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Stonewall Jackson

Stonewall Jackson

:For the 1960s country music artist, see Stonewall Jackson (musician); for the submarine, see USS Stonewall Jackson (SSBN-634). Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson (January 21, 1824 – May 10, 1863) was an American teacher and soldier. He became a famous Confederate general during the American Civil War, and was killed midway through the conflict. Jackson is often considered one of the most gifted battlefield commanders in American history, and his death was a severe setback for the Confederacy.

Paternal ancestry

Thomas Jonathan Jackson was a great-grandson of John Jackson – and his wife Elizabeth Cummins. John was born in Coleraine, County Londonderry, Kingdom of Ireland. He emigrated to the Province of Maryland in 1748 and moved to the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1758. He participated in the American Revolutionary War, notably fighting in the Battle of Kings Mountain (October 7, 1780). He was a lieutenant of the Virginia Militia since 1787. Elizabeth was born in London and raised by an unwed aunt. She was the only heir of said aunt and inherited one thousand pounds sterling. She emigrated to Maryland on her own and later used her inheritance to acquire 3,000 acres of land. She is said to have successfully defended her land from attacks by Indians. They were parents of eight children. Their second son Edward Jackson (March 1, 1759 – December 25, 1828) was married twice. He and his first wife Mary Haddan were parents to six children. He and his second wife Elizabeth Weatherholt Brake were parents to an additional nine children. Jonathan Jackson was his third son by his first marriage.

Childhood

Jackson was the third child of Julia Beckwith (née Neale) Jackson (1789–1831) and Jonathan Jackson (1790–1826), an attorney. Both of Jackson's parents were natives of Virginia. The family already had two young children and were living in Clarksburg, in what is now West Virginia, when Thomas, their third son, was born. Two years later, tragedy struck the family when Jackson's father and sister Elizabeth (age six) died of typhoid fever. Jackson's mother gave birth to Thomas's sister Laura Ann the next day. Julia Jackson was widowed at 28 and was left with much debt, selling all the family's possessions to pay them. She declined family charity and moved into a small one-room house. Julia took in sewing and taught school to support herself and her three young children for about four years. In 1830, she remarried, but her new husband, also an attorney, did not like his stepchildren, and there were continuing financial problems. Then, after giving birth to Thomas's half-brother, she died of complications, leaving her three children orphaned. Julia was buried in an unmarked grave in a homemade coffin in Ansted, West Virginia. Ansted, West Virginia Jackson was seven when his mother died, and he and his sister Laura Ann were sent to live with their paternal uncle, Cummins Jackson, who owned a grist mill in Jackson's Mill (near present-day Weston near Pittsburgh). Cummins Jackson was strict to Thomas Jackson, often giving his own views on things. Thomas Jackson looked up to Cummins as a schoolteacher. His older brother, Warren, went to live with other relatives on his mother's side of the family, but he died of tuberculosis in 1841 at the age of 20. Jackson helped around his uncle's farm, tending sheep with the assistance of a sheepdog, driving teams of oxen and helping harvest the fields of wheat and corn. Formal education was not easily obtained, but he attended school when and where he could. Much of Jackson's education was self-taught. He would often sit up at night reading by the flickering light of burning pine knots. The story is told that Thomas once made a deal with one of his uncle's slaves to provide him with pine knots in exchange for reading lessons. This was in violation of a law in Virginia at that time that forbade teaching a slave to read or write, but nevertheless, Jackson taught the man as promised. In his later years at Jackson's Mill, Thomas was a schoolteacher. In 1842, Jackson was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. Because of his inadequate schooling, he had difficulty with the entrance examinations. As a student, he had to work several times harder than most cadets to absorb lessons. However, displaying a dogged determination that was to characterize his life, he became one of the hardest working cadets in the academy. Thomas Jackson graduated 17th out of 59 students in the Class of 1846.

U.S. Army, the Mexican War

Jackson began his U.S. Army career in the 1st U.S. Artillery Regiment and was sent to fight in the Mexican War from 1846 to 1848. Again, his unusual character emerged. When he refused what he felt was a "bad order" to withdraw his troops, he was confronted by a superior officer. He explained his rationale and claimed that, with only 50 more troops, he could persevere and win the particular situation. His judgment proved correct, earning him field promotion to the brevet rank of major. He served at the Siege of Veracruz and the battles of Contreras, Chapultepec, and Mexico City, eventually earning two brevet promotions. While serving in Mexico, Jackson first met Robert E. Lee.

Virginia Military Institute

In the spring of 1851, Thomas Jackson accepted a newly created position to teach at the Virginia Military Institute (VMI), in Lexington, Virginia. He became Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy and Instructor of Artillery. Jackson's teachings are still used at VMI today because they are military essentials that are timeless, to wit: discipline, mobility, assessing the enemy's strength and intentions while attempting to conceal your own, and the efficacy of artillery combined with infantry in a literal combined attack. However, despite the quality of his work, he was not popular as a teacher. The students mocked his apparently stern, religious nature and his eccentric traits. Little as he was known to the white inhabitants of Lexington, he was revered by the slaves, to whom he showed uniform kindness, and for whose moral instruction he worked unceasingly. During this time Jackson even began a Sunday school for blacks, both slave and free. While an instructor at VMI, in 1853, Thomas Jackson married Elinor "Ellie" Junkin, whose father was president of Washington College in Lexington. A son was born to them but unfortunately, Ellie died during childbirth and the newborn child died immediately following the birth. After a tour of Europe, in 1857, Jackson married again. Mary Anna Morrison was from North Carolina, where her father was the first president of Davidson University. They had a daughter named Mary Graham on April 30, 1858, but the baby died less than a month later. Another daughter was born in 1862, shortly before her famous father's death. The Jacksons named her Julia Laura, after his mother and sister. In November 1859, at the request of the governor of Virginia, Major William Gilham led a contingent of the VMI Cadet Corps to Charles Town to provide an additional military presence at the execution by hanging on December 2, 1859 of militant abolitionist John Brown following his raid on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry. Major Jackson was placed in command of the artillery, consisting of two howitzers manned by 21 cadets.

