia]
- [http://tezeta.org/ Tezeta.org]
- [http://www.EthioNetworks.com Ethio Networks] website developers in Amharic

References

-
- Pankhurst, Dr. Richard.
- Category:African Union member states Category:Peace and Security Council Category:Landlocked countries zh-min-nan:Ityop'iya ko:에티오피아 ms:Habsyah ja:エチオピア th:ประเทศเอธิโอเปีย

Djibouti

For the capital of Djibouti, see Djibouti, Djibouti. The Republic of Djibouti (, Ǧībūtī) is a country in eastern Africa, located in the Horn of Africa. Djibouti is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. On the other side of the Red Sea, on the Arabian Peninsula, 20 km from the coast of Djibouti, is Yemen.
History
Main article: History of Djibouti The area of Djibouti has been occupied by several tribes, currently the Afar and the Somali Issa. These tribes had regular trade contacts with the Arabs, and adopted Islam as their religion. In the 19th century, France established a protectorate in the area, named French Somaliland, governed by Léonce Lagarde. In 1967, the name was changed to the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas. On June 27, 1977, the country was granted independence as Djibouti. A civil war led by Afar rebels in the early 1990s was stopped by a peace accord in 1994.
Politics
Main article: Politics of Djibouti Ismail Omar Guelleh was on Saturday sworn in for a second and final six-year term as president of the tiny Horn of Africa nation, the official news agency, Agence Djiboutienne d'Information (ADI), reported. Guelleh won 100 percent of the votes cast in a one-man race on 8 April. According to ADI, 78.9 percent of approximately 197,000 registered voters cast their ballots - at 200 voting booths - across the country. Opposition parties boycotted, describing the poll as "ridiculous, rigged and rubbish". Present at the swearing in ceremony were several regional leaders. Djibouti's second president, Guelleh was first elected to ofice in 1999, taking over from his uncle, Hassan Gouled Aptidon, who had ruled the country since its independence from France in 1977. The head of state of Djibouti is the president, who is elected for a term of six years. The president appoints a prime-minister, and heads the council of ministers. The legislative body is formed by the Chambre des Deputes, which consists of 65 members which are elected every five years.
Subdivisions
Politics of Djibouti Djibouti is divided into five regions and one city.
- Ali Sabieh Region (Region d'Ali Sabieh)
- Arta Region (Region d'Arta)
- Dikhil Region (Region de Dikhil)
- Djibouti (city) (Ville de Djibouti)
- Obock Region (Region d'Obock)
- Tadjourah Region (Region de Tadjourah)
Geography
Tadjourah Region Main article: Geography of Djibouti
Economy
Main article: Economy of Djibouti The economy of Djibouti is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in northeast Africa. Two-thirds of the inhabitants live in the capital city, the remainder being mostly nomadic herders. Scant rainfall limits crop production to fruits and vegetables, and most food must be imported. Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling center. It has few natural resources and little industry. The nation is, therefore, heavily dependent on foreign assistance to help support its balance of payments and to finance development projects. An unemployment rate of 40% to 50% continues to be a major problem. Inflation is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the franc to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35% over the last seven years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate (including immigrants and refugees). Also, renewed fighting between Ethiopia and Eritrea has disturbed normal external channels of commerce. Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen into arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Djibouti The population is divided into two main groups, the Issa, or Somali people, who make up about 60%, and the Afar, about 35%. The remainder is formed by Europeans (mostly French and Italians), Arabs and Ethiopians. The presence of two different population groups was the cause of the civil war in the early 1990s. Almost all of the people of Djibouti are Muslim, only a small percentage is Christian, notably the Europeans. Although French and Arabic are the official languages, Somali and Afar are widely spoken.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Djibouti See also: Music of Djibouti, List of writers from Djibouti
Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Djibouti
- Foreign relations of Djibouti
- Military of Djibouti
- Transportation in Djibouti
- List of fish on stamps of Afars and Issas
Further Reading

- Djibouti: Pawn of the Horn of Africa Robert Saint-Veran
- Historical Dictionary of Djibouti Daoud A. Alwan
- Naval Strategy East of Suez: The Role of Djibouti Charles W. Koburger
External links

Government

- [http://www.iog.dj Official Website (in French)]
News

- [http://allafrica.com/djibouti/ allAfrica] news headline links
- [http://www.djibnet.com/news/ Daily press review] in french and english
Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070579.stm BBC News - Country Profile: Djibouti]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/dj.html CIA World Factbook - Djibouti]
Directories

