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USS Albacore (SS-218)

USS Albacore (SS-218)

USS Albacore (SS-218) was a Gato-class submarine which served in the Pacific during World War II, winning four Presidential Unit Citations and nine battle stars for her service. She sank a total of 13 Japanese ships (totaling 74,100 tons) and damaged five (totaling 29,400 tons). The ships sank included two destroyers, a light cruiser, and the aircraft carrier Taiho.

Beginnings

The Albacore was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for the albacore, a small tuna found in temperate seas throughout the world. Her keel was laid down on 21 April 1941 by the Electric Boat Company in Groton, Connecticut. She was launched on 17 February 1942, two months after Pearl Harbor. She was sponsored by Mrs. Elwin F. Cutts, the wife of Captain Cutts, and commissioned on 1 June 1942, Lieutenant Commander Richard Cross Lake in command.

First Combat Patrol

Following shakedown, the submarine proceeded via the Panama Canal to Pearl Harbor and, from that base on 28 August 1942, began her first war patrol which took her to waters of the north and northeast pass through the coral reef which surrounds the Truk Islands. On 13 September, Albacore sighted two cargo vessels sailing in a column formation and prepared for her first combat action. Lake made a submerged approach and fired three torpedoes at the leading ship and two at the second. One or two torpedoes hit on the first ship; but none struck the second. Albacore claimed to have damaged the leading vessel. Her next enemy contact came on 1 October when the submarine made a night surface attack on a Japanese tanker. She expended seven torpedoes and scored two hits. Although the tanker appeared to be low in the water, she was still able to leave the scene under her own power. On 9 October, Albacore spotted a Zuikaku-class carrier escorted by a heavy cruiser and a destroyer but was depth charged by the escorts and forced to break off her pursuit. The next day, she attacked a freighter. One torpedo hit the mark, and, 12 minutes after firing, the sound of two heavy explosions caused the submarine's crew to presume that they had downed the vessel. Beginning at mid-morning on 11 October, Albacore underwent a series of depth chargings, all of which exploded close aboard. At 1548, the conning officer finally spotted the Japanese attackers, two submarine chasers and an airplane. A third ship equipped with sound gear joined the group and continued the hunt. The ships crisscrossed over Albacore close enough for propeller noise to reverberate throughout the submarine and compelled her to proceed under silent running conditions. After a chase of nearly seven hours, the Japanese ships disappeared astern, and Albacore then surfaced to clear the immediate area. On 12 October, Albacore headed for Midway Island. Although she had had several opportunities to score during the patrol, Albacore was not credited with any damage to Japanese shipping. The submarine arrived at Midway Island on 20 October and commenced a refit.

Second Combat Patrol - The sinking of the Tenryu

With her refurbishing completed and a new 20-millimeter gun installed, Albacore sailed on 11 November 1942 for her second patrol. Her assigned areas were the Roger St. George's Channel, New Britain, along the east coast of New Guinea to Vitiaz Strait, and the Dallman Pass off Madang harbor. On 24 November, the submarine spotted a convoy of two cargo vessels and their escorts. Albacore maneuvered into position and fired two stern tubes, but neither torpedo found its target. Two days later, on 26 November, Albacore herself became the quarry. Two Japanese destroyers depth charged her and the explosions caused numerous small leaks around the cable packing glands in the pressure hull. After a two-hour chase, the Japanese retired, and Albacore shifted her patrol area to Vitiaz Strait. Another golden opportunity arose on 13 December, when Albacore found three Japanese destroyers. She released a three-torpedo spread but again was unsuccessful. On 18 December, Albacore was stationed in the area of Madang, New Guinea. The submarine discovered what seemed to be a transport and a destroyer. Albacore torpedoed the "transport," and it exploded in a mass of flames and sank. Albacore had in fact downed the light cruiser Tenryu, a 3300-ton vessel and the second Japanese cruiser sunk by an American submarine in World War II. Albacore put into port at Brisbane, Australia, on 30 December 1942.

Third Combat Patrol

After an overhaul of her engines, Albacore got underway on 20 January 1943 to begin her third patrol. Off the north coast of New Guinea, she spotted 11 targets in as many days. The first group, encountered on 20 February, consisted of a destroyer and a frigate escorting a minelayer. Albacore fired ten torpedoes and believed she had downed the destroyer and damaged the frigate. In the following days, Albacore attacked one tanker, several freighters, and another destroyer. Of eight torpedoes expended during these actions, all missed their targets. When Albacore ended her patrol at Brisbane on 11 March, she was credited with sinking one destroyer and a frigate for a total of 2250 tons.

Fourth Combat Patrol

Albacore was briefly dry-docked for repairs and underwent refresher training before sailing for a fourth patrol on 6 April 1943. This time, her area was around the Solomon Islands and Bismarck Islands and off the north coast of New Guinea. While she sighted several convoys, she recorded no hits. Albacore returned to Brisbane on 26 May. While Albacore was being refitted at that port, Lieutenant Commander Oscar E. Hagberg relieved Lieutenant Commander Lake in command of the submarine.

Fifth & Sixth Combat Patrols

On 16 June 1943, Albacore was underway for her fifth patrol and waters surrounding the Bismarck Islands and Solomon Islands. During this patrol, she sighted three separate convoys and attacked two. Albacore claimed to have damaged a transport on 19 July but the submarine failed to sink any vessels. Albacore arrived back at Brisbane and began a refit alongside Fulton (AS-11). On 23 August, Albacore left to patrol roughly the same area as on her previous assignment. She spotted a Japanese submarine on 31 August but was unable to press home an attack. On 4 September she encountered a two-ship convoy protected by two escorts and sank one of the ships, Heijo Maru, with three torpedo hits made shortly after the initial contact. The submarine then pursued the other vessel for the next two days but was able only to inflict minor hull damage on her target. She terminated her patrol at Brisbane on 26 September.