American Civil War

In 1861, as the American Civil War broke out, Jackson became a drill master for some of the many new recruits in the Confederate Army. On April 27, 1861, Virginia Governor John Letcher ordered Colonel Jackson to take command at Harpers Ferry, where he would assemble and command the famous "Stonewall Brigade", consisting of the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 27th, and 33rd Virginia infantry regiments. All of these units were from the Shenandoah Valley region of Virginia. He was promoted to brigadier general on June 17. Jackson rose to prominence and earned his nickname after the first battle of Bull Run (known as the First Battle of Manassas in the South) in July 1861, when Brigadier General Barnard E. Bee exhorted his own troops to reform by shouting, "There stands Jackson like a stone wall. Rally behind the Virginians!" Jackson was quickly promoted to divisional command. There is some controversy over Bee's statement and intent. At the time during the battle Jackson and his command were not engaged in the battle and some intrepret the comment to have meant that Jackson was not moving (into the battle as Bee felt he should have been) and the comment was meant to be more a criticism than a compliment. Bee did not have an opportunity to clarify the matter as he was killed in the battle. In May and June of 1862, he was given an independent command in the Shenandoah Valley. There he soundly thrashed the Union forces by a combination of great audacity, excellent knowledge and shrewd use of the terrain (including the Valley Pike and gaps in the Blue Ridge), and the ability to inspire his troops to great feats of marching and fighting. With fewer than 17,000 men, he defeated 60,000 Union troops through a series of lightning marches and brilliant battles. Stonewall Jackson's reputation for moving his troops earned them the nickname "foot cavalry". In the spring of 1862, Union General George B. McClellan led the Peninsula Campaign, a major advance from Hampton Roads at Fort Monroe up the Virginia Peninsula between the York and James Rivers. Union forces reached the defenses of Richmond on June 1. After the campaign in the Shenandoah Valley ended in mid-June, Jackson and his troops were called to the defense of Richmond, Virginia. By utilizing a railroad tunnel under the Blue Ridge Mountains and then transporting troops to Hanover County on the Virginia Central Railroad, Jackson and his forces made a surprise appearance in front of McClellan at Mechanicsville. Reports had last placed Jackson's forces in the Shenandoah Valley; their presence near Richmond added greatly to the Union commander's overestimation of the strength and numbers of the forces before him. This proved a crucial factor in McClellan's decision to re-establish his base at a point many miles downstream from Richmond on the James River at Harrison's Landing, essentially a retreat that ended the Peninsula Campaign and prolonged the war almost three more years. Jackson's troops served well under Robert E. Lee in the series of battles known as the Seven Days Battles, but Jackson's own performance in those battles is generally considered to be lackluster. The reasons are disputed, although a severe lack of sleep after the grueling march and railroad trip from the Shenandoah Valley was probably a significant factor. Both Jackson and his troops were completely exhausted. Jackson was now a corps commander under Lee. At the Second Battle of Bull Run (or the Second Battle of Manassas in the South), he made an aggressive flanking march that seized a supply depot in the Union rear, provoking an attack from Maj. Gen. John Pope. Pope's army was defeated and retreated to Washington, another Union defeat on the same ground as in 1861. When Lee decided to invade the North in the Maryland Campaign, Jackson took Harpers Ferry, then hastened to join the rest of the army at Sharpsburg, Maryland, where they fought McClellan in the Battle of Antietam. The Confederate forces held their position, but the battle was extremely bloody for both sides, and Lee withdrew the Army of Northern Virginia back across the Potomac River, ending the invasion. Jackson's troops held off a ferocious Union assault at the Battle of Fredericksburg. At the Battle of Chancellorsville, Jackson's forces flanked the Union army, and in an intense battle deep in the tangled woods drove them back from their lines. Darkness ended the assault. As Jackson and his staff were returning to camp on May 2, they were mistaken for a Union cavalry force by their own troops and fired upon. Jackson was hit by three bullets; his left arm had to be amputated by Dr. Hunter McGuire, and he died on May 10 of pneumonia. Jackson's dying words: "Let us cross over the river and rest in the shade of the trees". Upon hearing of Jackson's death, Robert E. Lee mourned the loss of both a friend and a trusted commander. The night Lee learned of Jackson's death, he told his cook, "William, I have lost my right arm" (deliberately in contrast to Jackson's left arm) and "I'm bleeding at the heart."

Legacy

Robert E. Lee Jackson is considered one of the great characters of the Civil War. He was profoundly religious, a deacon in the Presbyterian Church. He disliked fighting on Sunday, though that did not stop him from doing so. He loved his wife very much and sent her tender letters. In command, Jackson was extremely secretive about his plans and extremely punctilious about military discipline. He generally wore old, worn-out clothes rather than a fancy uniform, and often looked more like a moth-eaten private than a corps commander. In contrast to Lee, he was not a striking figure, particularly since he was not a good horseman and, therefore, rode a staid, dependable horse, rather than a spirited stallion. A recurring story concerns his love of lemons, which he allegedly gnawed whole to alleviate symptoms of dyspepsia. However, recent research has found that none of his contemporaries recorded any unusual lemon habits and Jackson thought of a lemon as a "rare treat ... enjoyed greatly whenever it could obtained from the enemy's camp". He was fond of all fruits, particularly peaches. He held a lifelong belief that one of his arms was longer than the other, and thus usually held the "longer" arm up to equalize his circulation. He was described as a "champion sleeper", even falling asleep with food in his mouth occasionally. He also became noted throughout the Confederate Army for leading his troops in complete circles. The South mourned his death; he was greatly admired there. Many theorists through the years have postulated that if Jackson had lived, Lee might have prevailed at Gettysburg. Certainly Jackson's iron discipline and brilliant tactical sense were sorely missed, and might well have carried an extremely close-fought battle. He is buried at Lexington, Virginia, near VMI, in the Stonewall Jackson Memorial Cemetery. He is memorialized on Georgia's Stone Mountain, in Richmond on historic Monument Avenue, and in many other places. After the War, his wife and young daughter Julia moved from Lexington to North Carolina. Mary Anna Jackson wrote two books about her husband's life, including some of his letters. She never remarried, and was known as the "Widow of the Confederacy", living until 1915. His daughter Julia married, and bore children, but she died of typhoid fever at the age of 26 years. A former Confederate soldier who admired Jackson, Captain Thomas R. Ranson of Staunton, Virginia, also remembered the tragic life of Jackson's mother. Years after the War, he went to the tiny mountain hamlet of Ansted in Fayette County, West Virginia, and had a marble marker placed over the unmarked grave of Julia Neale Jackson in Westlake Cemetery, to make sure that the site was not lost forever. West Virginia's Stonewall Jackson State Park is named in his honor. Nearby, at Stonewall Jackson's historical childhood home, his Uncle's grist mill is the centerpiece of a historical site at the Jackson's Mill Center for Lifelong Learning and State 4-H Camp. The facility, located near Weston, serves as a special campus for West Virginia University and the WVU Extension Service. The United States Navy submarine U.S.S. Stonewall Jackson (SSBN 634), commissioned in 1964, was named for him. The words "Strength—Mobility" are emblazoned on the ship's banner, words taken from letters written by General Jackson. It was the third U.S. Navy ship named for him. The submarine was decommissioned in 1995.