- [http://www.djibnet.com/en/ Djibouti guide] Comprehensive information and resources about Djibouti
- [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/djibouti.htm Arab Gateway - Djibouti] directory category
- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065672/us559915/ LookSmart - Djibouti] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Djibouti/ Open Directory Project - Djibouti] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/djibouti.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Djibouti] directory category
- [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Djibouti.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: Djibouti] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Djibouti/ Yahoo! - Djibouti] directory category
Tourism

-
Notes
#
- Category:Arab League Category:African Union member states zh-min-nan:Djibouti ko:지부티 ms:Djibouti ja:ジブチ th:ประเทศจิบูตี

Kenya

The Republic of Kenya, or Kenya (), is a country in East Africa. It borders Ethiopia on the north, Somalia on the east, Tanzania on the south, Uganda on the west, and Sudan on the northwest, with the Indian Ocean on the southeast.

History

Main article: History of Kenya Fossils found in East Africa suggest that protohumans roamed the area more than 20 million years ago. Recent finds near Kenya's Lake Turkana indicate that hominids such as Homo habilis and Homo erectus lived in Kenya from 2.6 million years ago.

Colonial history

The colonial history of Kenya dates from the establishment of a German protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar's coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of the Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890. This followed the building of the Kenya-Uganda railway passing through the country. Although this was also resisted by some tribes, notably the Nandi led by Orkoiyot Koitalel arap Samoei for ten years between 1895 to 1905, these did not stop the British building the railway. It is believed that the Nandi were the first tribe to be put in a native reserve to stop them from disrupting the building of the railway. During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee. By the 1930's, approximately 30,000 settlers lived in the area and were offered undue political powers because of their effects on the economy. The area was already home to over a million members of the Kǐkǔyǔ tribe, most of whom had no land claims in European terms (but the land belonged to the ethnic group), and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax, and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled. From October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was under a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau rebellion against British rule. The governor requested and obtained British and African troops, including the King's African Rifles. In January 1953, Major General Hinde was appointed as director of counter-insurgency operations. The situation did not improve for lack of intelligence, so General Sir George Erskine was appointed commander-in-chief of the colony's armed forces in May 1953, with the personal backing of Winston Churchill. The capture of Warǔhiǔ Itote (General China) on 15 January 1954 and the subsequent interrogation led to a better understanding of the Mau Mau command structure. Operation Anvil opened on 24 April 1954 after weeks of planning by the army with the approval of the War Council. The operation effectively placed Nairobi under military siege, and the occupants were screened and the Mau Mau supporters moved to detention camps. May 1953 also saw the Home Guard officially recognized as a branch of the Security Forces. The Home Guard formed the core of the government's anti-Mau Mau strategy as it was composed of loyalist Africans, not foreign forces like the British Army and King's African Rifles. By the end of the emergency the Home Guard had killed no fewer than 4,686 Mau Mau, amounting to 42% of the total insurgents. The capture of Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 in Nyeri signified the ultimate defeat of the Mau Mau and essentially ended the military offensive.

Post-colonial history

The first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Despite British hopes of handing power to "moderate" African rivals, it was the Kenya African National Union (KANU) of Jomo Kenyatta, that formed a government shortly before Kenya became independent on 12th December 1963. A year later, Kenyatta became Kenya's first president. At Kenyatta's death in 1978, Daniel arap Moi became President. Daniel arap Moi retained the Presidency, being unopposed in elections held in 1979, 1983 (snap elections) and 1988, all of which were held under the single party constitution. The 1983 elections were held an year early, and were a direct result of an abortive military coup attempt on 01/08/1982. The abortive coup was masterminded by a lowly ranked Airforce serviceman, Senior Private Hezekiah Ochuka and was staged mainly by enlisted men in the Airforce. The attempt was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) — paramilitary wing of the police — and later the regular police, but not without civillian casualties. This event led to the disbanding of the entire Airforce and a large number of it's former members were either dismissed or court-martialled. The election held in 1988 saw the advent of the infamous mlolongo (queueing) system where voters were supposed to line up behind their favourite candidates instead of secret ballot. This was seen as the climax of a very undiplomatic regime and it led to widespread agitation for constitutional reform. Several contentious clauses, including the one allowing only one political party were changed in the following years. In democratic but flawed multiparty elections in 1992 and 1997, Daniel arap Moi won re-election. In 2002, Moi was constitutionally barred from running, and Mwai Kǐbakǐ, running for the opposition coalition "National Rainbow Coalition" — NARC, was elected President. The elections, judged free and fair by local and international observers, marked a turning point in Kenya's democratic evolution.