Seventh Combat Patrol - Friendly Fire

Albacores seventh patrol began on 12 October 1943. She fired six torpedoes at a large merchant ship on 25 October but recorded no hits. On 6 November, she received a report of a convoy which had been spotted by Steelhead (SS-280), and began to search for it. On 8 November, the submarine found the convoy and started to track it. However, a plane from the 5th Air Force bombed her and caused her to lose contact with the Japanese ships. The submarine sustained no damage from this attack. Albacore was again bombed by an American aircraft on 10 November. This time, the submarine suffered considerable damage. All auxiliary power was knocked out, and the submarine was plunged into total darkness. The main induction valve went under before it was shut and began filling up with water. Albacore plunged to a depth of 450 feet before her dive was checked. For the next two and one-half hours, she bounced between 30 feet and 400 feet while at various attitudes. She finally managed to return to the surface with her trim almost restored. The submarine resubmerged, and it was decided to continue the patrol while simultaneously making necessary repairs.
Eighth Combat Patrol
Following this ordeal, Albacore received orders to locate and attack the light cruiser Agano, which had been hit and damaged by Scamp (SS-277). Albacore found Agano on 12 November 1943 and tried to attack, but Japanese destroyers held the submarine down with a four-hour depth charge barrage. On her return to Brisbane on 5 December, Lieutenant Commander James W. Blanchard relieved Hagberg of command. Albacore departed Australia on the day after Christmas 1943 to patrol north of the Bismarck Islands. She spotted her first target on 12 January 1944 and sank cargo vessel Choko Maru with two separate torpedo attacks. Two days later, she blew up the destroyer Sazanami with four shots from her stern tubes. Following more than a fortnight of uneventful patrolling, the submarine headed home. She made brief fuel stops at Tulagi and Midway Island before reaching Pearl Harbor on 22 February. After three days of voyage repairs, Albacore continued on to the Mare Island Navy Yard in Vallejo, California, for overhaul.
Ninth Combat Patrol
Albacore left Mare Island on 5 May 1944 and held training exercises with Shad (SS-235) en route to Hawaii. The submarine reached Pearl Harbor on 13 May and spent the next two weeks on final repairs and training. Albacore began her ninth patrol on 29 May and was assigned waters west of the Mariana Islands and around the Palau Islands. During the next few days, she made only one contact a Japanese convoy which she encountered on 11 June. However before the submarine could maneuver into attack position, a Japanese aircraft forced her to dive and lose contact. On the morning of 18 June, two days after American forces began landing on Saipan, Albacore shifted from her position west of the Mariana Islands to a new location 100 miles further south. Admiral Chester Nimitz had ordered this move in the hope of enabling the submarine to intercept a Japanese task force under Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa reportedly steaming from Tawi Tawi toward Saipan. At about 0800 the next morning, 19 June, Albacore raised her periscope and found herself in the midst of Ozawa's main carrier group. Blanchard allowed one Japanese carrier to pass unharmed and selected a second one for his target. He fired six bow tubes. Three Japanese destroyers immediately charged Albacore. While the submarine was diving to escape, her crew heard one solid torpedo explosion. About that same time, 25 depth charges began raining down on the submarine. Then Blanchard heard "a distant and persistent explosion of great force" followed by another.

The Sinking of the Taiho

One of the torpedoes had hit Ozawa's flagship, the 31,000-ton carrier Taiho, the newest and largest floating air base in the Japanese fleet. The explosion jammed the enemy ship's forward aircraft elevator, and filled its pit with gasoline, water, and aviation fuel. However, no fire erupted, and the flight deck was unharmed. Ozawa was unconcerned by the hit and launched two more waves of aircraft. Meanwhile, a novice took over the damage control responsibilities. He believed that the best way to handle gasoline fumes was to open up the ship's ventilation system and let them disperse throughout the ship. This action turned the ship into a floating time bomb. At 1330, a tremendous explosion jolted Taiho and blew out the sides of the carrier. Taiho began to settle in the water and was clearly doomed. Although Admiral Ozawa wanted to go down with the ship, his staff persuaded him to transfer to the cruiser Haguro. After Ozawa left, Taiho was torn by a second explosion and sank stern first, carrying down 1650 officers and men. No one on Albacore thought Taiho had sunk. Blanchard was angry for "missing a golden opportunity." After this action Albacore was assigned lifeguard duty for planes striking Yap and Ulithi. On 2 July, Albacore shifted over to intercept traffic between Yap and the Palau Islands. The submarine spotted a wooden inter-island steamer loaded with Japanese civilians. Blanchard decided to stage a surface gun attack. After insuring the ship was afire, Albacore dived to avoid an airplane. The submarine surfaced soon thereafter and picked up five survivors. Albacore put in to Majuro on 15 July. She was praised for an aggressive patrol and received credit for damaging a Shokaku-class carrier. American codebreakers lost track of Taiho after the Battle of the Philippine Sea and, while puzzled, did not realize that she had gone down. "Months and months went by," Blanchard recalled. "Then they picked up a POW someplace who said Taiho went down in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Even then intelligence was doubtful. So I said, 'Keep him alive until he convinces them.'" After confirmation finally had been obtained, Blanchard was awarded a Navy Cross.
The Tenth Combat Patrol
After a refit alongside Bushnell (AS-15), the submarine began her tenth patrol on 8 August 1944. Her assignment was the Bungo Suido-Kii Suido area, and, during this period, Albacore was credited with sinking two Japanese vessels, a cargo ship and a submarine chaser. The patrol ended at Pearl Harbor on 25 September.
The Last Combat Patrol
Albacore left Pearl Harbor on 24 October 1944, topped off her fuel tanks at Midway Island on 28 October, and was never heard from again. According to Japanese records captured after the war, a submarine assumed to be Albacore struck a naval mine very close to the shore off northeastern Hokkaido on 7 November 1944. A Japanese patrol boat witnessed the explosion of a submerged submarine and saw a great deal of heavy oil, cork, bedding, and food supplies rise to the surface. On 21 December, Albacore was assumed to have been lost. Her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 30 March 1945. Albacore won nine battle stars for her service and the Presidential Unit Citation for her second, third, eighth, and ninth patrols during World War II. See USS Albacore for other ships of the same name. (See also List of U.S. Navy losses in World War II)
References
Albacore

Gato class submarine
The Gato-class of submarine was the state of the art in American design at the start of World War II. Using the previous Tambor-class submarine as the model standard, the Gatos incorporated improvements that increased their overall patrolling and combat abilities. Modifications to the diesel engines and batteries increased patrol duration over that of the Tambors, and internal alterations provided more amenities for the crew. The class is named after its lead ship, the USS Gato (SS-212). Several Gato subs are on display in the United States. For instance, the USS Cobia (SS-245) is at the Wisconsin Maritime Museum.
General characteristics

- Displacement: 1825 tons surfaced, 2410 tons submerged
- Length: 312 ft (95 m)
- Beam: 27 ft (8.2 m)
- Draft: 15 ft (4.6 m)
- Depth: 300 ft (90 m)
- Speed: 20.75 knots (38 km/h) surfaced, 8.75 knots (16 km/h) submerged
- Armament: 1 x 3 in (76 mm) 50 caliber gun, 2 x 20 mm cannon, 6 x 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes forward, four aft
- Crew: 65 to 74 officers and men
- Powerplant: 4 x 6500 hp (4.8 MW) diesel engines and 4 x 2740 hp (2.0 MW) electric motors
- Range: 11,800 nautical miles (21,900 km) at 10 knots (18 km/h) surfaced
Boats

External link

- [http://www.wimaritimemuseum.org/sub.htm Wisconsin Maritime Museum]
- Category:Submarine classes

Submarine

:For the sandwich, see Submarine sandwich for the patent type see Submarine patent Submarine patent nuclear ballistic missile (SSBN) submarine]] Submarine patent diesel-electric hunter-killer (SSK) submarine]] Submarine patent diesel-electric guided missile (SSG) submarine]] Submarine patent nuclear attack (SSN) submarine]] A submarine is a specialized watercraft that can operate underwater. Most major navies use submarines. Submarines are also used for marine and freshwater science and for work at depths too great for human divers. Nuclear powered submarines and other large submarines are classed as ships, but are customarily referred to by their crews as "boats". The term U-Boat is sometimes used in English, this comes from the German word for submarine, 'U-Boot', itself an abbreviation for Unterseeboot. Modern attack submarines are known as fast attack subs and generally operate in the hunter-killer role. Large subs carrying strategic nuclear missiles are known as "boomers" in the United States Navy, and "bombers" in the Royal Navy. Submarines encompass one of the largest ranges in capabilities of any vessel. They range from a small two-man vessel that can examine the sea floor for few hours; to underground subsea-level houses built in the 1950s as part of a "Sharing the Ocean" fund; to the Typhoon class, which can remain submerged for months and carry enough nuclear missiles to destroy hundreds of cities. There are a wide variety of specialized submarines: rescue submarines like the DSRV or recently rescued AS-28, or tiny one-person human powered subs intended for competitions between universities. The word submarine was originally an adjective meaning "under the sea". That is why some firms who make diving gear but not parts for submarines, called their work "submarine engineering". "Submarine" as a noun meaning a submersible craft originated as short for "submarine boat"; older books (for example Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea) always call it a "submarine boat". Another underwater device for use in underwater exploration, salvage, and rescue is the diving bell.

