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Sudan

Sudan

:For the region of the same name, see Sudan (region); for the orange-red dye see Sudan I. The Republic of the Sudan, or Republic of Sudan (in recent years the definite article has increasingly been dropped in common usage) is the largest country by area in Africa, situated in Northeast Africa. The capital is Khartoum. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, Kenya and Uganda to the southeast, Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. Libya

History

Main article: History of Sudan Three Kushite and Meroetic kingdoms called northern Sudan their home in ancient times, this region was also known as the Nubian Kingdom and these civilizations flourished mainly along the Nile River from the first to the sixth cataracts. These kingdoms were influenced by, and in turn influenced Pharaonic Egypt. In fact, the borders of the ancient Egyptian and Sudanese kingdoms fluxated greatly and what is now the upper third of present day Northern Sudan was during ancient times indistinguishable from Upper Egypt. Pharaonic Egypt Although Christianity had been introduced into Sudan in the third or fourth century, around 640 AD, Islam came to Sudan. A merchant class of Arabs established themselves as economically dominant in feudal Sudan. Important kingdoms in the next 1,200 years include Makuria and the Kingdom of Sennar. In 1820, Sudan came under Egyptian rule when Mehemet Ali, the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, sent armies under his son Ismail Pasha and Mahommed Bey to conquer eastern Sudan. Religious leader Muhammad ibn Abdalla, the self-proclaimed Mahdi (Messiah), attempted to unify the tribes of western and central Sudan in the 1880s. He led a nationalist revolt against Egyptian rule culminating in the fall of Khartoum in 1885, in which the British General Gordon was killed, the inspiration for Rudyard Kipling's poem Fuzzy Wuzzy, a tribe in the region of Port Sudan. The Mahdist state survived until being overwhelmed by an Anglo-Egyptian force under Lord Kitchener in 1898. Great Britain ran Sudan as two essentially separate colonies, the south and the north, until 1956. 1956 The year before independence in 1956, Southern Sudanese embarked upon a civil war. During the British rule, laws had been put in place making it illegal for anyone living above the 10th parallel to go further south and anyone above the 8th parallel further north. The British law set the country up for this envitable conflict with this law. The law was enacted to prevent the spread of malaria and other tropic diseases that had ravaged British troops. Furthermore, while the British built roads, schools and set up a government in the predominately Arab north, the British left the South to Missionaries to "tame the savages" creating what historians generally agree was a grave injustice in the country. This sparked 17 years of civil war from 1955 to 1972. In 1972, the Addis Ababa Agreement led to a cessation of the north-south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This led to a ten-year hiatus in the civil war. In September 1983, then President, Gaafar Nimeiry, created a Federated Sudan which included 3 federal states in Southern Sudan. It was the introduction of Sharia law and the dissolution of the 3 federal states in the South that led to the reinvigoration of the civil war. After shortages of fuel and bread, a growing insurgency in the south, drought and famine, in 1984-5 another military coup led by Gen. Suwar al-Dahab restored a civilian government. However the civil war intensified in lethality and the economy continued to deteriorate. In 1989 General Omar el-Bashir became president and chief of state, prime minister and chief of the armed forces. In 1991, Osama Bin Laden moved to Sudan. His stated objective was to use his money, power and expertise in the construction field to help Sudan. Bin Laden was responsible for building the road from Khartoum northward to the town of Shendi. He was attracted to Sudan because it claimed to be a purely Islamic state. He is purported to have lost a sizable amount of money on business ventures in Sudan; some estimates place his losses in excess of $100 million USD [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/bio2.html]. In place of payment on his road venture, the Government of Sudan, strapped for cash, paid him with a defunct tanning factory, which was confiscated when in 1996 he was forcebly expelled at the request of the United States and relocated to Afghanistan. Afghanistan The ongoing civil war has displaced more than 4 million southerners. Some fled into southern cities, such as Juba; others trekked as far north as Khartoum and even into Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, and other neighboring countries. These people were unable to grow food or earn money to feed themselves, and malnutrition and starvation became widespread. The lack of investment in the south resulted as well in what international humanitarian organizations call a "lost generation" who lack educational opportunities, access to basic health care services, and little prospects for productive employment in the small and weak economies of the south or the north. In early 2003 a new rebellion began in the western province of Darfur, during which time the government committed terrible atrocities. In February 2004, the government declared victory over the rebellion but the rebels reported that they remained in control of rural areas and others reports indicated that widespread fighting was continuing. Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early 2004, although skirmishes in parts of the south were reportedly continuing. The peace was consolidated with the official signing by both sides of the Naivasha treaty on 9 January 2005, pursuant to which the south will be granted autonomy for six years, to be followed by a referendum on independence. It created a position for a co-vice president position and allowed the north and south to split oil 50/50, but also left both the North's and South's armies in place. John Garang, the south's elected co-vice president died in a helicopter crash three weeks after being sworn in. It is hoped that the treaty will finally mark the end of a decades-long war that has claimed millions of lives. Now politically, there is a "verbal" peace between the north and the south; however, intertribal wars still exists in the western region of Darfur.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Sudan Sudan has an authoritarian government in which all effective political power is in the hands of President Omar Hassan al-Bashir. Bashir and his party have controlled the government since he led the military coup on 30 June 1989. From 1983 to 1997, the country was divided into five regions in the north and three in the south, each headed by a military governor. After the April 6, 1985 military coup, regional assemblies were suspended. The RCC was abolished in 1996, and the ruling National Islamic Front changed its name to the National Congress Party. After 1997, the structure of regional administration was replaced by the creation of 26 states. The executives, cabinets, and senior-level state officials are appointed by the president, and their limited budgets are determined by and dispensed from Khartoum. The states, as a result, remain economically dependent upon the central government. Khartoum state, comprising the capital and outlying districts, is administered by a governor. In December 1999, a power struggle climaxed between President al-Bashir and then-speaker of parliament Hassan al-Turabi, who was the NIF founder and an Islamist ideologue. Al-Turabi was stripped of his posts in the ruling party and the government, parliament was disbanded, the constitution was suspended, and a state of national emergency was declared by presidential decree. Parliament resumed in February 2001 after the December 2000 presidential and parliamentary elections, but the national emergency laws remain in effect. Al-Turabi was arrested in February 2001, and charged with being a threat to national security and the constitutional order for signing a memorandum of understanding with the SPLA. Since then his outspoken style has had him in prison or under house-arrest, his most recent stint beginning in March of 2004 and ending in June of 2005. During that time he was under house-arrest for his role in a failed coup attempt in September of 2003, an allegation he has denied. According to some reports, the president had no choice but to release him, given that a coalition of National Democratic Union (NDA) members headquartered in both Cairo and Eriteria, composed of the political parites known as the SPLM/A, Umma Party, Mirghani Party, and Turabi's own National People's Congress, were calling for his release at a time when an interim government was preparing to take over in accordance with the Naivasha agreement and the Machokos Accord. See Presidents of Sudan

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Sudan Sudan has had a troubled relationship with many of its neighbors and much of the international community due to what is viewed as its aggressively Islamic stance. For much of the 1990s, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia formed an ad-hoc alliance called the "Front Line States" with support from the United States to check the influence of the National Islamic Front government. During this period, Sudan supported anti-Uganda rebel groups such as the Lord's Resistance Army in retaliation for Ugandan support of the Sudan People's Liberation Army. Beginning from the mid-1990s Sudan gradually began to moderate its positions as a result of increased US pressure following the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings and the new development of oil fields previously in rebel hands. Sudan also has a territorial dispute with Egypt over the Hala'ib Triangle. Since 2003, the foreign relations of Sudan have centered on the support for ending the Second Sudanese Civil War and condemnation of government support for militias in the Darfur conflict.