Political Structure

Main article: Politics of Kenya Politics of Kenya Kenya is a republic; the President of Kenya is both the chief of state and the head of government. Kenya has a unicameral National Assembly consisting of 210 members elected to a term of up to five years from single-member constituencies, plus 12 members nominated by political parties on a proportional representation basis. The president appoints the vice president and cabinet members from among those elected to the National Assembly. The attorney general and the speaker are ex officio members of the Assembly. The judiciary is headed by a High Court, consisting of a chief justice and High Court judges, and judges of Kenya's Court of Appeal (no associate judges), all appointed by the president. Kenya has had a multi-party system since 1991 via constitutional amendment, with politicians frequently "crossing the floor" or setting up new political parties and coalitions to achieve their political aims. In December 2002, Kenya held democratic and open elections and elected Mwai Kǐbakǐ as president from the National Alliance Party of Kenya (NAK) as president. The NAK and the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) formed the NARC coalition that currently governs Kenya. The coalition consists of some of the brightest minds in Kenya such as Dr. Kilemi Mwiria, who received his doctorate in Education from Stanford University. He was also the former Secretary General of Universities Academic Staff Union (UASU), Kenya's first lecturers' union. Kenya is in the process of rewriting its post-colonial constitution and its subsequent amendments that gave the president nearly unlimited powers and immunity from the law accounting for many of Kenya's current problems with corruption. Constitutional reform is being delayed by disagreement amongst the coalition members. The right-leaning NAK favours a centralized Presidential system, while the left leaning LDP -- led by Raila Odinga& Kalonzo Musyoka -- favor a parliamentary system with Prime Minister. After a long-lasting public debate, the people of Kenya rejected the government-supported draft constitution with a 57-43 majority in the historical November 21st referendum.Research by independent observer groups indicated that the majority of voters were oblivious of the proposed constitution's content owing largely to the tribal voting lines that leaders propagated and partly to a failed civic education program. The president never actively involved himself in the referendum process and instead insisted on letting Kenyans make an independent decision free from political influence. The defeat however created a political vacuum, as Kibaki responded to calls from the Orange Democratic Movement (supporters of the NO vote) for his resignation, by dissolving his cabinet. The president reconstituted his cabinet in a televised broadcast on 7th December. His new line up excluded members who had opposed the constitution in the referendum but retained some allies from the official opposition party KANU and loyalists, notably absent was former Transport minister Chris Murungaru who has been accused of corruption in the past. The reshuffle has drawn mixed reactions from different quarters with a number of nominees rejecting their appointments citing party policy and the opinion of constituents.

Administrative Structure

Raila Odinga Local administration is divided among eight provinces each headed by a presidentially appointed Provincial Commissioner. The provinces (Mkoa) are subdivided into districts (Wilaya) which are then subdivided into divisions (Tarafa). The divison is then subdivided into location (Mtaa) and then sub location (Kijiji). The Nairobi Area
- has special status and is not included in any district or province. The government supervises administration of districts and provinces, which are:
- Central
- Coast
- Eastern
- Nairobi Area
-
- North Eastern
- Nyanza
- Rift Valley
- Western Western

Geography

Kenya covers an area of 582,650 km². From the coast on the Indian Ocean the Low plains rise to central highlands. The highlands are bisected by Great Rift Valley; fertile plateau in west. The Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. The highlands are the site of the highest point in Kenya: Mount Kenya, which reaches 5,199 m and is also the site of glaciers. Climate varies from tropical along the coast to arid in interior. arid arid

Economy

Main article: Economy of Kenya Kenya's main economic strengths include tourism and agriculture. The economy is only now beginning to show some growth after years of stagnation. Some argue that this slow economic growth is because of poor management and uneven commitment to reform; others insist that it is due to falling commodity prices and poor access to Western markets. In 1993, the government of Kenya implemented a program of economic liberalization and reform that included the removal of import licensing, price controls, and foreign exchange controls. With the support of the World Bank, IMF, and other donors, the reforms led to a brief turnaround in economic performance following a period of negative growth in the early 1990s. One of the unintended consequence of freeing foreign exchange control was that it allowed a gold-and-diamond export scam in which the Kenyan government lost over 600 million US dollars. This resulted in a weak currency which hindered economic improvement. Kenya's GDP grew 5% in 1995 and 4% in 1996, and inflation remained under control. Growth slowed in 1997–1999 however. Political violence—namely the bombing of the U.S. Embassy by Al Qaeda in 1998—damaged the tourist industry, and Kenya's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Program lapsed. A new economic team was put in place in 1999 to revitalize the reform effort, strengthen the civil service, and curb corruption, but wary donors continue to question the government's commitment to western establishment ideas of sound economic policy. Considered by some to be long-term barriers to development are: electricity shortages, the government's continued and allegedly inefficient dominance of key sectors, corruption, the foreign debt burden, unstable international commodity prices, poor communication infrastructure and the effects of HIV/AIDS, which is having its effect on the most productive group of the population. The effects of HIV/AIDS has largely offset the previous high population growth which was caused by a high birth rate and reduced infant mortality due to better health care. Chief among Kenya's exports are: flowers (horticulture), fruits and Vegetables, tea, and coffee. Another key foreign exchange earner is tourism. tourism