Non-military submarines and submersibles

Non-military submarines are usually much smaller than military submarines. Tourist submarines work mainly in tropical resort areas or other areas with clear water and good visibility. In 1996, there were over fifty private submarines operating around the world, serving approximately two million passengers that year. Most of these submarines carried between twenty-five and fifty passengers at a time and sometimes made ten or more dives per day. In design, these submarines borrow mainly from research subs, having large portholes for passengers' viewing and often placing significant mechanical systems outside the hull to conserve interior space. Nonetheless, even aboard tourist submarines the seating can be rather cramped. They are mainly battery-powered and very slow. As of January, 2005, the largest tourist submarine in use was the Atlantis XIV based out of Waikiki beach. The largest Atlantis-class submarine of its fleet, launched in 1994, can carry 64 passengers and 3 crew (two guides and a pilot) to depths of 150 feet (this depth set by the state) to the sea floor off the shores of the island of O'ahu in Hawai'i. There, tourists can view a great number of ocean specimens living around artificial reefs built by the Hawaiian university out of old ships, constructions of metal flotsam, and even a sunken plane, all designed to replace the reefs damaged or destroyed by human habitation of the island.

Submersibles

In common usage, "submarine" means a ship which operates above and below the surface, untethered. Underwater vessels with limited mobility, intended to remain in one place during most of their use, such as those used for rescue, research or salvage purposes are usually called "submersibles". Submersibles are typically transported to their area of operation by surface ships or large submarines. In general, submersibles differ from submarines in that submersibles typically have shorter range, and operate underwater almost exclusively, having little function at the surface. Many submersibles operate on a "tether" or "umbilical", remaining connected to a tender (a submarine, surface vessel or platform). A bathysphere or bathyscaphe is a type of submersible which lacks any self-propulsion. A predecessor of the bathysphere, the diving bell, consisted of a chamber, with an open bottom, lowered into the water A fairly recent development, very small unmanned submersibles called "marine remotely operated vehicles" or MROVs are widely used today to work in water too deep or too dangerous for divers. For example, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) repair offshore petroleum platforms and attach cables to sunken ships to hoist them. Such remotely operated vehicles are attached by a tether (a thick cable providing power and communications) to control center on a ship. Operators on the ship see video images sent back from the robot and may control its propellers and manipulator arm. The wreck of the Titanic was explored by such a vehicle, as well as by a manned vessel.

Military submarines

Titanic There are probably more military submarines in operation than any other type of submarine, though it is difficult to obtain exact figures because navies are secretive about their submarine fleets. Submarines are useful to a military because they are difficult to locate and, especially when deep below the surface, also difficult to destroy. A great deal of attention in the design of a submarine is devoted to making its travel through the water as silent as possible in order to prevent its detection (sound travels underwater much more easily than does light, meaning that a submarine's sound is the distinctive feature most likely to allow its detection). If a submarine remains undetected, it is able to strike at close range. Modern submarines are usually cigar-shaped. This design, already visible on very early submarines (see below) is officially called a "teardrop hull", and was patterned after the bodies of whales. It significantly reduces the hydrodynamic drag on the sub if it's submerged, but decreases the sea-keeping capabilities and increases the drag while surfaced. Since the limitations of the propulsion systems of early military submarines forced them to operate most their time on the surface, their hulls were modeled on those of normal ships. Because of the slow submerged speeds of those subs, usually well below 10 kt, the increased drag for underwater travel was considered acceptable. Only late in World War II, when technology enhancements allowed faster and longer submerged operations and increased surveillance by enemy aircraft forced submarines to stay most of their times below the surface, did hull designs become teardrop shaped again, to reduce drag and noise. With nuclear power, submarines can remain submerged nearly constantly, remaining underwater for months at a time. Diesel submarines, by contrast, must periodically resurface or snorkel to recharge their batteries. Some modern submarines are able to generate oxygen for their crew by electrolysis of water. A raised tower on top of a submarine accommodates the length of the periscope and electronics masts, which can include radio, radar, electronic warfare, and other systems. In many obsolete boat-shaped classes of submarines (see history, below), the Control Room, or "Conn", was located inside this tower, which was known as the "conning tower". Since that time, however, the Conn has been located within the hull of the submarine, and the tower is more commonly called the "sail" today. In another interpretation, "conning tower" comes from the English verb "to con", which means "to navigate", indicating the presence of navigational systems in the conning tower. The Conn should not be confused with the "bridge", which is a small, open platform set into the top of the sail used for visual observation while operating on the surface. There may also be an additional closed platform below this with windows and their wipers for running under conditions of bad weather. English Modern submarines use an Inertial guidance system for navigation while submerged, but drift error build up over time is unavoidable. To counter this, the global positioning system will be occasionally used to obtain an accurate position. The periscope - a retractable tube with prisms allowing a view to the surface - is only used occasionally in modern submarines, since the range of visibility below the sea is short. The Virginia-class submarines have "photonics masts" rather than hull-penetrating optical tube periscopes. These masts still must be hoisted above the ocean surface, and employ electronic sensors for visible light, infra-red, laser range-finding, and electromagnetic surveillance. A typical nuclear submarine can have a crew of over one hundred twenty; non-nuclear boats typically have less than half as many. Their job is one of the most difficult assignments in the navy, because they must work in isolation for long periods, without much contact with their families, since submarines normally maintain radio silence to avoid detection. Operating a submarine is dangerous, even in peacetime; many submarines have been lost in accidents (see history, below).