States

Darfur conflict Main article: States of Sudan Sudan has 26 states or wilayat: Al Jazirah, Al Qadarif, Bahr al Jabal, Blue Nile, East Equatoria, Junqali, Kassala, Khartoum, Lakes, North Bahr al Ghazal, North Darfur, North Kurdufan, Northern, Red Sea, River Nile, Sennar, South Darfur, South Kurdufan, Unity, Upper Nile, Warab, West Bahr al Ghazal, West Darfur, West Equatoria, West Kurdufan, and White Nile.

Autonomy, Separation, Conflicts

Southern Sudan is an autonomous region intermediate between the states and the national government. Darfur is a region of three western states affected by the current Darfur conflict. There is also an insurgency in the east led by the Eastern Front.

Geography

Eastern Front Eastern Front Main article: Geography of Sudan Sudan is situated in Northern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Egypt and Eritrea. It is dominated by the River Nile and its tributaries. With an area of 2,505,810 km², it is the largest country in the continent. The terrain is generally flat plains, though there are mountains in the east and west. The climate is tropical in the south; arid desert conditions in the north, with a rainy season from April to October. Soil erosion and desertification are environmental hazards. See List of cities in Sudan

Economy

Main article: Economy of Sudan Sudan has turned around a struggling economy with sound economic policies and infrastructure investments, but it still faces formidable economic problems, starting from its low level of per capita output. From 1997 to date, Sudan has been implementing IMF macroeconomic reforms. In 1999, Sudan began exporting crude oil and in the last quarter of 1999 recorded its first trade surplus, which, along with monetary policy, has stabilized the exchange rate. Increased oil production, revived light industry, and expanded export processing zones helped sustain GDP growth at 6.1% in 2003. Agriculture production remains Sudan's most important sector, employing 80% of the work force and contributing 39% of GDP, but most farms remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Chronic instability - including the long-standing civil war between the Muslim north and the Christian/animist south, adverse weather, and weak world agricultural prices - ensure that much of the population will remain at or below the poverty line for years. See Communications in Sudan, Transportation in Sudan

Demographics

Transportation in Sudan Main article: Demographics of Sudan, Social order of Sudan In Sudan’s 1993 census, the population was calculated at 26 million. No comprehensive census has been carried out since that time due to the continuation of the civil war. Current estimates from the Central Intelligence Agency factbook as of 2004 estimate the population to be about 39 million. The population of metropolitan Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) is growing rapidly and ranges from 6-7 million, including around 2 million displaced persons from the southern war zone as well as western and eastern drought-affected areas. Sudan has two distinct major cultures--Arabicized Black Africans (but also some non-black Egyptian Arabs) and non-Arab Black Africans--with hundreds of ethnic and tribal divisions and language groups, which makes effective collaboration among them a major problem. The northern states cover most of the Sudan and include most of the urban centers. Most of the 22 million Sudanese who live in this region are Arabic-speaking Muslims, though the majority also use a traditional non-Arabic mother tongue--e.g., Nubian, Beja, Fur, Nuban, Ingessana, etc. Among these are several distinct tribal groups: the Kababish of northern Kordofan, a camel-raising people; the Ga’alin (الجعلين), Rubatab (الرباطاب), Manasir (المناصير) and Shaiqiyah (الشايقيّة) of settled tribes along the rivers; the seminomadic Baggara of Kurdufan and Darfur; the Hamitic Beja in the Red Sea area and Nubians of the northern Nile areas, some of whom have been resettled on the Atbara River; and the Negroid Nuba of southern Kurdufan and Fur in the western reaches of the country. The southern region has a population of around 6 million and a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. This region has been negatively affected by war for all but 10 years since independence in 1956, resulting in serious neglect, lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2 million people have died, and more than 4 million are internally displaced or have become refugees as a result of the civil war and war-related impacts. Here the Sudanese practice mainly indigenous traditional beliefs, although Christian missionaries have converted some. The south also contains many tribal groups and many more languages are used than in the north. The Dinka--whose population is estimated at more than 1 million--is the largest of the many black African tribes of the Sudan. Along with the Shilluk and the Nuer, they are among the Nilotic tribes. The Azande, Bor, and Jo Luo are “Sudanic” tribes in the west, and the Acholi and Lotuhu live in the extreme south, extending into Uganda.

People of Sudan


- Ja'alein peoples 50% "Arabic Tribes"
- Ababda
- Azande
- Baggara peoples
- Beja tribe
- Dinka tribe
- Fur People
- Manasir tribe
- Masalit
- Nuba peoples
- Nuer tribe
- Zaghawa (more, with rough locations)
- Acholi east
- Ayuak south central
- Barit Juba City
- Didiga east
- Kakua southwest
- Latuga east
- Madi east
- Shililuk east
- Toposa east
- many more

Culture

Main article: Culture of Sudan
- Music of Sudan
- List of writers from Sudan
- Islam in Sudan
- Clothing in Sudan Largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church of the Sudan, the Presbyterian Church in the Sudan and the Coptic Orthodox Church.

Education

:Main article: Education in Sudan Institutions of higher education in the Sudan include:
- Academy of Medical Sciences
- Ahfad University for Women
- Bayan Science and Technology College
- University of Gezira
- University of Khartoum
  - Mycetoma Research Center

See also


- Cities in Sudan, list of
- Education in Sudan
- Darfur Conflict
- Social order of Sudan
- Human rights issues in Sudan
- Janjaweed
- Kush
- Lost Boys of Sudan (Docu-film)
- Merowe Dam Project
- Military of Sudan
- Nubia
- Prime Ministers of Sudan
- Not the Sudan nuclear test by the US
- Sudan 1 Food Additive
- United Nations Mission In Sudan
- Patron saint: Josephine Bakhita

Miscellaneous topics

External links

Government


- [http://www.sudan.gov.sd/english.htm Sudan Government] official site
- [http://www.sudan-parliament.org/ Majlis Watani] official Parliament site

News


- [http://allafrica.com/sudan/ AllAfrica.com - Sudan] news headline links
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/sudan/0,14658,1235601,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Sudan]
- [http://www.suna-sd.net/Index_EN.htm Sudan News Agency (SUNA)] and [http://www.sunasms.com SunaSMS] government sites
- [http://news.yahoo.com/fc/world/sudan Yahoo! News Full Coverage - Sudan] news headline links
- [http://www.sudantribune.com/sommaire.php3 Sudan Tribune] France-based (in English)

Overviews


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/820864.stm BBC News Country Profile - Sudan]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/su.html CIA World Factbook - Sudan]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/su/ US State Department - Sudan] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Directories