Notes

# Robertson, Stonewall Jackson, p. xi.

References

- Alexander, Bevin. Lost Victories: The Military Genius of Stonewall Jackson. Hippocrene Books, 2004. ISBN 0781810361.
- Bryson, Bill, A Walk in the Woods
- Burns, Ken, The Civil War, PBS television series, 1990.
- Freeman, Douglas Southall. Lee's Lieutenants. 3 volumes. Simon and Schuster, 1942.
- Robertson, James I., Jr., Stonewall Jackson: The Man, The Soldier, The Legend, MacMillan Publishing, 1997, ISBN 0-02-864685-1. :

External links

- [http://www.vmi.edu/archives/jackson/jackson.html VMI website] about Jackson
- [http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/Stonewall_Jackson_Pictures.htm Stonewall Jackson Pictures] Jackson, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, Thomas Jackson, Thomas Jackson, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, Stonewall Jackson, Stonewall Jackson, Stonewall Jackson, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, Stonewall

USS Stonewall Jackson (SSBN-634)

USS Stonewall Jackson (SSBN-634), a James Madison-class ballistic missile submarine, was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named for General Thomas J. Jackson, CSA, though the earlier two were known simply as Stonewall. The contract to build her was awarded to Mare Island Naval Shipyard in Vallejo, Calif. on 21 July 1961 and her keel was laid down on 4 July 1962. She was launched on 30 November 1963 sponsored by Miss Julia Christain McAfee, and commissioned on 26 August 1964, with Commander John H. Nicholson in command of the Blue Crew and Commander Richard A. Frost in command of the Gold Crew. Stonewall Jackson got underway from Vallejo on 3 September for her shakedown cruise to Cape Kennedy, Florida. The Blue Crew completed training with a successful missile firing on 2 December and was relieved by the Gold Crew. Following the Gold Crew's successful missile launch on 16 December, Stonewall Jackson returned to the Pacific Ocean to complete shakedown operations. The fleet ballistic missile submarine (FBM) entered post-shakedown availability on 13 February 1965, then made final preparations at Bangor, Washington, for overseas movement. In April, she began her first strategic deterrent patrol. In June 1965, the Gold Crew relieved the Blue Crew at Apra Harbor, Guam, and for the next five years the submarine conducted deterrent patrols from that port. In the spring of 1970, Stonewall Jackson was reassigned to the Atlantic Fleet. On 23 April, she got underway from Pearl Harbor to conduct a special operation, before continuing on to the Panama Canal. She transited the canal on 7 May and changed operational control from Submarine Flotilla 5 (SubFlot 5) to SubFlot 6, officially joining the Atlantic Fleet. Eight days later, she put into New London, Connecticut. She spent the second half of May in upkeep at New London; then headed south on 1 June. The submarine stopped at the United States Naval Academy from 7 June to 10 June for midshipman indoctrination tours, then put to sea for special operations. Stonewall Jackson entered Charleston, South Carolina, to off-load missiles during the first week in July; then shaped a course for New London, arriving on the 10th. On 15 July she entered the shipyard of the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics at Groton, Connecticut, for conversion to the Poseidon C-3 missile system. The installation of the new missile system was completed by 29 October 1971 when the Blue Crew began preparations to put to sea. Between October 1971 and March 1972, both Blue and Gold Crews conducted their shakedown cruises off the southeastern coast of the United States. She returned to Groton on 4 March and, on 8 March, commenced post-shakedown availability at the General Dynamics shipyard. On 7 April, she got underway for Charleston for a missile load-out in preparation for her first post-conversion and first Atlantic deterrent cruise. Stonewall Jackson was decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 9 February 1995. Ex-Stonewall Jackson entered the Nuclear Powered Ship and Submarine Recycling Program in Bremerton, Washington, and on 13 October 1995 ceased to exist.

References

Based on data from the Naval Vessel Register Stonewall Jackson 634

1824

1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 22 - Ashanti crush British forces in the Gold Coast (See also Wars between Britain and Ashanti in Ghana and Ashanti Confederacy).
- March 17 signing of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824.
- March 11 - The United States War Department creates the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Ely S. Parker of the Seneca tribe becomes its first director.
- September 13 With his crew and 29 convicts aboard the Amity, John Oxley arrives at and founds the Moreton Bay Penal Settlement at what is now Redcliffe, Queensland, Australia, after leaving Sydney.
- September 16 Charles X succeeds Louis XVIII as King of France.
- October 10 - Edinburgh Town Council makes a decision to found the Edinburgh Municipal Fire Brigade, the first fire brigade in Britain.
- November 15-16 - Huge fire breaks out on Old Assembly Close in Edinburgh. It destroys two tenements and Tron Kirk church. 11 residents and 2 firemen die, 400 homeless.
- November 5- first technological university in the English-speaking world founded: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
- December 1 - U.S. presidential election, 1824: Since no candidate received a majority of the total electoral college votes in the election, the United States House of Representatives is given the task of deciding the winner (as stipulated by the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution).
- December 9 - At the Battle of Ayacucho, Peruvian forces defeat Spanish.
- Simón Bolívar proclaimed Emperor of Peru.
- The British take Rangoon.
- Frontier treaty between United States and Russia is signed.
- Egyptians capture Crete.
- Turks seize island of Ipsara from Greeks but are defeated at Mytilene.
- Beethoven's 9th symphony debuts
- Cimetière du Montparnasse established
- The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War

Ongoing events

- First Burmese War (1823–1826)

Births

- January 8 - Wilkie Collins, British novelist (d. 1889)
- January 21 - Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson, American Confederate general (d. 1863)
- February 7 - William Huggins, British astronomer (d. 1910)
- February 16 - Peter Kozler, Slovenian cartographer and geographer (d. 1879)
- March 2 - Bedrich Smetana, Czech composer (d. 1885)
- March 9 - Amasa Leland Stanford, Governor of California (d. 1893)
- March 12 - Gustav Kirchhoff, German physicist (d. 1887)
- March 19 - William Allingham, Irish author (d. 1889)
- May 6 - Tokugawa Iesada, Japanese shogun (d. 1858)
- May 16 - Levi P. Morton, 22nd Vice President of the United States (d. 1920)
- May 23 - Ambrose Burnside, American Civil War general (d. 1881)
- June 26 - William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Irish-born physicist and engineer (d. 1907)
- June 28 - Paul Pierre Broca, French anthropologist (d. 1880)
- July 12 - Eugène Boudin, French painter (d. 1898)
- July 27 - Alexandre Dumas, fils, French writer (d. 1895)
- September 4 - Anton Bruckner, Austrian composer (d. 1896)
- October 5 - Henry Chadwick, baseball writer and historian (d. 1908)
- December 10 - George MacDonald, English writer (d. 1905)
- December 14 - Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, French painter (d. 1898)
- Gideon T. Stewart, American temperance movement leader (d. 1907)

Deaths

- January 21 - Jean Baptiste Drouet, French revolutionary (b. 1765)
- January 26 - Théodore Géricault, French painter (b. 1791)
- February 5 - Marie Duplessis, French courtesan (tuberculosis)
- February 21 - Eugène de Beauharnais, son of Josephine de Beauharnais (b. 1781)
- April 19 - George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, English poet (b. 1788)
- May 26 - Capel Lofft, English writer (b. 1751)
- June 18 - Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1769)
- June 21 - Étienne Aignan, French writer (b. 1773)
- September 16 - Louis XVIII of France (b. 1755)
- October 30 - Charles Robert Maturin, Irish writer (b. 1773) Category:1824 ko:1824년 ms:1824 simple:1824

1863

1863 is a common year starting on Thursday.