Types of military submarines

Non-strategic military or attack submarines may be divided in two general types: Nuclear (what the U.S. calls a fast-attack submarine; SSN) or diesel-electric (SS). Nuclear powered submarines are faster and larger, and have more firepower, carrying capacity and longer mission endurance than the diesel-electric submarine. Depending on the submarine's overall mission, the diesel-electric submarine are sometimes more suited for shallow water or littoral operations. To close the gap between the two very different designs several navies have started the development of, air-independent propulsion boats which are in fact diesel-electric submarines with an enlarged diving period. Every known strategic, ballistic-missile carrying submarine (SSBN) operated today is nuclear powered. In regard to tactical nuclear weapons, it is widely rumored that Israel tested nuclear-capable cruise missiles from two German-built Dolphin-class diesel submarines in May 2000 which thus may have reached operational capability today. U.S. SSNs no longer carry nuclear-tipped Tomahawk cruise missiles as a result of nuclear arms control agreements. Some older, Trident class SSBN submarines are however scheduled to be converted to carry multiple conventional-warhead, "guided" Tomahawk missiles and thus become redesignated as an SSGN. Attack submarines carrying missiles or torpedoes and may be nuclear, diesel-electric or air independent powered. Currently obsolete are the tactics which called for groups of specialized submarines, such as the squadrons which contained each of the Japanese Types A, B, and C, of which the first two carried scout seaplanes, and which the first type commanded; or the US Navy's hunter-killer submarines. Other obsolete types include radar-picket submarines, such as USS Triton; specialized mine-layers; and those which carried attack seaplanes, such as the Japanese I-400-class. Outside these categories may fall the many smaller midget submarines, used for sabotage, espionage and secretive transport. Five of this type were used by Japan in the attack on Pearl Harbor. North Korea's submarine fleet, estimated as the fourth-largest in the world in the 1990s, consists largely of smaller vessels. Also outside these categories fall the World War II German milchkuh submarines: submersible supply vessels.

Ballistic Missile Submarines

milchkuh; right, the SNLE-NG (Triomphant type) with the present M45 missile and the future M51 missile.]] Ballistic missile submarines (boomers or SSBN in American slang) carry submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM) with nuclear warheads, for attacking strategic targets such as cities or missile silos anywhere in the world. They are currently universally nuclear-powered, to provide the greatest stealth and endurance. (The first Soviet ballistic missile submarines were diesel-powered.) They played an important part in Cold War mutual deterrence, as both the United States and the Soviet Union had (or could contend to possess) the ability to conduct a retaliatory strike against the other nation in the event of a first strike. This comprised the strategy of Mutual Assured Destruction. Mutual Assured Destruction The U.S. has 18 Ohio-class submarines, of which 14 are Trident II SSBNs, each carrying 24 SLBMs. The American George Washington-class "boomers" were named for "famous Americans", and together with the Ethan Allen, Lafayette, James Madison, and Benjamin Franklin classes, these SSBN's comprised the "41 for Freedom." Later Ohio class submarines were named for states (recognizing the increase in striking power and importance, equivalent to battleships), with the exceptions that some of the "famous Americans" were foreigners and SSBN-730 gained the name of a Senator. The first four Ohio class vessels were equipped with Trident I, and are being converted to carry Tomahawk guided missiles instead. For Russia, see List of NATO reporting names for ballistic missile submarines. List of NATO reporting names for ballistic missile submarines] The British Royal Navy possess a single class of four ballistic missile submarines (what RN call "bombers", for their function), the Vanguard class. The Royal Navy's previous ballistic missile submarine class was the Resolution class which also consisted of four boats. The Resolutions, named after battleships to convey the fact they were the new capital ships, were decommissioned upon Vanguards entering service in the 1990s. France operates a force de frappe including a nuclear ballistic submarine fleet made up of one SSBN Redoutable class and three SSBNs of the Triomphant class. One additional SSBN of the Triomphant class is under construction. The People's Republic of China's People's Liberation Army Navy's SLBM inventory is relatively new. China launched its first nuclear armed submarine in April 1981. The PLAN currently has 5 Hans at 5,000 tons displacement and 1 Xia at roughly 8,000 tons displacement. Both are based on Soviet designs. The Type 91 is outfitted with 6 SLBM launching tubes and the Type 92 is equipped with 12. China's SLBM program is built around its JL-1 inventory. The Chinese Navy is estimated to have 24 JL-1s. The JL-1 is basically a modified DF-21. The PLAN plans to replace its JL-1 with an unspecified number of the longer ranged, more modern JL-2s. Deployment on the JL-2 reportedly began in late 2003.
Attack boats
Submarines designed for the purpose of attacking merchant ships or other warships are known as "fast attacks", "hunter-killers", "fast boats", or "fleet submarines". They typically carry torpedoes for attacking naval vessels, and today carry cruise missiles for attacking either land-based targets or shipping. On American submarines, cruise missiles can be fired horizontally through a submarine's torpedo tubes, or, on newer vessels, via specially designed vertical launch tubes. The former has an effect of reducing the available torpedoes a submarine can carry, while the latter requires it to be reloaded by a submarine tender or by returning to port. The Soviet Navy also developed several types of missile attack submarines (SSGNs), which carried a heavy load of anti-surface missiles, as their primary targets were the U.S.'s primary force-projection vessel, nuclear-powered and conventional aircraft carriers. Attack submarines can use a wide variety of propulsion systems. The majority of non-nuclear submarines use the same diesel-electric combination developed early in the 20th century, many use nuclear power, and a small but growing number use some other form of air-independent propulsion such as fuel cells or Stirling engines. All of the attack submarines of the United States use nuclear power. All American attack submarines (that had actual names rather than just alphanumeric designators) were named for various ocean fish until the Los Angeles class, which are named for cities—with the exceptions of a few named for politicians, the Seawolf class, which received the traditional name for the first, a state name for the second and a Presidential name for the third (and last), and now the Virginia class, where the first six are named after states. Until the 1980s, Russian attack submarines were designed around the concept of Anti-Surface Warfare so they tended to be fast and noisy. Due primarily to a U.S. sailor and communications technician that betrayed his country, John Anthony Walker, Russia learned NATO naval forces could track them quite easily and over time redesigned their submarines to operate much more quietly. The Victor III was the first class of Russian submarine to be built with this new mentality, armed with torpedoes, SUBROCs, and cruise missiles, they posed a more significant threat to NATO sea power. Today Russian Akula (Shark), Sierra, and Graney class submarines continue in design innovation and are respected as some of the finest submarines in the world. Graney Just before the 1990s, the Royal Navy consisted of diesel and nuclear powered submarines but, due to the end of the Cold War, defense cuts saw the RN submarine fleet became all-nuclear, presently consisting of the Swiftsure and Trafalgar class submarines, the latter named after the Battle of Trafalgar. The boats are armed with torpedoes, Harpoon anti-ship missiles and many are now armed with the Tomahawk cruise missile, which is fired from their torpedo tubes. The RN intends to have all of its attack submarines armed with the Tomahawk by 2008. During the Kosovo War, HMS Splendid became the first RN submarine to fire a Tomahawk in anger. The expected replacement of those classes is the Astute-class submarine, but delays have seen the expected launch of the first A class, HMS Astute, moved to 2009. Royal Navy submarines classes, including ballistic missile submarines, are letter-based; thus, all boats of the Swiftsure class begin with the letter S and the Trafalgars, the letter T. Though this has been the way with all Royal Navy submarines, they were originally designated alphanumerically, such as HMS A1 of the A-class of 1903 (built by the pioneer designer, American John P. Holland). Today the role of all these attack boats has changed considerably since the end of the Cold War. U.S. fast boats no longer prowl the deep oceans in the hunt for the elusive Soviet, instead their job today is that of providing cruise missile support, early warning and intelligence gathering, harbor mine clearing, Special Operation Warfare team delivery, and others. The Virginia class was specifically designed for this multiple-mission capability in mind.
History of submarines