- [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/sudan.htm Arab Gateway - Sudan] directory category
- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Sudan.html Columbia University - Sudan] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Sudan/ Open Directory Project - Sudan] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/sudan.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Sudan] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Sudan/ Yahoo! - Sudan] directory category

Tourism


-

Other


- [http://www.sudan.net/ Sudan.net] portal
- [http://www.sudaneseonline.com/ Sudaneseonline.com] portal
- [http://www.sudani.com/ Sudani.com Portal]
- [http://www.iabolish.com/today/features/sudan/overview1.htm Slavery in Sudan] Category:Arab League Category:African Union member states Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:Peace and Security Council zh-min-nan:Sudan ko:수단 ms:Sudan ja:スーダン simple:Sudan th:ประเทศซูดาน

Sudan (region)

The Sudan, from the Arabic bilâd as-sûdân "land of the Blacks," is a geographic region in West and Eastern Africa, extending south of the Sahel, from Mali (also once known as French Sudan) into the country of Sudan. This region receives more rainfall than the Sahel, and is suitable to farming. South of the Sudan are the tropical forests. Category:Regions of Africa ja:歴史的スーダン

Sudan I

Sudan I (also commonly known as CI Solvent Yellow 14 and Solvent Orange R), is a lysochrome, an azo dye with a chemical formula of 1-phenylazo-2-naphthol. The additive is mainly used to colour waxes, oils, petrol, solvents and polishes. Sudan I has also been adopted for colouring various foodstuffs, including particular brands of curry powder and chili powder, and some soft drinks (e.g., Lucozade), although the use of Sudan I in foods is now banned in many countries due to inconclusive reports on its possible health risks. Sudan I is a powdered substance with an orange-red appearance. Its melting point is 131°C (268°F).

Toxicology

The dye has been declared a possible carcinogen. Laboratory tests on mice showed growth of cancerous tumours in the liver. Tumours also developed in the bladder, following a direct injection into the urinary bladder. Tests via oral administration have so far proved negative. These tests have led to the additive being banned from use in foods throughout the EU, as it may pose an increased risk of cancer. Even though the amount of Sudan I used in popular foods is small, the proposed health risks are still high.

Food scare

In February 2005, Sudan I became a prominent news topic, particularly in the United Kingdom. A Worcester sauce produced by Premier Foods was found to be contaminated by the dye. The origin was traced to adulterated chili powder. The sauce was used in hundreds of supermarket products such as pizzas and ready-made meals, and the contamination has led to over 400 products being taken off the shelves. The deadline for removal was 12:00 GMT 24 February 2005, as imposed by the Food Standards Agency, the removal to be monitored by Local Authorities. However in the UK, the news reports failed to mention that:
- The additive was only banned for import into the UK as recently as July 2003. Before that, it was widely used as an additive with no reported adverse effects. Inconclusive data about the safety of the dye is what caused its ban, and justifibly so for any nation concerned with the health of its people.
- The origin of the contamination was a shipment of chilli powder from India, which was exported in 2002 (before the ban was imposed). Some would argue the ban was not even flouted, but since the food contaminated was produced after the ban was imposed, the rules of the ban still had to be applied.
- There is inconclusive evidence that it might be carcinogenic in some animal species, and is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as category 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans). However, numerous nations throughout the world have banned the dye in foodstuffs due to its capacity for ill health effects. Other countries made much less of the "scare". For example, the New Zealand Food Safety Authority (NZFSA) found that the risk, if any, for anyone who has consumed food made with this chilli powder as an ingredient is so small as to be immeasurable, and consumers are advised not to be concerned. In countries other than the UK and Canada, no such recall has taken place. Due to the scare, the government of Sudan has requested that the name of the dye be changed to avoid negative connotations being associated with the country and its food exports [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4318419.stm]. The origins of the "Sudan I" name are uncertain, but one chemist has suggested it "probably got the name as a result of interest in the British Empire at the time it was developed in the late 19th Century."

Synonyms and brand names

See also


- Para Red
- Tartrazine

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4277677.stm BBC NEWS | Health | Food alert on cancer-causing dye]
- [http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthissues/factsbehindissues/sudandyes/ Food Standards Agency - Sudan dyes]
- [http://www.premierfoods.co.uk/ Premier Foods]
- [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7062/ New Scientist]
- [http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/sudani/sudan_one/ Products known to be affected with Sudan dyes]
- [http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/sudani/ Sudan 1 at Food.gov.uk]
- [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=PureSearch&db=pubmed&details_term=%22Sudan%20I%22%5BAll%20Fields%5D Sudan I in scientific literature: Sudan I human carcinogenicity data] Category:Azo dyes Category:Food colorings

Definite article

An article is a word that is put next to a noun to indicate the type of reference being made to the noun. It usually indicates definiteness. Articles can have various functions:
- a definite article (English the) indicates that the noun refers to a specific thing that the speaker has in mind (The chair was broken)
- an indefinite article (English a, an) indicates that the noun refers to something of the kind, but the particular instance is not important (A chair was broken).
- a zero article is an unpronounced article present in some languages. Linguists hypothesize the presence of the zero article based on the X-bar theory.
- a partitive article indicates an indefinite quantity of a mass noun; there is no partitive article in English, though the words some or any often have that function. An example is French du / de la, as in Voulez-vous du café ? ("Do you want some coffee?") Some languages such as Swahili rarely use articles, indicating such distinctions in other ways or not at all. Some other languages, including Latin, Chinese, Japanese, Russian, Tamil and Thai do not have them at all and definiteness may be indicated by words meaning "one" and "that" or by word order. In Northern England the definite article 'the' is often dropped, for example "I'm going down pub". Other languages, including Welsh and Hebrew and the constructed languages Esperanto or Ido, have definite articles, but no indefinite articles. For example, in Welsh, the house is y tŷ, while a house is tŷ. In the history of many languages, definite articles formerly were demonstrative pronouns or adjectives; compare the evolution of the Latin demonstrative ille in the Romance languages, becoming French le, Spanish el, and Italian il, while indefinite articles originate or are same as the numeral for one. Many European languages that have grammatical gender usually have their article agree with the gender of the noun (French le 'the' masculine, la feminine). Articles in several languages also change according to the number of the noun. In French, since the plural forms marked on nouns often no longer affect pronunciation, the article marks the number of the noun. When homonyms have a different gender in these languages, the articles can differentiate them, as in Spanish, where la cólera (feminine) is "anger" and el cólera (masculine) is "cholera", or German, where die Steuer (feminine) is "the tax" and das Steuer (neuter) is "the steering-wheel", or Swedish, where en plan (common) is "a plan" and ett plan (neuter) is "a plane". The use of articles may vary between languages. For example, French uses its definite article in cases where English uses no article, such as in general statements about a mass noun: Le maïs est un grain ("Maize is a grain"). Both ancient and modern Greek use the definite article with proper names: ho Iēsoûs ("the Jesus"), and, optionally, before both a noun and each of its adjectives: ho patēr ho agathós (literally, "the father the good"; naturally, "the good father"). In Portuguese, proper names are preceded by an article, except if language is formal and there is no title before the name. Similarly, in German colloquial speech you may say "Ich habe mit der Claudia gesprochen" (literally, "I have with the Claudia spoken"); also, in colloquial northern Italian, phrases like "Ho parlato col Marco" ("I have spoken with the Marco) are common, and Catalan grammar prescribes constructions such as He parlat amb la Gemma (lit. "I have spoken with the Gemma"). By the same token, the words used as English articles have other grammatical functions. See A, an. In Scandinavian languages, the definite article can be a suffix. In Swedish, planen is "the plan", and planet is "the plane", and a double definite article is possible, in which a free-standing article (det, den, de) and the definite article suffix are used together (det vita planet "the white plane"). Curiously, planen is also the plural definite form for the neuter "the planes". Several languages on the Balkans also use suffixes for articles. This is regarded as an effect of the Balkan linguistic union. For example, in Romanian, consulul is 'the consul'. Macedonian and Bulgarian share the pattern; for example, drvo means "tree", while drvoto means "the tree" (durvo and durvoto in Bulgarian).