Events

January

- January 1 - Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the second year of the American Civil War making slavery's abolition in the rebel states an official war goal.
- January 1 - The first claim under the Homestead Act is made for a farm in Nebraska
- January 8 - Ground is broken in Sacramento, CA on the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad in the United States.
- January 11 - American Civil War: Battle of Arkansas Post - General John McClernand and Admiral David Porter capture the Arkansas River for the Union.
- January 10 - The first section of the London Underground Railway opens (Paddington to Farringdon Street).
- January 22 - The January Uprising broke out in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. The aim of the national movement was to regain Polish-Lithuanian-Ruthenian Commonwealth from occupation of Russia.

February

- February 10 - The world-famous midgets General Tom Thumb and Lavinia Warren get married in New York City. P. T. Barnum takes an entrance fee
- February 10 - Alanson Crane patents the fire extinguisher.
- February 24 - Arizona is organized as a United States territory.
- February 26 - President of the United States Abraham Lincoln signs the National Currency Act into law.

March

- March 3 - Idaho Territory is organized by the U.S. Congress
- March 3 - US National Conscription Act is signed - leads a week-long New York Draft Riots
- March 10 - Marriage of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales to Princess Alexandra of Denmark
- March 30 - Prince Wilhelm Georg of Denmark is chosen as King George I of Greece.

April

- April 11 - 400-page book, Thirty-three Thousand, Five Hundred and Thirty Ways of Spelling "Scissors" , is offered for sale in London pawnshop
- April 30 - the Battle of Camerone in Mexico - 65 soldiers of the French Foreign Legion fight 2000 Mexicans - three of them survive the battle

May

- May 1 – May 4 - American Civil War: General Robert E. Lee defeats Union forces at the Battle of Chancellorsville with 13001 Confederate casualties, among them Stonewall Jackson lost to friendly fire, and 17500 Union casualties.
- May 14 - American Civil War: Battle of Jackson (MS).
- May 17 - After a two-month siege, the French army of Bazaine takes Puebla Mexico.
- May 18 - American Civil War: The Siege of Vicksburg begins (ends Saturday, July 4).8600 union 30189 confederate men surrendered
- May 21 - American Civil War: Siege of Port Hudson, Louisiana by Union forces.
- May 21 - General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists formed.
- May 23 - Ferdinand Lassalle founds the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein (General German Workers' Association, ADAV), the first socialist workers party in Germany.
- May 28 - American Civil War: The 54th Massachusetts, the first African-American regiment, leaves Boston, Massachusetts to fight for the Union.
- May 31 - First running of the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe horse race.

June

- June 9 - American Civil War: Battle of Brandy Station, Virginia.
- June 14 - American Civil War: Second Battle of Winchester: A Union garrison is defeated by the Army of Northern Virginia in the Shenandoah Valley town of Winchester, Virginia.
- June 17 - American Civil War: Battle of Aldie in the Gettysburg Campaign.
- June 20 - West Virginia is admitted as the 35th U.S. state.

July

- July 1 - 3 - American Civil War: Union forces under George G. Meade turn back a Confederate invasion by Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg, the largest battle of the war. 28500 confederate men & 24500 union
- July 4 - American Civil War: Battle of Vicksburg - Ulysses S. Grant and the Union army capture the Confederate city Vicksburg, Mississippi after the town surrendered. The siege lasted 47 days.
- July 13 - American Civil War (New York Draft Riots): In New York City, opponents of conscription begin three days of violent rioting, which would later be regarded as the worst in the history of the United States.
- July 18 - American Civil War: The first formal African American military unit, the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, unsuccessfully assaults Confederate-held Fort Wagner but their valiant fighting still proves the worth of African American soldiers during the war. Their colonel was shot leading attack and was buried with his men. 450 union/ 175 confederate
- July 26 - American Civil War: Morgan's Raid ends - At Salineville, Ohio, Confederate cavalry leader John Hunt Morgan and 375 of his volunteers are captured by Union forces.
- July 30 - Indian Wars: Chief Pocatello of the Shoshone tribe signs the Treaty of Box Elder, promising to stop harassing the emigrant trails in southern Idaho and northern Utah.

August

- August 8 - American Civil War: Following his defeat in the Battle of Gettysburg, General Robert E. Lee sends a letter of resignation to Confederate President Jefferson Davis (Davis will refuse the request upon receipt).
- August 17 - American Civil War: In Charleston, South Carolina, Union batteries and ships bombard Confederate-held Fort Sumter. Bombardment will not end until Thursday, December 31

September

- September 6 - American Civil War: Confederates evacuate Battery Wagner and Morris Island in South Carolina.
- September 8 - American Civil War: Second Battle of Sabine Pass - On the Texas-Louisiana border at the mouth of the Sabine River, a small Confederate force thwarts a Union invasion of Texas.

October

- October 5 - The Brooklyn, Bath and Coney Island Rail Road starts operations in Brooklyn, New York; this is now the oldest right-of-way on the New York City Subway, the largest rapid transit system in the United States and one of the largest in the world.
- October 14 - American Civil War: Battle of Bristol Station - Confederate General Robert E. Lee forces fail to drive the Union army out of Virginia.
- October 15 - American Civil War: The first successful submarine, the CSS Hunley sinks during a test, killing Horace Lawson Hunley (its inventor) and a crew of seven.
- October 26 - 29, the Resolutions of the Geneva International Conference are signed
- October 29 - Sixteen countries meeting in Geneva agree to form the International Red Cross.
- October 29 - American Civil War: Battle of Wauhatchie - Forces under Union General Ulysses S. Grant ward-off a Confederate attack led by General James Longstreet. Union forces thus open a supply line into Chattanooga, Tennessee.