Early history of submarines and the first submersibles
A far ancestor for a submarine is probably a 17th century Ukrainian Cossack riverboat called chaika (gull) that was used underwater for reconnaissance and infiltration missions. Chaika could be easily capsized and submerged so that the crew was able to breathe underneath (like in modern diving bell) and propel the vessel by walking on the bottom of river. Special plummets (for submerging) and pipes for additional breathing have been used. diving bell submarine.]] The first submersible for which there is reliable information that it was really built, is the one constructed in 1620 by Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I. It was propelled by means of oars. The precise nature of the type is a matter of some controversy, some claiming it was merely a bell towed by a boat. There were two improved types, tested below the surface of the Thames between 1620 and 1624. Though the first submersible vehicles were tools for exploring under water, it did not take long for inventors to recognize their military potential. The strategic advantages of submarines were set out by Bishop John Wilkins of Chester in Mathematicall Magick in 1648. #Tis private: a man may thus go to any coast in the world invisibly, without discovery or prevented in his journey. #Tis safe, from the uncertainty of Tides, and the violence of Tempests, which do never move the sea above five or six paces deep. From Pirates and Robbers which do so infest other voyages; from ice and great frost, which do so much endanger the passages towards the Poles. #It may be of great advantages against a Navy of enemies, who by this may be undermined in the water and blown up. #It may be of special use for the relief of any place besieged by water, to convey unto them invisible supplies; and so likewise for the surprisal of any place that is accessible by water. #It may be of unspeakable benefit for submarine experiments.
The first military submarines
1648 The first military submarine was Turtle, a hand-powered egg-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell, to accommodate a single man. It was the first verified submarine, capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. During the American Revolutionary War, Turtle (operated by Sgt. Ezra Lee, Continental Army) tried and failed to sink a British warship, HMS Eagle (flagship of the blockaders) in New York harbor on September 7, 1776. 1776)]] In 1800, France built a Robert Fulton-designed human-powered submarine, the Nautilus, which was used in demonstrations to destroy ships with a mine. The French eventually gave up with the experiment in 1804, as did the British when they later tried the submarine. The Nautilus succeeded in sinking two warships in these demonstrations. During the War of 1812, in 1814 Silas Halsey lost his life while using a submarine in unsuccessful attack on a British warship stationed in New London harbor. In 1851, a Bavarian artillery corporal, Wilhelm Bauer, took a submarine called the Brandtaucher (fire-diver) to sea in Kiel Harbour. This submarine was powered by a treadwheel. It sank and the crew of 3 managed to escape with their lives. The submarine was raised in 1887 and is on display in a museum in Dresden.
Submarines in the American Civil War
treadwheel, first submarine of the US Navy.]] During the American Civil War, the Union was the first to field a submarine. The French-designed Alligator was the first U.S. Navy sub and the first to feature compressed air and an air filtration system. She was the first submarine to carry a diver lock which allowed a diver to exit to plant electrically-detonated mines on enemy ships. Initially powered by oars, she was later converted to a screw propeller. With a crew of 20, she was larger than Confederate submarines. Alligator was 47 feet (14.3 meters) long and about 4 feet (1.2 meters) in diameter. She was lost in a storm off Cape Hatteras on April 1, 1863 while uncrewed and under tow to her first combat deployment at Charleston. The Confederate States of America fielded several human-powered submarines including CSS H. L. Hunley (named for her designer, Horace Hunley) . The first Confederate submarine was the 30-foot long Pioneer which sank a target schooner using a towed mine during tests on Lake Pontchartrain but she was not used in combat. She was scuttled after New Orleans was captured and in 1868 was sold for scrap. CSS Hunley was used for attacking the North's ships, which were blockading the South's seaports. The submarine had a long pole in the bow, upon which was attached an explosive charge, called a spar torpedo. The sub was to sneak up to an enemy vessel, attach the explosive, move away, and then detonate. It was extremely hazardous to operate, and had no air supply other than what was contained inside the main compartment. On two occasions, the sub sank; on the first occasion half the crew died and on the second, the entire eight-man crew (including Hunley himself) drowned. On February 18, 1864 Hunley sank USS Housatonic in the Charleston Harbor, the first time a submarine successfully sank another ship, though she sank in the same engagement shortly after signaling her success. Another Confederate submarine was lost on her maiden voyage in Lake Pontchartrain; she was found washed ashore in the 1870s and is now on display at the Louisiana State Museum. Submarines did not have a major impact on the outcome of the war, but did portend their coming importance to naval warfare and increased interest in their use in naval warfare.
Developments in Submarines in the late 1800s
Louisiana State Museum harbor]] The first mechanically powered submarine was the peroxide driven Ictineo II, launched in 1864 by Narcís Monturiol. The 14 meter long craft was designed to carry a crew of two, dive 30 metres (96 feet), and demonstrated dives of two hours. When on the surface it ran on a steam engine, but underwater such an engine would quickly consume the submarine's oxygen. So Monturiol turned to chemistry to invent an engine that ran on a reaction of potassium chlorate, zinc and manganese peroxide. The beauty of this method was that the reaction which drove the screw released oxygen, which when treated was used in the hull for the crew and also fed an auxiliary steam engine that helped propel the craft under water. In spite of successful demonstrations in the Port of Barcelona, that made him a Catalan hero, he was unable to interest the hide bound naval officials of Spain, or of any other country. In 1870, the French writer, Jules Verne, published the science fiction classic 20,000 Leagues under the Sea, which concerns the adventures of a maverick inventor in Nautilus, a submarine more advanced than any that existed at that time. The fictional story inspired inventors to build more advanced submarines. In 1879, a Manchester curate, the Reverend George Garrett built the steam-powered Resurgam at Birkenhead. Garrett intended to demonstrate the 12m long vehicle to the British Navy at Portsmouth, but had mechanical problems, and while under tow the submarine was swamped and sank off North Wales. The first submarine built in series, however, was human-powered. It was the submarine of the Polish inventor Stefan Drzewiecki—50 units were built in 1881 for Russian government. In 1884 the same inventor built an electric-powered submarine. Discussions between George Garret and Swede Thorsten Nordenfelt led to a series of steam powered submarines. The first was the Nordenfelt I, a 56 tonne, 19.5 metre long spindle shaped vessel similar to the Resurgam, with a range of 240 kilometres and armed with a single torpedo in 1885. Greece, fearful of the return of the Ottomans purchased it. Nordenfelt then built the Nordenfelt II, a 30 metre long submarine with twin torpedo tubes, which he sold to a worried Ottoman navy. Nordenfelt's efforts culminated in 1887 with the Nordenfelt IV, with twin motors and twin torpedoes. It was sold to the worried Russians, but proved unstable, ran aground and was scrapped. 1881 The first fully capable military submarine was the electrically powered vessel built by the Spanish engineer and sailor, Isaac Peral, for the Spanish Navy. It was launched in September 8th, 1888. It had two torpedoes, new air systems, and a hull shape and propeller and cruciform external controls anticipating later designs. Its underwater speed was ten knots, but it suffered from the short range of battery powered systems. In June 1890 Peral's submarine launched the first torpedo fired from a submarine under the sea. Unfortunately the Spanish Navy scrapped the project. Many more submarines were built from this time by various inventors, but they were not to become effective weapons until the 20th century.
Late 1800s to World War I
torpedo The turn of century era marked a pivotal time in the development of submarines, with a number of important technologies making their debut, as well as the widespread adoption and fielding of submarines by a number of nations. Diesel electric propulsion would become the dominant power system and things such as the periscope would become standardized. Large numbers of experiments were done by countries on effective tactics and weapons for submarines, all of which would culminate in them making a large impact on coming World War I. In 1895, the Irish inventor John Philip Holland designed submarines that, for the first time, made use of internal combustion engine power on the surface and electric battery power for submerged operations. In 1902, Holland received . Some of his vessels were purchased by the United States, the United Kingdom, the Imperial Russian Navy, and Japan, and commissioned into their navies around 1900. The US Navy commissioned its first submarine, the USS Holland in 1900, and the Imperial Japanese Navy purchased five similar designs in 1904. 1904 Commissionned in June 1900, the French steam and electric submarine Narval introduced the classic twin-hull design, with an inner hull inside an outer hull. France was "undoubtedly the first navy to have an effective submarine force" (Conway Marine "Steam, Steel and Shellfire"). These 200 tons ships had a radius of over 100 miles on the surface, and over 10 miles underwater. The French submarine Aigette in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large quantities of these submarines were built, so that seventy-six were completed before 1914.
Submarines during World War I
diesel.]] The first time military submarines had significant impact on a war was in World War I. Forces such as the U-boats of Germany saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic. The U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as combination diesel/electric power system that had been developed in the preceding years. More like submersible ships than the submarines of today, U-boats operated primarily on the surface using regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel, to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow.
Interwar developments
keel]] Various new submarine designs were developed during the interwar years. Among the most notorious ones were Submarine aircraft carriers, equipped with waterproof hangar and steam catapult and which could launch and recover one or more small seaplanes. The submarine and her plane could then act as a reconnaissance unit ahead of the fleet, an essential role at a time when radar still did not exist. The first example was the British HMS M2, followed by the French Surcouf, and numerous aircraft-carrying submarines in the Imperial Japanese Navy. The 1929 Surcouf was also designed as an "underwater cruiser," intended to seek and engage in surface combat.
Submarines during World War II