The, the English grammatical article

Main article: The The word the functions primarily as the definite grammatical article in English. The and that are common developments from the same Old English system. Old English had a definite article se, in the masculine gender, seo, feminine, and þæt, neuter. These words functioned both as demonstrative pronouns and as grammatical articles. In Middle English these had all fallen together into þe, the ancestor of the Modern English word. Because the word the is common in movie and book titles, they are placed invertedly, such as Grudge, The, for convenience when looking for a title. In some northern British dialects of English, "the" is pronounced as [t], usually written in dialect dialogue as t'. In some of those dialects, "the" weakened until it disappeared, for example "Vet left some stuff to treat cow, and charged more than cow is worth.".

Usage

The following discussion is meant to give pointers in the uses of the grammatical articles the and a for non-native speakers. When using English, the can be thought of as similar to a little computer cursor. Where the cursor is resting, one's attention also rests. :The chair ... :It is customary to focus on the word following the word the with the questions 'who', 'where', 'when', 'why', 'what', 'how', and then wait for the rest of the sentence, which should complete the meaning. :The chair is ... :Now it gets interesting - is implies NOW, so the listener should pay attention for a current event! :The chair is broken. :The sentence is completed; the listener sits on that specific chair at his own peril. We may think of the as related to this or that. If you say the chair is broken, you expect the person to know which chair you mean--this chair, that chair, the only chair in the room. We may think of a as meaning one or any one. So if you say a chair is broken it means that only one is broken and it is unknown which one. Consider the difference between these two sentences: I am looking for a book OR I am looking for the book. In the first case, you do not expect your listener to know what book you are looking for. Perhaps you do not even have any particular book in mind (I am looking for a book to read on the plane, but I don't know what book I want.) However, if you say, I am looking for the book, you are telling your listener that you expect him to know what book that is. (I am looking for the book you asked for, or I am looking for the book I lost, or I am looking for the only book in the room, etc.) Usually a plural noun with zero article is used for making a generalization, but for count nouns, we can also use a. Thus: Cats can climb trees and A cat can climb a tree both are telling us something about cats in general, not an unknown cat or a specific cat. We often use the indefinite article (a/an) for first mention and the definite article (the) thereafter, to show that we are talking about the same one we just mentioned. For example: A man walked into a bank. (I don't expect you to know who the man is or what bank he walked into.) The man walked up to a teller, pointed a gun at her, and asked her for money. (same man, but teller, gun and money are new information, first mention.) The teller gave the man the money. (same teller, same man,same money.) The man ran out of the bank and got into a car. (same man, same bank, first mention of car.) In a sentence "__ John was lying on the chair" the noun phrase "__ John" is said to have a zero article rather than no article. Compare to "A book was lying on a chair", here the noun phrase "a book" clearly has an article. Thus it is logical to assume that a noun phrase "___ John" should have an article as well. Generally proper nouns, such as names, are automatically definite and use zero article.

See also


- Determiner

Links


- [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/the.htm The Commonest Word in the Language: The social role of the word 'the']
- [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/definitart.htm The Case for THE: The definite article around the world]

Bibliography

Category:Parts of speech ja:冠詞



Khartoum

Khartoum ( الخرطوم al-Ḫarṭūm "elephant trunk") is the capital of Sudan, as well as the capital of the state of Khartoum. It is located at the point where the White Nile, flowing north from Uganda, meets the Blue Nile, flowing west from Ethiopia. The merged Nile flows north towards Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. The city proper has a population of well over a million inhabitants, making it the second largest city in the country, but forms with its neighbours, joined by bridges, Khartoum North (al-Khartûm Bahrî) and Omdurman (Umm Durmân) a metropolis totalling probably over four million. Khartoum is located at 15°35'17" North, 32°32'3" East (15.588056, 32.534167). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html] The city is home to the University of Khartoum, founded in 1903 as Gordon Memorial College. Other universities are a branch of Cairo University and Khartoum Polytechnic University. Sudan National Museum has important holdings from the numerous ancient civilizations of the region.

Early history

Sudan National Museum Khartoum was founded in 1821 as an outpost for the Egyptian army, but grew as a regional center of trade, including the slave trade. Troops loyal to the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad laid siege to Khartoum starting on March 13, 1884 against the defenders led by British General Charles George Gordon. The heavily damaged city fell to the Mahdists on January 26, 1885. Omdurman was the scene of the bloody battle (September 2, 1898) in which British forces under Sirdar Horatio Kitchener defeated the Mahdist forces defending the city. Horatio Kitchener Horatio Kitchener The town of Khartoum was mainly built by the Greek Community, where they raised the first high-rise buildings in now called Ghamhouria Street. The Greek Embassy and Greek Community block still exists today, reminding the constructive influence of the Greeks throughout Sudan.

Recent history

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Khartoum was the destination for hundreds of thousands of refugees fleeing conflicts in neighboring nations such as Chad, Ethiopia and Uganda. The refugees settled in large slums at the outskirts of the city. From the mid-1980s onward, large numbers of internally displaced from the violence of the Second Sudanese Civil War and Darfur conflict have settled around Khartoum. Following the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings, the United States accused Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda group of responsibility and launched cruise missile attacks (August 20) on the al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Khartoum.

External links


- [http://www.photoglobe.info/spc_khartoum.html Earth from Space] - Khartoum
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=15.589600,32.563477&spn=0.166014,0.234180&t=k&hl=en Satellite picture by Google Maps] Category:Capitals in Africa Category:Cities in Sudan ja:ハルツーム

Egypt

The Arab Republic of Egypt, commonly known as Egypt, (in Arabic: مصر, romanized Misr), is a republic in North Africa. While it is geographically located in Africa, it is sometimes associated with the Middle East for political reasons. Covering an area of about 1,020,000 km², Egypt shares land borders with Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and Israel and the Gaza Strip to the northeast and has coasts on the north and east by the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, respectively. Egypt is the second most populous country in Africa, second only to Nigeria, and the vast majority of its 77 million population (2005) live near the banks of the Nile River (about 40,000 km²), where the only arable agricultural land is found. Large areas of land are part of the Sahara Desert and are sparsely inhabited. The majority of Egyptians today are urban, living in the great Arab population centers of greater Cairo, the largest city in Africa, and Alexandria. Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world's most stunning ancient monuments, including the Giza Pyramids, the Karnak Temple and the Valley of the Kings; the southern city of Luxor contains a particularly large number of ancient artifacts. Today, Egypt is widely regarded as the main political and cultural centre of the Arab and Middle Eastern regions.