November

- November 16 - American Civil War: Battle of Campbell's Station - Near Knoxville, Tennessee, Confederate troops led by General James Longstreet unsuccessfully attack Union forces under General Ambrose Burnside.
- November 17 - American Civil War: Siege of Knoxville begins - Confederate forces led by General James Longstreet place Knoxville, Tennessee under siege (the two week long siege and one failed attack was unsuccessful).
- November 19 - American Civil War: Union President Abraham Lincoln delivers the Gettysburg Address at the military cemetery dedication ceremony in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
- November 23 - American Civil War: Battle of Chattanooga III begins - Union forces led by General Ulysses S. Grant reinforce troops at Chattanooga, Tennessee and counter-attack Confederate troops.
- November 24 - American Civil War: Battle of Lookout Mountain - Near Chattanooga, Tennessee, Union forces under General Ulysses S. Grant capture Lookout Mountain and begin to break the Confederate siege of the city led by General Braxton Bragg.
- November 25 - American Civil War: Battle of Missionary Ridge - At Missionary Ridge in Tennessee, Union forces led by General Ulysses S. Grant break the Siege of Chattanooga by routing Confederate troops under General Braxton Bragg.
- November 26 - American Civil War: Mine Run - Union forces under General George Meade position against troops led by Confederate General Robert E. Lee (Meade's forces could not find any weaknesses in the Confederate lines and gave up trying after five days).
- November 27 - American Civil War: Confederate cavalry leader John Hunt Morgan and several of his men escape the Ohio state prison and return safely to the South.

December

- End of term for Amasa Leland Stanford, 8th Governor of California. He is succeeded by Frederick Ferdinand Low.

Unknown dates

- Bartolomé Mitre secretly backs the revolt of Venancio Flores against the Uruguayn Blanco government
- Thomas Nast draws the modern Santa Claus for Harper's Weekly, although Santa existed previously.
- Construction begins on the First Transcontinental Railroad in Sacramento, California

Ongoing Events

- The American Civil War (1861-1865)

Births

- January 1 - Pierre de Coubertin, French founder of the modern Olympic Games (d. 1937)
- January 12 - Swami Vivekananda, Indian religious leader (d. 1902)
- January 15 - Wilhelm Marx, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1946)
- January 17 - David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1945)
- March 12 - Gabriele D'Annunzio, Italian writer, war hero, and politician (d. 1938)
- March 25 - Simon Flexner, American pathologist (d. 1946)
- May 21 - Eugen, Archduke of Austria, Austrian field marshal (d. 1954)
- March 27 - Sir Henry Royce, English automobile pioneer (d. 1933)
- May 24 - George Grey Barnard, American sculptor (d. 1938)
- May 29 - Arthur Mold, English cricketer (d. 1921)
- June 2 - Felix Weingartner, Yugoslavian conductor (d. 1942)
- July 1 - William Stairs, Canadian explorer (d. 1892)
- July 21 - C. Aubrey Smith, English actor (d. 1948)
- July 30 - Henry Ford, American automobile manufacturer and industrialist (d. 1947)
- August 3 - Géza Gárdonyi, Hungarian author (d. 1922)
- September 13 - Arthur Henderson, Scottish politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1935)
- September 21 - John Bunny, American film comedian (d. 1915)
- October 11 - Louis Cyr, Canadian strongman (d. 1912)
- October 16 - Austen Chamberlain, English statesman, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1937)
- December 7 - Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer (d. 1945)
- December 11 - Annie Jump Cannon, American astronomer (d. 1941)
- December 12 - Edvard Munch, Norwegian painter (d. 1944)
- Aaron S. Watkins, American Presidential candidate (d. 1941)

Deaths

- April 1 - Jakob Steiner, Swiss mathematician (b. 1796)
- May 10 - Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, American Confederate general (b. 1824)
- July 26 - Sam Houston, first President of the Republic of Texas (b. 1793)
- August 13 - Eugène Delacroix, French painter (b. 1798)
- September 17 - Alfred de Vigny, French author (b. 1797)
- September 20 - Jakob Grimm, German folklorist (b. 1785)
- November 2 - Theodore Judah, American railroad engineer (b. 1826)
- November 15 - Frederick VII, King of Denmark (b.1808)
- December 13 - Christian Friedrich Hebbel, German writer (b. 1813) Category:1863 ko:1863년 ms:1863 simple:1863 th:พ.ศ. 2406

Teacher

:For university teachers, see professor. In education, teachers are those who teach students or pupils, often a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill, including learning and thinking skills. There are many different ways to teach and help students learn. This is often referred to as the teacher's pedagogy. When deciding what teaching method to use, a teacher will need to consider students' background knowledge, environment, and their learning goals. See education for more.

Related positions

A teacher who registers a student, or who is positioned to help the student in a particular subject, is called a "tutor". A teacher or trainer from whom a student learns a great deal may be called a "mentor". (However this term is not used, in this context, in the UK.) An "educationalist" is an educational theorist, writer or researcher. In traditional China, the model teacher, Confucius, is greatly revered. A Chinese term for teacher is shifu or laoshi.

University teachers

Teachers in college are called instructors or lecturers. In the United States, the term "professor" is usually applied to college or University teachers that have received tenure; although, there are rankings from Assistant Professor through Full Professor that may be defined differently at various institutions. In the United Kingdom the title 'Professor' is restricted to teachers that have been granted a 'chair'. Others are known as lecturers or readers.

Senior teachers

Teachers who look after the whole school are called head teachers, school principals, headmasters or headmistresses. The equivalent in colleges and universities is called the dean, principal or vice-chancellor. Teachers of this status rarely teach students. A teacher in a grammar or public school in Britain may also be a Head of House. Houses were also used in secondary and comprehensive schools. As with most large organisations a school needs a hierarchical structure of command, allowing matters to be delegated to a specific department or section of the school. In many cases there are deputy headteachers, heads of department (or subject, such as science or history) and heads of year. A head of year is in charge of the pastoral care of one year group. Every school has a disciplinary procedure which dictates how punishments should be given to misbehaving students. One common method of coping with problems is the idea of escalation whereby the classroom teacher attempts to deal with the student(s) themselves before passing it on to a more senior teacher. Eventually, should the situation not be resolved, the headmaster becomes involved.

Emergency teachers

A teacher may be replaced by another teacher if they are absent due to an illness, death, or planned absence. In the United States, replacement teachers are known as substitute teachers (or more informally as "subs"); in Australia and New Zealand, they are known as emergency or relieving teachers; in the UK and in Canada they are generally known as supply teachers. In Western Canada, they are called TOCs (teachers-on-call). Temporary, substitute teachers in universities are usually in forms of multiple guest lecturers. These teachers often find it difficult to acclimatise to the new environment, often moving from one school to another week after week. They are often viewed badly by the students they are looking after with a "you're not my real teacher" attitude making behaviour management very difficult. Meanwhile, especially in subjects like second languages, they may actually know less than their students. In long term replacements, however, this quickly subsides. Teacher trade union groups have expressed resentment towards the continuous use of supply teachers (who may be paid a lower amount) to satisfy long-term shortages when school administrations have resisted creating a permanent teaching position. A teacher is a constant learner.

Qualification and registration

Teachers are usually educated in a university or college. Often they must be certified by a government body before they can teach in a school.