Germany
Germany had the largest submarine fleet during World War II, due to the Treaty of Versailles which limited the surface navy of Germany to six battleships (of less than 10,000 tons), six cruisers and twelve destroyers. Though the Treaty was no longer in effect in the late thirties, the rebuilding of the German surface forces had only begun in earnest a year before the outbreak of World War II. Having no hope of defeating the vastly superior Royal Navy decisively in a surface battle, the German High Command immediately stopped all construction on capital surface ships save the nearly completed Bismarck class battleships and two cruisers and switched the resources to submarines, that could be built within weeks. Though it took most of 1940 to expand the production facilities and get the mass production started, more than a thousand submarines were built until the end of the war. Bismarck class battleships in October 1939. The battlecruiser Scharnhorst is seen in the background.]] Germany put submarines to devastating effect in the Second Battle of the Atlantic in World War II, such as attempting but ultimately failing to cut off Britain's supply routes by sinking more ships than Britain could replace over a prolonged period of time (Germany targeted the supply lines because Britain is a nation reliant on imports for food and industry). Although the U-boats had been updated in the intervening years, the major innovation was improved communications, facilitated with the famous Enigma cypher machine. This allowed for mass-attack tactics in what popularly became known as a "wolf pack", although the German term, Rudel (meaning pack), did not specify wolves. After putting to sea, the U-boats operated mostly on their own trying to find convoys in areas assigned to them by the High Command. If a convoy was found, the submarine did not attack immediately, but shadowed the convoy to allow other submarines in the area to find the convoy. These were then amassed into a formidable striking force and attacked the convoy simultaneously, preferably at night while being surfaced. The convoys escorts, often not more than three to five vessels early in the war and looking for submerged submarines, were often helpless. In the first half of the War the submarines scored spectacular successes with these tactics, but were too few to have any decisive success. In the second half Germany had enough submarines, but this was more than nullified by equally increased numbers of convoy escorts, airplanes and technical advances like radar and Huff-Duff on the allied side. Winston Churchill wrote that the U-boat threat was the only thing that ever gave him cause to doubt the Allies' eventual victory.
Japan
Main article: Imperial Japanese Navy submarines Imperial Japanese Navy submarines, the largest submarine of WWII.]] Japan had by far the most varied fleet of submarines of World War II, including manned torpedoes (Kaiten), midget submarines (Ko-hyoteki, Kairyu), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines (many for use by the Army), long-range fleet submarines (many of which carried an aircraft), submarines with the highest submerged speeds of the conflict (Sentaka I-200), and submarines that could carry multiple bombers (WWII's largest submarine, the Sentoku I-400). These submarines were also equipped with the most advanced torpedo of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95 (what U.S. historian Samuel E. Morison postwar called "Long Lance"). Overall, despite their technical prowesses, Japanese submarines were relatively unsuccessful. They were often used in offensive roles against warships (per the doctrine of Alfred T. Mahan, to which all major navies adhered), which were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships. In 1942, Japanese submarines managed to sink two fleet aircraft carriers, one cruiser, and a few destroyers and other warships, and damage several others, including two battleships. They were not able to sustain these results afterwards, as Allied fleets were reinforced and became better organized. By the end of the war, submarines were instead often used to transport supplies to island garrisons. During the war, Japan managed to sink about 1 million tons of merchant shipping (184 ships), compared to 1.5 million tons for Great Britain (493 ships), 4.65 million tons for the US (1,079 ships) and 14.3 million tons for Germany (2,840 ships). Early models were not very maneuverable under water, could not dive very deep, and lacked radar. (Later in the war units that were fitted with radar were in some instances sunk due to the ability of US radar sets to detect their emissions. For example, Batfish (SS-310) sunk three such equipped submarines in the span of four days). After the end of the conflict, several of Japan's most original submarines were sent to Hawaii for inspection in "Operation Road's End" (I-400, I-401, I-201 and I-203) before being scuttled by the U.S. Navy in 1946, when the Soviets demanded access to the submarines as well.

United States

I-201] Meanwhile, the US used her submarines to attack merchant shipping (commerce raiding or guerre de course), her submarines destroying more Japanese shipping than all other weapons combined. Where Japan had the finest submarine torpedoes, the USN had perhaps the worst, the Mark XIV, with a Mark VI magnetic influence exploder and Mark V contact exploder, neither of which worked correctly for the first twenty months of the war. Senior Submarine Force commanders (including one member of the Mark XIV's design team) ignored crew complaints. While the British and Japanese also fielded attack submarines, they were used in fleet actions where they were somewhat ineffective due to their low speeds.

The schnorchel

Diesel submarines needed air to run their engines, thus they carried very large batteries for submerged travel. These limited the speed and range of the submarines while submerged. The schnorchel (a prewar Dutch invention) was used to allow German submarines to run just under the surface, attempting to avoid detection visually and by radar. The German navy experimented with engines that would carry hydrogen peroxide to allow diesel fuel to be used while submerged, but technical difficulties made this infeasible. On the other side, the Allies experimented with a variety of detection systems, including chemical sensors to "smell" the exhaust of submarines.