Origin and history of the name

Misr, the Arabic and official name for modern Egypt, is of Semitic origin directly cognate with the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם Misráyim meaning "the two straits", and possibly means "a country" or "a state." The ancient name for the country, kemet, or "black land," is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the 'red land' (deshret) of the desert. This name became keme in a later stage of Coptic. The English name "Egypt" came via the Latin word Aegyptus derived from the ancient Greek word Αίγυπτος Aiguptos (see also List of traditional Greek place names), which in turn is derived from the ancient Egyptian phrase ḥwt-k3-ptḥ ("Hwt ka Ptah") meaning "home of the Ka (part of the soul) of Ptah," the name of a temple of the god Ptah at Memphis. For details see the article Copt.

History

Main article: History of Egypt The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom was founded circa 3200 BC by King Menes, and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty, known as the Thirtieth Dynasty, fell to the Persians in 341 BC who dug the predecessor of the Suez canal and connected the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. Later, Egypt fell to the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Persians again. It was the Muslim Arabs who introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the seventh century changing Egypt into a linguistically and mostly ethnically "Arab" nation. Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern even after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub; however, the country also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. Between 1924-1936 there existed a short-lived attempt to model Egypt's constitutional government after the European style of government; known as Egypt's Liberal Experiment. In 1952 a popularly-supported military coup d'état forced King Farouk I, a constitutional monarch, to abdicate in support of his son King Ahmed Fouad II. Finally the Egyptian Republic was declared on 18 June 1953 with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. After Naguib resigned in 1954, Gamal Abdel Nasser, the real architect of the 1952 Revolution, assumed power as President and nationalized the Suez Canal leading to the 1956 Suez Crisis. Nasser came out of the war an Arab hero, and Nasserism won widespread influence in the region. Between 1958 and 1961 Egypt and Syria formed a union known as the United Arab Republic. Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, in which Egypt lost the Sinai to Israel, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat, who presented his takeover in terms of a Corrective Revolution. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and launched the Infitah economic reform, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched a surprise attack on Israel in the October War,which despite not being a complete military success was by most accounts a political victory. Both the United States and the USSR intervened and a cease-fire was reached between Egypt and Israel. In 1979, Sadat made peace with Israel in exchange for the Sinai, a move which sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League (it was readmitted in 1989). Sadat was murdered by a religious fundamentalist in 1981, and succeeded by Hosni Mubarak. Hosni Mubarak

Politics

Main article: Politics of Egypt Egypt has been a republic since 18 June 1953. President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since October 14 1981, following the assassination of former President Anwar Sadat on October 6 1981. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling National Democratic Party. Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from his office. The permanent headquarters for the League of Arab States is located in Cairo. Egypt was the first Arab state to establish peace with the State of Israel after the signing of the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty after the Camp David Accords. Egypt also has a major influence on the other Arab states. Historically, Egypt has played the role of a mediator in resolving disputes of various Arab nations. Most Arab nations still use Egypt in that role. Egypt supposedly operates under a multi-party semi-presidential system where the executive power is divided between the President and the Prime Minister. Egypt holds regular single-candidate presidential and multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election was held in September 2005, in which Mubarak won again. However, after the September elections there has been expressed concern from international human rights observers concerning freedom of speech, government interference in local elections and vote-rigging. I had been, as previous elections, just a pantomime. There had been many cases of misrespect for the oposition candidates and their followers' human right. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced on a surprise television broadcast that he has ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the coming election. For the first time in Egypt's history, the people will have a chance to elect their leader in a closely watched election. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy." However, the new law places draconian restrictions on the filing of presidential candidacies designed to pave the road for Mubarak's easy re-election. As a result most Egyptians are sceptical about the process of democratisation and the role of elections. As expected, Mubarak was re-elected. Newspapers however have exhibited an increasing freedom in criticizing the president, and the results of the parlimentary elections genuinely indicate that a democratic transition is underway, as evidenced by the strong showing of rival political parties.

Military

Main article: Military of Egypt The Egyptian Armed Forces (Arabic: القوات المسلحة المصرية) consists of the Army, Air Force, Navy and Air Defense. The Coast Guard and Border Guard operate as subordinates to the Navy and Army Command respectively. The Egyptian military is the strongest military power on the African continent, and the second largest in the Middle East, after Israel - (Source: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies' annual Middle East Strategic Balance). The Egyptian Armed Forces also ranks among the most battle-trained armed forces in the region. Its inventory includes F-16s, Mirage 2000 aircraft, Apache helicopters, M1 Abrams Tanks and medium-long range missiles. The Egyptian Armed forces, has a combined troop strength of 450,000 active personel. The Commander-in-Chief is Field Marshal Mohamed Hussein Tantawi. The Chief of Staff is Lt. Gen. Sami Hafez Enan. Conscription is compulsory for egyptian men of 18 years of age. Full-time students may defer their service until the age of 28. The length of the service depend on the level of education achieved by the conscripted. Military relations between Egypt and the US are strong. Military cooperation between the two countries covers a number of strategic areas, including cooperation in the ongoing process of modernising Egyptian armaments and training the Egyptian armed forces. While military cooperation between the US and Egypt is close and diversified this does not constitute a form of military alliance. Nothing could furnish clearer proof of this than the high degree of transparency surrounding all aspects of Egyptian-US military cooperation. Bilateral exercises, mutual training are carried out regularly and according to one US source, reflect the great esteem in which the US holds the high levels of professionalism and commitment and the growing excellence of the fighting men and women in the various branches of the Egyptian armed forces. Egypt take part regularely in military exercises with the US and other European and Arab allies, including the manoeuvres that take place in Egypt every two years. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to United Nations peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia.

Governorates

Liberia Main article: Governorates of Egypt Egypt is divided into 26 governorates (Muhafazat; singular – Muhafazah):

- Aswan
- Asyut
- al-Bahr al-Ahmar (Red Sea)
- Bani Suwayf
- al-Buhayrah
- Bur Sa'id (Port Said)
- ad-Daqahliyah
- Dumyat (Damietta)
- al-Fayyum
- al-Gharbiyah
- al-Iskandariyah (Alexandria)
- al-Isma'iliyah
- Janub Sina' (South Sinai)
- al-Jizah (Giza)
- Kafr ash Shaykh
- Matruh
- al-Minufiyah
- al-Minya
- al-Qahirah (Cairo)
- al-Qalyubiyah
- Qina
- Shamal Sina' (North Sinai)
- ash-Sharqiyah
- Suhaj
- as-Suways (Suez)
- al-Wadi al-Jadid (New Valley)