Australia

Certification in Australia differs from state to state; however as a general rule all teachers must possess a tertiary certification - either a Bachelor of Education, BA (Education), Bachelor of Teaching or Graduate Diploma of Education (DipEd) - awarded by a Australian certified University or an equivalent award from overseas plus experience in the classroom. Many states now have Teacher Registration Boards or are soon to institute them. These organisations are charged with certifying potential teacher's qualification and ensure constant Professional Development.

Canada

Note: The following information is incorrect and needs to be updated. Canadian teachers must receive certification from a provincial College of Teachers in order to be able to teach elementary and secondary school. The process for certification is somewhat different in Quebec relative to English Canada.

England and Wales

In England and Wales teachers must have gained Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). There are many paths in which a person can work towards gaining their QTS, the most popular of which is to have completed a first degree program (such as a BA or BSc) and then a Post-Graduate Certificate of Education (PGCE). Other methods include a specific teaching degree (BEd) or on-the-job training at a school. All qualified teachers in England must serve, after training, a statutory one year induction period that must be passed in order to remain a registered teacher. In Wales this period lasts for two years. During this period a teacher is known as an NQT (Newly Qualified Teacher). Schools are obliged to provide guidance, support and training to facilitate the NQT's success during this year. Local education authorities are also obliged to provide professional development opportunities.

Scotland

In Scotland teachers must hold a valid teaching qualification (TQ) and be registered with the General Teaching Council for Scotland. Following initial teacher education and gaining a teaching qualification a Scottish teacher is deemed to be provisionaly registered with the GTCS and must undergo a year of probation supported through the Scottish Executive's induction programme. There are several possible to routes to a TQ, including a Bachelor of Education in Music, Physical Education or Technological Education for secondary school or a general BEd for primary school, a Professional Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) or a concurrent undergraduate degree combining a Bachelor of Science or Scottish MA with the initial teacher education elements of a PGDE. Concurrent degrees are only avaible from the University of Stirling. A Scottish teacher may only qualify in a subject directly related to their undergraduate or graduate studies. For teachers qualified outside of Scotland an application must be made to the GTCS for exceptional registration.

United States

In the United States, each state determines the requirements for getting a license to teach. Typical requirements include a bachelor's degree, education coursework, licensing exams, a criminal background check, and payment of a fee. Until recently, a person could not teach unless he or she had completed a year or more of specific teaching training at a normal school. In the past two decades, normal school courses have been made optional through the promotion of Alternate Route teacher certification. New Jersey was the first state to establish an Alternate Route program, doing so in 1984. Since then, most states have established their own programs. Teachers in New York State must have a Bachelor's degree and complete a Master's degree within five years. Additionally, to be permanently certified, teachers must pass three state exams on pedagogy, general knowledge and knowledge of a content area. In order to work in a public school a candidate must be fingerprinted. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that there are 1.4 million [http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes252021.htm elementary school teachers], 600,000 [http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes252022.htm middle school teachers], and 1 million [http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes252031.htm secondary school teachers] employed in the U.S. US News has ranked Michigan State University as the #1 graduate program in teacher education for the last 11 years. Other prominent graduate schools of education include Stanford University, Harvard University, UC--Berkeley, UCLA, the University of Illinois--UC, the University of Indiana--Bloomington, and the University of Michigan. Category:Education Category:Educators

World Teacher's Day

UNESCO inaugurated World Teachers’ Day on 5 October 1994 to celebrate and commemorate the signing of the Recommendation Concerning the Status of Teachers on 5 October 1966. World Teachers’ Day also highlighted the Recommendation Concerning the Status of Higher Education Teaching Personnel adopted in 1997. Some countries such as Taiwan also celebrate Teacher's Day as a national holiday. In Brazil, it is celebrated on October 15.

Readings

- Ms. Moffett's First Year: Becoming a Teacher in America by Abby Goodnough (PublicAffairs, 1586482599, 2004).
- Burks, M.P., Requirements for Certification, Fifty-first Edition, 1986-87. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1986.
- Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy, Task Force on Teaching as a Profession. A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century. 1986. ED 268 120.
- Feistritzer, C.E. The Condition of Teaching, A State by State Analysis. Laurenceville, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.
- Holmes Group. Tomorrow's Teachers: A Report of the Holmes Group. 1986. ED 270 454.
- Roth, R.R. and R. Mastain (Eds.). Manual on Certification and Preparation of Educational Personnel in the United States. Sacramento: National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 1984.

External links

- [http://www.ei-ie.org/ressourc/english/erec1966.htm 1966 United Nations recommendation concerning the status of teachers]
- [http://www.wideopendoors.net/teaching/teaching_theories.html Teaching Theories]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-925/want.htm So You Want To Be a Teacher]
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/features/2004/04/secret_diary_of_the_telford_teacher.shtml The secret diary of a teacher] based in Shropshire, UK (An abridged version may be found here: [http://www.people.co.uk/news/tm_objectid=14178565&method=full&siteid=55768&headline=i-m-teacher-who-exposed-class-hell-name_page.html]) A typical experience of a teacher, as seen in comprehensive school classrooms across Britain from about 1979 onwards.
- [http://www.eslbase.com/ Advice on becoming a TEFL teacher]
- [http://www.nea.org U.S. National Education Association (NEA)]
- [http://www.ed.gov/index.jhtml U.S. Department of Education]
- [http://www.teacherleaders.org Teacher Leaders Network]
- [http://www.teachers.tv Teachers' TV] Teachers' TV is a channel for everyone who works in education across England Category:Education, training, and library occupations
- Category:Professions ja:教員 simple:Teaching th:ครู

Confederate States of America

:For other meanings of confederate and confederacy, see confederacy (disambiguation) The Confederate States of America—also referred to as the Confederate States, CSA, the Confederacy and Dixie (colloquially)—was a splinter nation off the United States of America that existed between 1861 and 1865. It was located in North America, occupying the south-eastern portions of the current United States. As its existence was contested by the United States for the whole of its short-lived history, there was never a definitive delineation of Confederate States' northern boundary. Its southern land boundary was with Mexico. It was otherwise bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. For most of its life the Confederacy was engaged in the Civil War against the Union forces, mostly in defense. However, the Army of Northern Virginia under General Robert E. Lee, also made limited incursions into Union territory.