Modern submarines

In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion in those nations with access to nuclear technology. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations gave submarines so equipped the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months, and enabled previously impossible voyages such as USS Nautilus's crossing of the North pole beneath the Arctic ice cap in 1958. Most of the naval submarines built since that time in the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia have been powered by nuclear fission reactors. Use of nuclear power instead of fossil fuel enables submarines to travel around the world submerged and essentially hidden for months at a time. The most limiting factors in the length of time staying submerged now are food supply and willingness of the crew to remain in the space-limited submarine. While the greater endurance and performance from nuclear reactors mean that nuclear submarines are enhanced when it comes to missions far away or the protection of a carrier battle-force, conventional diesel-electric submarines have continued to be produced by both nuclear and non-nuclear powers, as they are more cost efficient and stalthier. Though far less capable regarding high-speed runs and weaponpayload, conventional submarines are cheaper to build. Historically, when running on batteries they were often quieter than nuclear submarines, though technological advances in sound dampening, isolation and cancellation have substantially eroded this former strength, none the less other signature values till put the small diesel-electric submarines in an advanatgerous position compared to nuclear ones. The introduction of air-independent propulsion boats further lead to increased sales numbers of such Typoe of submarines. During the Cold War, the United States of America and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games; Russia continues this tradition today. The Soviet Union suffered the loss of at least four submarines during this period: K-129 was lost in 1968 (which CIA attempted to retrieve from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes-designed ship named Glomar Explorer), K 8 in 1970, K -219 in 1986 (subject of the film "Hostile Waters"), and Komsomolets (the only Mike class submarine) in 1989 (which held a depth record among the military submarines—1000 m). Many other Soviet subs, such as K-19 (first Soviet nuclear submarine, and first Soviet sub at North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The United States lost two nuclear submarines during this time: USS Thresher and Scorpion, both to equipment casualties. Scorpion on returning to Faslane having sunk ARA General Belgrano]] The United Kingdom employed nuclear-powered submarines against Argentina in 1982 during the two nations' dispute over the Falkland Islands. The sinking of the antiquated cruiser ARA General Belgrano by HMS Conqueror was the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in wartime.

Major submarine incidents since 2000

Main Article: Major submarine incidents since 2000 Since submarines have been actively deployed, there have been several incidents involving submarines which were not part of major combat. Most of these incidents were during the Cold War, but some are more recent. Since the year 2000 there have been 9 major naval incidents involving submarines. There were three Russian submarine incidents, in two of which the submarines in question were lost, along with three United States submarine incidents, one Chinese incident, one Canadian, and one Australian incident. In August 2005, the Russian PRIZ, an AS-28 rescue submarine was trapped by cables and/or nets off of Petropavlovsk, and saved when a British ROV cut them free in a massive international effort.

Submarine propulsion

Until the advent of nuclear marine propulsion, most 20th century submarines used batteries for running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines on the surface and to recharge the batteries. Early boats used gasoline but this quickly gave way to diesel because of the greatly reduced flammability of diesel. The diesel-electric submarine became the standard means of propulsion. Initially the diesel or gasoline engine and the electric motor were on the same shaft which also drove a propeller with clutches between each of them. This allowed the engine to drive the electric motor as a generator to recharge the batteries and also propel the submarine if required. The clutch between the motor and the engine would be disengaged when the boat dived so that the motor could be used to turn the propeller. The motor could have more than one armature on the shaft — these would be electrically coupled in series for slow speed and parallel for high speed (known as "group down" and "group up" respectively). In the 1930s the principle was modified for some submarines designs, particularly those of the U.S. Navy and the British U-class. The engine was no longer attached to the motor/propeller drive shaft but drove a separate generator which would drive the motors on the surface and/or recharge the batteries. This diesel-electric propulsion allowed much more flexibility, for example the submarine could travel slowly whilst the engines were running at full power to recharge the batteries as quickly as possible, reducing the time a submarine needs to stay on the surface or use its snorkels. Also it was now possible to insulate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure hull making the submarine quieter. There were other power sources tried—oil-fired steam turbines powered the British "K" class submarines built during the First World War and in following years but these were not very successful. This was selected to give them the necessary surface speed to keep up with the British battle fleet. Steam power was resurrected in the 1950s with the advent of the nuclear-powered steam turbine driving a generator which is now used in all large submarines. By removing the requirement for atmospheric oxygen these submarines can stay submerged indefinitely so long as food supplies remain (air is recycled and water distilled from the ocean). These vessels nevertheless always have a small battery and diesel engine/generator installation for emergency use should the reactor have to be shut down. distilled Anaerobic propulsion was employed by the first mechanically driven submarine Ictineo II in 1864. Ictineo's engine used a chemical mix containing a

Pacific Theater of Operations

The Pacific Theater of Operations (PTO) is the term used in the United States for all military activity in the Pacific Ocean and the countries bordering it, during World War II. Pacific War is a more common name, around the world, for the broader conflict between the Allies and Japan, between 1937 and 1945. Partly because of the nearly equal roles of the U.S. Army and the U.S. Navy in conducting war in the Pacific Theater, but largely for domestic political reasons, there was not a single Allied or US commander for the theater (comparable to Eisenhower in the ETO). Indeed, the organizational structure was rather tangled, with the Joint Chiefs of Staff frequently required to be involved, and the Army and Navy commanders reporting to both the Secretary of the Navy and the Secretary of War. (No doubt the attendant difficulties helped motivate the formation of the Department of Defense in 1947.) The two main Allied commanders in the PTO were Commander-in-Chief Pacific Ocean Areas, the title held by Admiral Chester Nimitz and Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific Area¹, General Douglas MacArthur (following termination of the short-lived ABDACOM, in early 1942.)

Japanese nomenclature

- At least initially in World War II, the official Japanese name for the war was Dai toua sensou (大東亜戦争, Greater East Asia War). This name was chosen by a cabinet decision on December 10, 1941, to refer to both the war with the United States and the ongoing war in China, which began with the China Incident (or Mukden Incident). The name was released to the public two days later, on December 12, with a government explanation that it referred to the motivation of Asian nations to achieve independence from the Western nations — it was not intented to set parameters for the battlefield. Soon after the start of the war with the U.S., this term was prohibited in official documents, though some say its use continued.
- The war was from this point called Taiheiyo sensou (太平洋戦争) literally meaning the Pacific War. This latter term has been in use since that time.
- Less often, Jyugonen'sensou (十五年戦争 15 Year War) is used to refer to the war, beginning with the Japanese invasion of China in 1931 (also called the Sino-Japanese War) to the end of World War II in 1945. The term is used to highlight the rule of militarism over the years.