Foreign relations

al-Wadi al-Jadid al-Wadi al-Jadidal-Wadi al-Jadid al-Wadi al-Jadid and the Middle East]]Middle Easts]]Middle East]]Middle East Geography, population, history, military strength, and diplomatic expertise give Egypt extensive political influence in the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of Arab commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development. The League of Arab States headquarters is in Cairo. The Secretary General of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996. Egypt is on good terms with all of its neighbours, and was the first Arab nation to make peace with Israel. It has a territorial dispute with Sudan over the Hala'ib Triangle.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Egypt Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than 5 million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Gulf area like UAE, and Europe. The United States as well has a large population of Egyptian immigrants. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to ready the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructure, much financed from U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of 2.2 billion dollars per year). Egypt is the third largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Economic conditions are starting to improve considerably after a period of stagnation due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Egypt Egypt is the most populous country in the Arab world, at about 77,500,000 people. Nearly all the population is concentrated along the River Nile, notably Alexandria and Cairo, and along the Nile Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity (primarily the Coptic denomination). The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people. In the northern part of the country, North African and Mediterranean elements are more predominant, and the south is home to populations more closely related to Ethiopians and Somalis from the Horn of Africa. The bulk of the modern Egyptian people still maintain a homogenous genetic tie to ancient Egyptian society, which has always been regarded as rural and most populous compared to the neighboring demographics. The Egyptian people have spoken only languages from the Afro-Asiatic family (previously known as Hamito-Semitic) throughout their history starting with Old Egyptian, to modern Egyptian-Arabic. Ethnic minorities include a small number of Bedouin Arab nomads in the Sinai and eastern and western deserts, as well as a Nubian minority clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt who are estimated for about 0.8% of the population. The once-vibrant Jewish community in Egypt has disappeared, but several important archeological and historical sites remain.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Egypt Geography of Egypt Towns and cities include Alexandria, Aswan, Asyut, Cairo, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Giza, Hurghada, Luxor, Kom Ombo, Port Safaga, Port Said, Sharm el Sheikh, Shubra-El-Khema, Suez, Zagazig,Al-Minya. Deserts: Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert Oases include: Bahariya Oasis, Dakhleh Oasis, Farafra Oasis, Kharga Oasis, Siwa Oasis. Egypt borders on Libya on the west, on Sudan on the south and on Israel on the northeast. It controls the Suez Canal between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: as a land bridge between Africa and Asia, and as a passage between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Egypt Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. The Egyptian Academy of the Arabic Language is responsible for regulating the Arabic Language throughout the world. Egypt also hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University, the oldest Islamic institution for higher studies (founded around 970 CE) with its corresponding mosque Al-Azhar. The head of Al-Azhar is traditionally regarded as the supreme leader of Sunni Muslims all over the world. Egypt also has a strong Christian heritage as evidenced by the existence of the Coptic Orthodox Church headed by the Patriarch of Alexandria, which has a following of approximately 50 million Christians worldwide (one of the famous Coptic Orthodox Churches is Saint Takla Haimanot Church in Alexandria http://www.St-Takla.org). Though considered a low-income country, Egypt has a thriving media and arts industry, with more than 30 satellite channels and more than 100 motion pictures produced each year. To bolster its media industry, especially with the keen competition from the Persian Gulf states and Lebanon, it has built a large media city that it has promoted as the "Hollywood of the East". Egypt is the only Arab country with an opera house. Some famous Egyptians include:
- Gamal Abdel Nasser (former president)
- Boutros Boutros-Ghali (former Secretary General of the United Nations)
- Naguib Mahfouz (Nobel Prize-winning novelist)
- Umm Kulthum (singer)
- Omar Sharif (actor)
- Ahmed Zewail (Nobel Prize-winning chemist)
- Mohamed ElBaradei (Head of the International Atomic Energy Agency and Winner of the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize)
- Anwar Sadat (former president and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize)

See also


- Communications in Egypt
- Coptic Christianity
- Egyptian mythology
- Egyptian pyramids
- History of the Jews in Egypt
- History of Armenians in Egypt
- List of Egypt-related topics
- List of Egyptian companies
- List of famous Egyptian people
- List of writers from Egypt
- Military of Egypt
- Music of Egypt
- Transportation in Egypt
- Corruption in Egypt

References


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-

External links

Government


- [http://www.egypt.gov.eg/ Official Egyptian Government Portal]
- [http://www.investment.gov.eg/ Egyptian Investment Portal] official government site
- [http://www.sis.gov.eg/ Egypt State Information Service] official government site
- [http://www.presidency.gov.eg/ The Egyptian Presidency]
- [http://www.parliament.gov.eg/EPA/en/Index.jsp The People Assembly of Egypt]
- [http://www.shoura.gov.eg/ Egyptian Shoura Council]

News


- [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/ Al-Ahram Weekly]
- [http://allafrica.com/egypt/ AllAfrica – Egypt] news
- [http://www.egypttoday.com/ Egypt Today] magazine
- [http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/ Business Today Egypt] magazine
- [http://story.news.yahoo.com/fc?cid=34&tmpl=fc&in=World&cat=Egypt Yahoo! News Full Coverage – Egypt] headline links

Overviews


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm BBC News Country Profile - Egypt]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/eg.html CIA World Factbook - Egypt]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c3729.htm US State Department - Egypt] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Egypt Open Directory Project - Egypt] directory category
- [http://www.joinafrica.com/countries1/Egypt/people.htm Joinafrica.com - Egypt]

Education

See: List of Egyptian universities
- [http://www.worldwide.edu/ci/egypt/index.html Study Destinations in Egypt]
- [http://www.scu.eun.eg/eng/scu-eng.htm/ Supreme Council of Universities] U suck

Tourism

See: List of museums in Egypt
-
- [http://www.touregypt.net/ Tour Egypt] (Association of Egyptian Travel Businesses)
- [http://www.egypt-travelguide.com/ Egypt Hotel & Travel Guide]
- [http://www.eternalegypt.org/ Journey through Eternal Egypt]
- [http://ancient-egypt.blogspot.com/ History of Ancient Egypt]

Other


- [http://www.fonsvitae.com/archit.html CAIRO - 1001 Years of Islamic Art and Architecture (Video series in four parts)]
- [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/egypt.html Egypt Maps - Perry-Castañeda Map Collection]
- [http://ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/Egypt Egypt Photo Galleries] Pictures from a visit in December 2004
- [http://st-takla.org/Egypt-1.html Egypt through the ages..]
- [http://www.egyptianculture.net Egyptian Mythology]
- Khnumhotep & Niankhkhnum
- [http://en.jurispedia.org/index.php/Egypt Egyptian law] from Jurispedia
Category:Arab League Category:Near Eastern countries Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:African Union member states Category:Bicontinental countries zh-min-nan:Ai-ki̍p als:Ägypten ko:이집트 ms:Mesir ja:エジプト simple:Egypt th:ประเทศอียิปต์

Eritrea

:This article is about the African nation. For the Greek city, see Eretria. The State of Eritrea (from the Italian form of the Greek name ΕΡΥΘΡΑΙΑ (Erythraîa; see also List of traditional Greek place names), which derives from the Greek name for the Red Sea) is a country in northeast Africa. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast. The east and northeast of the country has an extensive coastline with the Red Sea. Having achieved independence on May 24, 1993 from Ethiopia, it is one of the youngest independent states.