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Kenya Kenya is a country of great ethnic diversity. Tension between the various groups accounts for many of Kenya's problems. During the early 1990s, clashes killed thousands and left tens of thousands homeless. Ethnically split opposition groups allowed the regime of Daniel arap Moi, in power from 1978 until 2002, to be re-elected for four terms, with the election in 1997 being marred by violence and fraud. Ethnic groups: Kĩkũyũ 22%, Luhya 14%, Luo 13%, Kalenjin 15%, Kamba 11%, Kisii 6%, Ameru 6%, other African 12%, non-African (Asian, European, and Arab) 1% Religious affiliation: Various Protestant 38%, Roman Catholic 28%, Muslim 6%, Traditional Religions 22%. Others include Hinduism, Jainism & the Bahá'í Faith. See also: List of cities in Kenya, Maasai. Maasai

Culture

Main article: Culture of Kenya
- List of cities in Kenya
- List of Kenyans
- List of writers from Kenya
- Music of Kenya
- National parks (Kenya)

Sports

Kenya is active in several sports, among them football (soccer), cricket, boxing and many others. But the country is chiefly known for its dominance in middle-distance and long-distance athletics. Kenya has regularly produced Olympic and Commonwealth Games champions at various distances, especially the 800 m, the 1,500 m, the 3,000 m steeplechase, the 5000 m and the 10,000 m races. Kenyan athletes continue to dominate the world of distance running, although competition from Morocco and Ethiopia has somewhat reduced this trend. The Marathon world record holder, Paul Tergat, and the current women's Boston Marathon champion, Catherine Ndereba, are the among the best-known and most respected athletes in Kenya. A retired Olympic and Commonwealth Games champion, Kipchoge Keino, is Kenya's most famous sportsman. Lately, there has been controversy in Kenyan athletics circles, with the defection of a number of Kenyan athletes to represent other countries, chiefly Bahrain and Qatar. The Kenyan Ministry of Sports has tried to stop the defections, but they have continued anyway, with Bernard Lagat the latest, choosing to represent the USA.

External links

Government
- [http://www.communication.go.ke/ Government Spokeperson]Office of Government Spokesperson of the Republic of Kenya.
- [http://www.kenya.go.ke/ Government of Kenya] Official site
- [http://www.statehousekenya.go.ke/ State House Kenya] Official site State House, Kenya.
- [http://www.magicalkenya.com/ Kenya Tourism Board (Magical Kenya)] Official travel and tourism guide.
- [http://www.centralbank.go.ke/ Central Bank of Kenya] Currency exchange rates official site
- [http://www.investmentkenya.com/ Kenya Investment Authority] Provides information on investing.
- [http://www.kenya-airways.com/ Kenya Airways] Main Kenyan airline.
- [http://www.kenyaairports.com/ Kenya Airports Authority] Information on Kenyan Airports
- [http://www.kpa.co.ke/ Kenya Ports Authority] Information on Kenyan sea ports News
- [http://www.kbc.co.ke/ Kenya Broadcasting Corporation] State run media organization
- [http://www.nationmedia.com/ Daily Nation Online] Local independent newspaper
- [http://www.eastandard.net/ The Standard Online] Local independent newspaper
- [http://www.kenya-news.com Kenya News] The Top headlines from the major Kenyan newspapers. Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1024563.stm BBC - Country profile: Kenya]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ke.html CIA World Factbook - Kenya]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/ke/ US State Department - Kenya] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports Directories
- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Kenya.html Columbia University Libraries - Kenya] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Kenya/ Open Directory Project - Kenya] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/kenya.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Kenya] directory category
- Category:African Union member states Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Peace and Security Council zh-min-nan:Kenya ko:케냐 ms:Kenya ja:ケニア simple:Kenya th:ประเทศเคนยา