History

The Confederate States were formed on February 4, 1861, by six Southern slave states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana) after confirmation of the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States. Jefferson Davis was selected as its first President the next day. Texas joined the Confederacy on March 2 and then replaced its governor, Sam Houston, when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. These seven states seceded ¹ from the United States and took control of military/naval installations, ports, and custom houses within their boundaries, triggering the American Civil War. A month after the Confederacy was formed, on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President of the United States. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called the secession "legally void". He stated he had no intent to invade southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of federal property and collection of various federal taxes, duties and imposts. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union. On April 12 South Carolina troops fired upon the Federal troops stationed at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina until the troops surrendered. Following the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln called for all remaining states in the Union to send troops to recapture Sumter and other forts, defend the capital, and preserve the Union. Most Northerners believed that a quick victory for the Union would crush the nascent rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days. This resulted in four more states voting to secede: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined the Confederacy for a total of 11. Once Virginia seceded, the Confederate capital was moved from Montgomery, Alabama to Richmond, Virginia The government of Kentucky remained in the Union after a short-lived attempt at neutrality, but a rival faction from that state was also accepted as members of the Confederacy. A more complex situation surrounds the Missouri Secession, but in any event Missouri was also considered a member of the Confederate States. The number of Confederate states is thus sometimes considered to be 13. The five tribal governments of the Indian Territory—which became Oklahoma in 1907—also mainly supported the Confederacy. The southern part of New Mexico Territory (including parts of the Gadsden Purchase) joined with the Confederacy as Arizona Territory. These first settlers petitioned the Confederate government for annexation of their lands, prompting an expedition in which territory south of the 34th parallel was governed by the Confederacy. Arizona troops were also officially recognized within the armies of the Confederacy. Preceding his New Mexico Campaign, General Sibley issued a proclamation to the people of New Mexico his intentions of taking possession of the territory in the name of the Confederate States. Confederate troops briefly occupied the territorial capital of Santa Fe between March 13 and April 8, 1862. Not all jurisdictions where slavery was still legal joined the Confederacy. In 1861 martial law was declared in Maryland (the state which borders the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C., on three sides) to block attempts at secession. Delaware, also a slave state, never considered secession, nor did the capital of the U.S., Washington, D.C.. In 1861, during the war, a unionist rump legislature in Wheeling, Virginia seceded from Virginia, claiming 48 counties, and joined the United States in 1863 as the state of West Virginia, with a constitution that would have gradually abolished slavery[http://www.ls.net/~newriver/va/vasecesh.htm]. Similar attempts to secede from the Confederacy in parts of other states (notably in eastern Tennessee) were held in check by Confederacy declarations of martial law[http://www.aotc.net/Marxen.htm][http://web.utk.edu/~jharvey2/kville%20before%20siege.htm]. The surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by General Lee at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865 is generally taken as the end of the Confederate States. President Davis was captured at Irwinville, Georgia on May 10 and the remaining Confederate armies surrendered by June 1865. The last Confederate flag was hauled down on CSS Shenandoah on November 6, 1865.

Government and politics

Constitution

1865 The Confederate States Constitution provides much insight into the motivations for secession from the Union. Based to a certain extent on both the Articles of Confederation and on the United States Constitution, it reflected a stronger philosophy of states' rights, curtailing the power of the central authority, and also contained explicit protection of the institution of slavery, though international slave trading was prohibited. It differed from the US Constitution chiefly by addressing the grievances of the secessionist states against the federal government of the United States. For example, the Confederate government was prohibited from instituting protective tariffs, making southern ports more attractive to international traders. Prior to the declarations of secession, most southerners regarded protective tariffs as a measure that enriched the northern states at the expense of the south. The Confederate government was also prohibited from using revenues collected in one state for funding internal improvements in another state. At the same time, however, much of the Confederate constitution was a word-for-word duplicate of the US one. At the drafting of the Constitution of the Confederacy, a few radical proposals such as allowing only slave states to join and the reinstatement of the Atlantic slave trade were turned down. The Constitution specifically did not include a provision allowing states to secede, since the southerners considered this to be a right intrinsic to a sovereign state which the United States Constitution had not required them to renounce, and thus including it as such would have weakened their original argument for secession. The President of the Confederacy was to be elected to a six-year term and could not be reelected. The only president was Jefferson Davis; the Confederacy was defeated by the federal government before he completed his term. One unique power granted to the Confederate president was the ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power held by some state governors. The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two thirds majorities that are required in the US Congress. Printed currency in the forms of bills and stamps was authorized and put into circulation, although by the individual states in the Confederacy's name. The government considered issuing Confederate coinage. Plans, dies and 4 "proofs" were created, but a lack of bullion prevented any public coinage. Although the preamble refers to "each State acting in its sovereign and independent character", it also refers to the formation of a "permanent federal government". Also, although slavery was protected in the constitution, it also prohibited the importation of new slaves from outside the Confederacy (except from slaveholding states or territories of the United States).

Capital

US Congress The capital of the Confederacy was Montgomery, Alabama, from February 4, 1861, until May 29, 1861, when it was moved to Richmond, Virginia (named the new capital on May 6, 1861). Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond with plans to relocate further south to Atlanta, Georgia, or to Columbia, South Carolina, but little came of this before Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House and Danville, Virginia, served from April 3 to April 10, 1865, as the last capital of the Confederacy.

International diplomacy and legal status

The legal status of the Confederate Government was a subject of extensive debate throughout its existence and for many years after the war. During its existence, the Confederate government conducted negotiations with several European powers (including France and the United Kingdom). The Confederacy received formal diplomatic recognition only from Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the ruler of a minor German principality. The UK came close to recognizing the Confederacy during the Trent Affair and began preparations to offer mediation along with France (due to Emperor Napoleon III's project, the Mexican Empire), but both nations backed away after the Battle of Antietam and Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. Throughout the war most European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. In its place, they applied international law principles that recognized the Northern and Southern sides of the war as belligerents. Canada allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders and some state governments in northern Mexico negotiated regional agreements to cover trade on the Texas border. For the four years of its existence, the Confederacy asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. The Northern government, by contrast, asserted that the southern states were provinces in rebellion and refused any formal recognition of their status. Telling of this dispute, the Confederate Government responded to the hostilities by formally declaring war on the United States while the Union Government conducted its war efforts under a proclamation of blockade and rebellion by President Lincoln. Mid-war negotiations between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the laws of war governed military relationships. Four years after the war the United States Supreme Court ruled in Texas v. White that secession was unconstitutional and legally null. The court's opinion was rendered by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, the former Treasury Secretary under Lincoln. Chase's opinion was immediately attacked and remains controversial to this day. Critics such as Jefferson Davis and Alexander Stephens penned subsequent legal arguments in favor of secession's legality, most notably Davis' Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government.

Confederate flags

Image:Starsnbars.png|1st National
"Stars and Bars" Image:Stainlessbanner.png|2nd National
"Stainless Banner" Image:navaljack.png|Naval Jack Image:battleflag.png|Battle Flag
"Southern Cross" The official flag of the Confederacy, and the one actually called the "Stars and Bars", has seven stars, for the seven states that initially formed the Confederacy. This flag was sometimes hard to distinguish from the Union flag under battle conditions, so the Confederate battle flag, the "Southern Cross", became the one more commonly used in military operations. The Southern Cross has 13 stars, adding the four states that joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter, and the two states of Kentucky and Missouri (See Missouri Secession) with competing unionist and secessionist governments that were admitted to the Confederacy. As a result of its depiction in 20th century popular media, the "Southern Cross" is a flag commonly associated with the Confederacy today. The actual "Southern Cross" is a square-shaped flag, but the more commonly seen rectangular flag is actually the flag of the First Tennessee Army, also known as the Naval Jack because it was first used by the Confederate Navy.