History

Main article: History of Eritrea Eritrea had been ruled by many powers before it was colonised by the Italians in 1885. Previously, the coast was long occupied by the Ottoman Turks, who then left it to their Egyptian heirs in the mid 19th century. The interior, particularly the Christian (predominately Coptic) Kebessa Highlands of Hamasien, Akale Guzai, and Serai, were traditionally loosely associated with the Abyssinian Empire. An Italian Roman Catholic priest by the name of Sapetto purchased the port of Assab from the Afar Sultan (a vassal of the Emperor of Ethiopia) on behalf of an Italian commercial conglomerate. Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the Mahdist rebellion, the British brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through Ethiopia, and in exchange they would allow the Emperor to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians. Emperor Yohannis IV believed this included Massawa, but instead, the port was handed by the Egyptians and the British to the Italians, who united it with the already colonised port of Asab to form a coastal Italian possession. The Italians took advantage of disorder in northern Ethiopia following the death of Emperor Yohannis IV to occupy the highlands, and established their new colony, henceforth known as Eritrea, and achieved recognition by Ethiopia's new Emperor Menelik II. The Italians remained the colonial power in Eritrea until they were defeated by Allied forces in World War II (1941), and Eritrea became a British protectorate. After the war, the United Nations, after a lengthy inquiry in which those who wanted union with Ethiopia and those who wanted independence lobbied the great powers and the U.N. extensively, eventually reached a compromise that the former Italian colony was to join Ethiopia as part of a federation. Eritrea would have its own parliament and administration, and would be represented in the Ethiopian parliament which would function as the Federal Parliament. The Emperor of Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie, would be the monarch of Eritrea and would be represented there by a viceroy. Both unionists and pro-independence people found the federation to be undesirable. By a show of military force in the Eritrean Parliament the federation was dissolved by Ethiopia. The Emperor agreed readily and annexed Eritrea in 1960 even over the serious reservations of his Prime Minister, Aklilu Hapte-Wold, who was ardently in favor of retaining the federation. Promptly, pro-independence Eritreans went into rebellion and launched a long war of independence. They were joined by disaffected federationists who now were convinced Eritrea would be better off as an independent state. The war would last 30 years. The war of Eritrean Independence would escalate considerably after the overthrow of the Ethiopian monarchy in 1974, when a hardline Marxist military junta known as the Derg seized power, and launched a major offensive in Eritrea. The brutality of the government of dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam did much to increase the numbers of the independence movements supporters to the point that Eritreans became almost exclusively pro-independence by the mid-1980s. The liberation struggle was dominated by two movements, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), often refered to as "Jebha", and by the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), often known as "Shaebia". The ELF was dominated by Muslim lowlanders, and was a conservative grass roots movement, whereas the EPLF was dominated by highlanders of Christian background, professing Marxism-Leninism. The ELF received backing from the more conservative Arab governments, whereas the EPLF from the more leftist ones, and some Eastern bloc countries which abandoned it in favor of the Derg regime in Ethiopia upon the Ethiopian revolution. The ELF and EPLF made attempts to consolidate their operations, but soon found that they could not work together. The ELF was eventually overshadowed and eliminated by the EPLF. The long war ended in 1991, when joint Eritrean and rebellious Ethiopian forces defeated the Ethiopian army, and the Derg regime fell. Two years later, after a referendum, Eritrean independence was declared. The leader of the EPLF, Isaias Afewerki, became Eritrea's first Provisional President. The Eritrean Peoples Liberation front (EPLF or Shaebia), became the sole legal ruling party, and changed its name to the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ). In 1998, a border war with Ethiopia resulted in the deaths of thousands of soldiers from both countries, and subjected Eritrea to significant economic and social stresses, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of Africa's more severe landmine problems. The Ethiopian government, once firm allies of the Eritrean authorities, expelled large numbers of Eritreans and Ethiopians of Eritrean heritage from Ethiopia at the outset of the war. These once-prosperous people found themselves suddenly dispossessed and dropped off in the border zone between the two countries, adding to the serious displaced-persons problem. In spite of initially promising economic and political strides, the Eritrean government cracked down on the free press and on opposition in 2001 when questions about the conduct of the war were raised. The government also failed to implement the new Constitution and to hold long-promised elections. Later, the government of Eritrea enforced the Italian colonial practice of requiring government approval of all practiced religions. Currently approved religions are the Eritrean Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Eritrean Mekane Yesus Evangelical Lutheran Church, and Islam. All other sects were suppressed across the country, especially the fundamentalist Evangelical Protestant Christians and Jehovah's Witnesses. The Eritrean-Ethiopian War ended in 2000 with a negotiated agreement known as the Algiers Agreement. One of the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the United Nations Mission in Eritrea and Ethiopia (UNMEE); over 4,000 UN peacekeepers remain as of August 2004. Another term of the Algiers Agreement was the establishment of a final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia. An independent, UN-associated boundary commission known as the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), after extensive study, issued a final border ruling in April 2002, but its decision was rejected by Ethiopia. As of October 2005 the border question remains in dispute, even while a tentative and tense ceasefire remains in place.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Eritrea Politics of Eritrea The National Assembly of 150 seats, formed in 1993 shortly after independence, elected the current president, Isaias Afewerki. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled. Independent local sources of political information on Eritrean domestic politics are scarce; in September 2001 the government closed down all of the nation's privately owned print media, and outspoken critics of the government have been arrested and held without trial, according to various international observers, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. In 2004 the U.S. State Department declared Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC) for its record of religious persecution (see below). External issues include the border conflict with Ethiopia and the Sudan. After a high-level delegation to the Sudan from the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign Affairs ties are being normalized. The conflict with Ethiopia remains of primary concern and the stalemate has led the President to urge the UN to take action. This request is outlined in the Eleven Letters ( http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Eleven_Letters ) penned by the President.

Regions

Country of Particular Concern] Main article: Regions of Eritrea Eritrea is divided into 6 regions: # Central (Maekel) # Southern (Debub) # Gash-Barka # Anseba # Northern Red Sea (Semienawi-Keih-Bahri) # Southern Red Sea (Debubawi-Keih-Bahri)

Geography

Main article: Geography of Eritrea right Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea. The country is virtually bisected by the world's longest mountain range, the Great Rift Valley, with fertile lands to the west and the descent to desert in the East. Off the sandy and arid coastline is situated the Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds. The land to the south, in the highlands, is slightly less dry and cooler. Eritrea at the southern end of the Red Sea is the home of the fork in the rift. The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone (USGS). The highest point of the country, Soira, is located in the centre of Eritrea, at 3018 m above sea level. The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and the port town of Assab in the southeast, as well as the towns of Massawa and Keren.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Eritrea Since independence from Ethiopia, Eritrea has faced the economic problems of a small, desperately poor country. Like the economies of many African nations, the economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture, with 80% of the population involved in farming and herding. The Ethiopia-Eritrea war severely hurt Eritrea's economy. GDP growth in 1999 fell to less than 1%, and GDP decreased by 8.2% in 2000. The May 2000 Ethiopian offensive into northern Eritrea caused some $600 million in property damage and loss, including losses of $225 million in livestock and 55,000 homes. The attack prevented planting of crops in Eritrea's most productive region, causing food production to drop by 62%. Even during the war, Eritrea developed its transportation infrastructure, asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war-damaged roads and bridges. Eritrea's economic future remains mixed. The cessation of Ethiopian trade, which mainly used Eritrean ports before the war, leaves Eritrea with a large economic hole to fill. Eritrea's economic future depends upon its ability to master fundamental social problems like illiteracy, unemployment, and low skills, and to convert its diaspora money and expertise into economic growth.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Eritrea Demographics of Eritrea Eritrea's two main ethnic groups are the Tigrigna, who represent about half of the population, and the Tigre , who are about 40%. The remaining people are the Kunama, Afar, Bilen, Hidareb, Nara, Rashaida, and Saho. The local Tigrigna and the wider Arabic language are the two predominant languages for official purposes, but English and Italian are also spoken. Dahlik is a newly discovered language spoken on the Dahlak Archipelago.