Gulf of Aden

The Gulf of Aden is located in the Indian Ocean between Yemen on the south coast of the Arabian Peninsula and Somalia in Africa. In the northwest it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab el Mandeb sound. The Gulf of Aden is an essential waterway for Persian Gulf oil, making it very important for the world ecomomy. It has many varieties of fish, coral, and other creatures since there is little pollution. The main ports are Aden, Yemen and Berbera, Somalia. It is a dangerous waterway, since both countries on its shore, Yemen and Somalia, are unstable. It is one of the main areas in the world of piracy, making it dangerous for sailing. Moreover, various terrorist attacks have been carried out in the Gulf, such as the USS Cole bombing. Aden Category:Great Rift Valley Category:Geography of Yemen Category:Geography of Somalia Category:Indian Ocean ja:アデン湾

Nation-state

:This article is about the political concept. For the Internet game, see Jennifer Government: NationStates. A nation-state is a specific form of state (a political entity), which exists to provide a sovereign territory for a particular nation (a cultural entity), and derives its legitimacy from that function. The compact OED defines it as: "a sovereign state of which most of the citizens or subjects are united also by factors which define a nation, such as language or common descent." Typically it is a unitary state with a single system of law and government. It is almost by definition a sovereign state, meaning that there is no external authority above the state itself. Dependent territories of any kind are not considered nation-states, until they achieve independence. The nation-state implies the parallel occurrence of a state and a nation. In the ideal nation-state, the population consists of the nation and only of the nation: the state not only houses it, but protects it and its national identity, that is they coincide exactly: every member of the nation is a permanent resident of the nation-state, and no member of the nation permanently resides outside it. There are no ideal nation-states, however examples of near ideal nation-states would be Japan and Iceland. This ideal has influenced almost all existing sovereign states, and they can not be understood without reference to that model. It also explains how they are different from their predecessor states. Thus, the term nation-state is also used, imprecisely, for a state that attempts to promote a single national identity, often beginning with a single national language, for example France or Germany or Italy. These nation-states did not always exist, and most of the present nation-states are located on territory that once belonged to another, non-national, state, for example, in the case of much of western Europe, the original state was the Roman Empire. They came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists. The establishment of a nation-state can be considered the central demand of any nationalist movement.

Characteristics

A nation-state is associated with a particular group of people, the nation, and derives its claim to legitimate existence from them. This in contrast to some monarchies, which derived their legitimacy from the ruling dynasty, or ancient land grants to its ancestors. The nation-state is in a sense the historical vehicle of that nation, and tries to ensure its survival as a nation. Almost always, it has an explicit policy to protect the national culture. A nation-state is one of a class of similar states. To distinguish itself, and also to express a shared identity of its own population, it has national symbols, above all a national flag and a national anthem, often a wide range of national emblems. In fact, nation states have promoted a national identity in almost every area of human social and cultural life, from the national library to the national airline to the national language. Nation-states attempt to create and maintain national unity, and at least a minimal internal uniformity. Nation states have a cultural policy and a language policy for this purpose, and the educational system is often subordinated to this goal. That always meant some compulsion, and in some cases brutal repression of minorities and xenophobic campaigns against non-national influences. The desire for uniformity is said to have positive economic effects, because nation-states generally try to reduce internal disparities in income and regional GDP. Most have a regional policy for that purpose.

What states existed before nation-states?

regional policy In Europe, before 1850, the classic non-national state was a multi-ethnic empire. It was a monarchy ruled by a king or emperor, or in the case of the Ottoman Empire, by a Sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group. This type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed on all continents. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal marriage, or merge with another state when the dynasty merged. In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, very small territorial units existed. They were recognised by their neighbours as independent, and had their own government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers, some were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, however, they had no separate language or culture: the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region. In some cases these states were simply overthrown by nationalist uprisings, which were inspired by the so-called ideal of the nation-state, meaning a state with a uniform state sponsored national identity. In other cases a nation state seems to have grown by accretion of smaller entities. Some grew to unification by trade and political integration. Some were unified by force. The transition was complex, but this so-called nation-state became the standard ideal in Europe, and in the rest of the world because of European dominance of the world. This so-called nation-state, at least in theory, has a uniform population, language and culture. It stops where the nation stops, and it does not swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king’s daughter got married. For example, at least in theory, there is a uniform French identity which is different from a supposed uniform German identity, despite the fact that the French-German state border is not the French-German ethnic border and there are some who would consider themselves of German ethnicity on the French side of the border and vice versa. The so-called ideal of the nation-state is actually a state which has attempted to define a national identity which justifies its existence, internally and externally; this process is often ironically called nation-building. By this model, non-national entities have survived in Europe: the dependent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, and Monaco, the republic of San Marino, and the Vatican City.

Examples of nation-states

Oddly, the confederation of cantons and former