Political leaders of the Confederacy

Executive

Legislative

- Confederate Congress
- Provisional Confederate Congress
- First Confederate Congress
- Second Confederate Congress

Judicial

A judicial branch of the government was outlined in the C.S. Constitution but the would-be Supreme Court of the Confederate States was never created or seated because of the ongoing war.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223] Some lower district courts were, however, established within some of the individual states of the Confederacy; namely, AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, TN, TX & VA (and possibly others). At the end of the war, U.S. district courts resumed jurisdiction.[http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/021.html] The state and local courts generally continued to operate as they had been, simply recognizing the CSA rather than the USA as the national government.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223]

Geography

Supreme Court of the Confederate States The Confederate States had a total of 2,919 miles (4,698 kilometers) of coastline. A large portion of its territory lay on the sea coast, and with level and sandy ground. The interior portions were hilly and mountainous and the far western territories were deserts. The lower reaches of the Mississippi River bisected the country, with the western half often referred to as the Trans-Mississippi. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was Guadalupe Peak in Texas at 8,750 feet (2,667 meters). Most of the area of the Confederate States had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate varied to semiarid steppe and arid desert west of longitude 96 degrees west. The Confederate States was less urbanized than the northern states, with only New Orleans showing up in the list of top 10 U.S. cities in the 1860 census. Only 15 cities (excluding those in Kentucky and Missouri) ranked among the top 100 US cities in 1860. The population of Richmond swelled after it became the national capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864.

Economy

The Confederate States had an agrarian-based economy that relied heavily on slavery plantations. The main products of the CSA were cotton, rice, tobacco and sugar cane, with some cattle and much grain. The states that formed the CSA (excluding Missouri and Kentucky) produced $155 million in manufactured goods in 1860; their main products were flour and meal, lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and turpentine. The CSA adopted a free trade policy, but this was undermined by the Union blockade. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which in turn led to high inflation.

Armed Forces

The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised the following three branches:
- Confederate States Army
- Confederate States Navy
- Confederate States Marine Corps The Confederate military leadership was almost entirely composed of veterans from the United States Army and U.S. Navy who had resigned their federal commissions and had been appointed to senior positions in the Confederate armed forces. The Confederate officer corps was composed mostly of southern gentry, and the Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, many colleges of the south (such as the Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that were seen as a breeding ground for Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established in 1863 onboard CSS Patrick Henry in the James River, but no midshipmen had graduated by the time the Confederacy collapsed. The rank and file of the Confederate armed forces consisted of white males with an average age between 16 and 28. Towards the end of the Civil War, boys as young as 12 were fighting in combat roles and the Confederate Armed Forces had even sponsored an all-black regiment with measures underway to offer freedom to slaves who voluntarily served in the Confederate military.

Military leaders of the Confederacy

James River
- Robert E. Lee (Virginia) - General and Military Commander-in-Chief
- Albert Sidney Johnston (Kentucky) - General
- Joseph E. Johnston (Virginia) - General
- Braxton Bragg (North Carolina) - General
- P.G.T. Beauregard (Louisiana) - General
- Samuel Cooper (New Jersey) - General (Adjutant General and highest ranking general in the Army)
- James Longstreet (South Carolina) - Lt. General
- Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson (Virginia) - Lt. General
- A.P. Hill (Virginia) - Lt. General
- John Bell Hood (Texas) - Lt. General
- Wade Hampton (South Carolina) Lt. General
- Nathan Bedford Forrest (Tennessee) - Lt. General
- J.E.B. Stuart (Virginia) - Maj. General
- Edward Porter Alexander (Georgia) - Brig. General
- Franklin Buchanan (Maryland) - Admiral
- Raphael Semmes (Maryland) - Rear Admiral
- French Forrest (Maryland) - Acting Assistant Secretary of the Confederate Navy
- Josiah Tattnall (Georgia) - Commodore
- Stand Watie (Indian Territory, now Oklahoma) - Brigadier General (last to surrender)
- Leonidas Polk (Tennessee & Louisiana) - Bishop & General
- Jubal Anderson Early (Virginia)- Lt. General

Significant dates

NOTE: According to the New York Public Library Desk Reference, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina and South Carolina were all readmitted June 25, 1868, and Georgia was readmitted a second time on July 15, 1870.

External links

- Civil War Research & Discussion Group - [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FieldsOfConflict/ Fields Of Conflict] - Containing 1000+ Links And 350+ Articles.
- [http://www.americascaesar.com/ America's Caesar: The Decline and Fall of Republican Government in the United States of America], 2005, an online book detailing the events which led up to and followed the War Between the States
- [http://www.confederatereprint.com/ The Confederate Reprint Company], offers the largest internet selection of paperback reprints of rare and out-of-print Confederate literature
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK9708x1864/ An Act to Prohibit the Importation of Luxuries, or of Articles not Necessary or of Common Use], 1864, a Confederate Congress document
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/canu/ Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms], 1861
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/AP2xC84/ The Countryman, 1862-1866], published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/ccsus/ The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared]
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/F206xS727xv9/ The Making of the Confederate Constitution], by A. L. Hull, 1905.
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK4725x1861xA25/ Official Journal of the House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana], November, 1861
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/E468x7xM647/ Photographic History of the Civil War, 10 vols., 1912.]
- [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cw/17609.htm Preventing Diplomatic Recognition of the Confederacy]
- [http://docsouth.unc.edu/index.html DocSouth: Documenting the American South] - numerous online text, image, and audio collections.
- [http://www.archontology.org/nations/csa/ Confederate States of Amer

Stonewall Jackson

Paternal ancestry

Childhood

U.S. Army, the Mexican War

Virginia Military Institute

American Civil War

Legacy

Notes

See also

References

External links

USS Stonewall Jackson (SSBN-634)

See also

References

1824

See also

Events

Ongoing events

Births

Deaths

1863

Events

Unknown dates

Ongoing Events

Births

Deaths

Teacher

Related positions

University teachers

Senior teachers

Emergency teachers

Qualification and registration

Australia

Canada

England and Wales

Scotland

United States

World Teacher's Day

Readings

See also

External links

Confederate States of America

History

Government and politics

Constitution

Capital

International diplomacy and legal status

Confederate flags

Political leaders of the Confederacy

Executive

Legislative

Judicial

Geography

Economy

Armed Forces

Military leaders of the Confederacy

Significant dates

See also

Further reading

External links