Religion

The dominant religions are Christianity and Islam, each group representing roughly 50% of the population. The Christians consist primarily of the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church, which is the local Oriental Orthodox church, but small groups of Roman Catholics and Protestants also exist. Members of the Eritrean Orthodox Church are sometimes described as Coptic Christians because the hierarchy of that church was formerly subject to that of the Tawahido Church of Ethiopia, which was in turn formerly (before 1950) subject to the Coptic Pope. But the word Coptic means Egyptian or indigenous (pre-Arab) Egyptian, and so is a misnomer. The Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox churches are still in full communion with the Coptic Church in Egypt. In 1993 the Eritrean Orthodox Church was granted autocephaly, and in 1998 the Archbishopric of Asmara, the young nation's capital, was elevated to the rank of patriarchate of Eritrea, within the Coptic church. The vast majority of Muslims in Eritrea are Sunni Muslims. As of May 2002, the government of Eritrea only officially recognizes the Islamic, Catholic, Orthodox and Evangelical Lutheran churches (the Eritrean Orthodox Church belongs to the Oriental Orthodox Communion, not to the Eastern Orthodox Communion). Other religions are not registered and cannot worship freely. The government's registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information in order to be allowed worship. See also Eritrean Orthodox Church.

Culture

Eritrean Orthodox Church :Main article: Culture of Eritrea
- Cuisine of Eritrea
- Music of Eritrea

Miscellaneous topics


- Communications in Eritrea
- Foreign relations of Eritrea
- List of Eritreans
- Military of Eritrea
- Music of Eritrea
- Transportation in Eritrea
  - Eritrean Railway
- Zula

Further reading


- James Firebrace & Stuart Holand, Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development and Liberation in Eritrea
- Jordan Gebre-Medhin, Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea
- Lionel Cliffe & Basil Davidson, The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace
- Michela Wrong (2005), I Didn't Do It For You: how the world betrayed a small African nation, Fourth Estate
- Michela Wrong, New Statesman, 30 August 2004, [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4703_133/ai_n6247131 "Fertile ground for the bad guys"]
- Roy Pateman, Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning

External links

Government


- [http://shabait.com/ Shabait] The State of Eritrea Ministry of Information
- [http://www.shaebia.org Shaebia:] PFDJ's Official party website.
- [http://eritrea.embassyhomepage.com/ Eritrean Embassy in London] government information and links

News


- [http://alenalki.com/ Alenalki] From Europe
- [http://eri24.com/ Eritrean News wire]
- [http://ertra.com/ Ertrean news]
- [http://news.asmarino.com Asmarino] from California (Private)
- [http://dehai.org Dehai] news mailing list archive ( Public forum)
- [http://allafrica.com/eritrea/ AllAfrica.com - Eritrea] news headline links
- [http://awate.com/ Awate] From California (Private)

Overviews


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070813.stm BBC News Country Profile - Eritrea]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/er.html CIA World Factbook - Eritrea]
- [http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Eritrea.html Encyclopedia of the Nations - Eritrea]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/er/ US State Department - Eritrea] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Directories


- [http://yellowpages.eryp.com International Eritrean Yellowpages]
- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Eritrea.html Columbia University Libraries - Eritrea] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Eritrea/ Open Directory Project - Eritrea] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/eritrea.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Eritrea] directory category

Tourism


-

Other


- [http://alenalki.com/ Alenalki Eritrean Web site:] From Europe
- [http://home.planet.nl/~hans.mebrat/ Eritrea:] Hans van der Splinter's very comprehensive site about Eritrea, his wife's homeland
- [http://www.erisound.com EriSound:] Live 24/7 Eritrean music.
- [http://www.eritreancommunity.com EritreanCommunity.com:] Eritrean Radio, Photo Gallery, Forum, News, Chat.
- [http://www.emdhr.org Eritrean Movement for Democracy and Human Rights] South African community-based civic organization Category:African Union member states
- Category:Italian colonies Category:Former Italian colonies zh-min-nan:Eritrea ko:에리트레아 ms:Eritrea ja:エリトリア simple:Eritrea

Ethiopia

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (Amharic ኢትዮጵያ Ityopp'ya) is a country situated in the Horn of Africa. It has one of the most extensive known histories as an independent nation on the continent, or indeed in the world. Unique among African countries, Ethiopia maintained independence during the Scramble for Africa, and continued to do so except for a 5 year period when it was under Italian occupation. Ethiopia was historically called Abyssinia. The English name "Ethiopia" is derived from the Greek word Αἰθιοπία Æthiopia, from Αἰθίοψ Æthiops ‘an Ethiopian’ -- sometimes parsed by Westerners as a purely Greek term meaning "of burnt (αιθ-) visage (ὄψ)"; however, older Ethiopian sources state that the name is derived from "'Ityopp'is", a son of Cush, son of Ham who according to legend founded the city of Aksum.

History

The Kingdom of Aksum, the first verifiable kingdom of great power to rise in Ethiopia, rose during the first century AD. The Persian religious figure Mani listed Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his time. It was in the early 4th century that a Syro-Greek castaway, Frumentius, was taken to the court and eventually converted king Ezana to Christianity, thereby making it official. For this accomplishment, he received the title "Abba Selama". At various times, including a period in the 6th century, Axum controlled most of modern-day Yemen just across the Red Sea. The line of rulers descended from the Axumite kings was broken several times: first by the Jewish Queen Gudit around 950, then by the Zagwe dynasty. Around 1270, the Solomonid dynasty came to control Ethiopia, claiming descent from the kings of Axum. They called themselves Neguse Negest ("King of Kings," or Emperor), basing their claims on their direct descent from Solomon and the queen of Sheba. During the reign of Emperor Lebna Dengel, Ethiopia made its first successful diplomatic contact with a European country, Portugal. This proved to be an important development, for when the Empire was subjected to the attacks of the Somali General and Imam, Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (called "Grany", or "the Left-handed"), Portugal responded to Lebna Dengel's plea for help with an army of 400 men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule. However, Jesuit missionaries eventually offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians, and in the mid-17th century Emperor Fasilidos expelled these missionaries. At the same time, the Oromo people began to question the Ethiopian Christian authorities in the Abyssinian territories, and demanded to keep their own religion. All of this contributed to Ethiopia's isolation during the 1700s. The Emperors became figureheads, controlled by warlords like Ras Mikael Sehul of Tigray. Ethiopian isolationism ended following a British mission that concluded an alliance between the two nations; however, it was not until the reign of Tewodros II that Ethiopia began to take part in world affairs once again. Tewodros II The 1880s were marked by the European colonization of Africa and