A theater of operations

The term "theater of operations" was defined in the [American] field manuals as the land and sea areas to be invaded or defended, including areas necessary for administrative activities incident to the military operations (chart 12). In accordance with the experience of World War I, it was usually conceived of as a large land mass over which continuous operations would take place and was divided into two chief areas-the combat zone, or the area of active fighting, and the communications zone, or area required for administration of the theater. As the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas into which they were divided would shift forward to new geographic areas of control.²

References

# [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/331.html#331.34 Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander SWPA] # [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/wwii/Sp1941-42/ench7.htm 88 Msg: through established channels] # [http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/orgadmin/org_admin_wwii_chpt7.htm Chapter VII: Prewar Army Doctrine for Theater]

External links

- http://ask.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~yasutomi/private2/home/glossary.html (Some English translations for Japanese terms.) Category:World War II Pacific Theatre ja:太平洋戦争

Presidential Unit Citation (US)

:Please see "Presidential Unit Citation" for other versions of this award The Presidential Unit Citation is awarded to units of the Armed Forces of the United States and allies for extraordinary heroism in action on or after 7 December 1941 against an armed enemy. The unit must display such gallantry, determination, and esprit de corps in accomplishing its mission under extremely difficult and hazardous conditions so as to set it apart and above other units participating in the same campaign. The degree of heroism required is the same as that which would warrant award of the Distinguished Service Cross to an individual. Distinguished Service Cross The Army citation was established as the Distinguished Unit Citation on 26 February 1942, and received its present name on 3 November 1966. All members of the unit may wear the decoration, whether or not they personally participated in the acts for which the unit was cited. Only those assigned to the unit at the time of the action cited may wear the decoration as a permanent award. The Navy citation is similar, but is the unit equivalent of a Navy Cross and was established on 6 February 1942. For the Army and Air Force, the emblem itself is a solid blue ribbon enclosed in a gold frame. The Citation is carried on the unit's regimental colours in the form of a blue streamer, four feet long and 2 3/4 inches wide. The Navy version has blue, yellow, and red horizontal stripes. To distinguish between the two versions of the Presidential Unit Citation, the Navy version is typically referred to as the Navy and Marine Corps Presidential Unit Citation while the Army and Air Force refer to the decoration simply as the Presidential Unit Citation. U.S. Coast Guard units may be awarded either version of the Presidential Unit Citation, depending on which service the Coast Guard was supporting when the citation action was performed.

Battle star

A Service star, also referred to as a battle star, campaign star, or engagement star, is an attachment to a military decoration which denotes participation in military campaigns or multiple bestowals of the same award. Service stars are typically issued for campaign medals, service medals, ribbon awards, and certain military badges. Service stars are different from award stars, which are issued for multiple awards of meritorious and combat decorations. The United States military issues bronze and silver service stars, with a silver service star issued “in lieu” of five bronze. For instance, six campaigns, served on a campaign medal, would be annotated by one silver and one bronze service star. In some situations, service stars are only issued after the second award of a decoration. For instance, three awards of a Sea Service Ribbon would be annotated by the ribbon with two bronze service stars. The United States Army also occasionally issues award numerals, instead of service stars, to denote multiple awards of certain ribbon decorations. Service stars issued for actions in which a United States Navy vessel participated are also placed on campaign streamers, which are affixed to the U.S. Navy flag. The regulations for this originated in 1942, which defined naval campaign areas and designated engagements. Participation in such engagements, by ships and by individuals, was then denoted by service stars. The United States Army followed a very similar practice with ground campaigns and battle engagements. A common point of confusion is to confuse bronze and silver service stars with the Silver Star and Bronze Star Medal. The main difference between the two is that the Bronze and Silver Star Medals are individual decorations while service stars are worn on awards and are not individual decorations or medals.

External link

- [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/ships/dafs/BattleStars.html Award regulations for the Second World War] Category:Devices and accouterments of U.S. military awards Category:Star symbols

Light cruiser

A light cruiser is a warship that is not so large and powerful as a regular (or heavy) cruiser, but still larger than ships like destroyers. They were first built in Britain with Mercury in 1879, and gradually became faster and more powerful, with greater numbers of uniform size main guns. Germany took the lead in light cruisers in the 1890s, building a class of fast cruisers copied by other nations. By World War I, British light cruisers often had either two 6 inch (152 mm) and perhaps eight 4 inch (100 mm) guns, or a uniform armament of 6 inch (152 mm) guns, while German cruisers progressed during the war from 4.1 inch (105 mm) to 5.9 inch (150 mm) guns. In the Washington Naval Arms Limitation Treaty of 1920, light cruisers were defined as cruisers having guns of 6.1 inch (155 mm) or smaller, with heavy cruisers defined as cruisers having guns of up to 8 inch (203 mm). In the World War II era, light cruisers had guns ranging from 5 inch (127 mm) to 6.1 inch (155 mm), the most common size being 6 inch (152 mm), while heavy cruisers usually had a battery of 8 inch (203 mm) guns. This was a significant difference in destructive power, since 8 inch (203 mm) shells were over twice the weight of 6 inch (152 mm) shells. Light cruisers were nevertheless useful for fire-support and as fleet escorts, and heavily used. Four light cruisers are still in existence: HMS Belfast (1938) in London, HMS Caroline in Belfast [http://www.battleships-cruisers.co.uk/caroline_class.htm External site (scroll down)] [http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/static/pages/2474.html External site] USS Little Rock (Buffalo, NY), and Colbert (Bordeaux). Similar ships include the protected cruisers Aurora (St Petersburg), part of Puglia (Italy) and Olympia.

Light cruisers of the United States Navy

In the United States Navy, light cruisers have the hull classification symbol CL. Both heavy cruisers and light cruisers were classified under CL after 1931, hence there are some missing hull numbers. Category:Ship types

Japanese aircraft carrier Taiho

Taiho was an aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. "Taiho" means "Great Phoenix". Built by Kawasaki, she was laid down on 10 July 1941 and launched almost two years later, on 7 April 1943, and was finally completed eleven months afterwards on 7 March 1944. On 19 June 1944, after approximately three months of service, she blew up due to the ignition of gasoline vapors after being torpedoed by the US submarine Albacore in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. What made Taiho special was the newly introduced heavy armored flight deck, analogous to the Royal Navy's Illustrious class. She was also the first Japanese carrier to incorporate a closed hurricane bow.
Image:HIJMS_Taiho_01.jpg Image:HIJMS_Taiho_02.jpg Taiho Taiho ja:大鳳 (空母)

United States Navy

The United States Navy (USN) is the branch of the United States armed forces responsible for naval operations. The U.S. Navy consists of 281 ships and over 4,000 aircraft. It has over half a million men and women on active or ready reserve duty. The United States Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which the Continental Congress established during the American Revolutionary War. The United States Constitution, ratified in 1789, empowered Congress "to provide and maintain a navy." Acting on this authority, Congress ordered the construction and manning of six frigates; one of the original six, USS Constitution, familiarly known as "Old Ironsides," survives to this day. The War Department administered naval affairs from that year until Congress established the Department of the Navy on April 30, 1798. The Navy became part of the Department of Defense upon its establishment in 1947.

History of the Navy

Main article: History of the United States Navy History of the United States Navy The Continental Navy was established in Philadelphia by the Continental Congress on October 13, 1775, which authorized the procurement, fitting out, manning, and dispatch of two armed vessels to search for munitions ships supplying the British Army in America. The legislation also established a Naval Committee to supervise the work. The Continental Navy operated some 50 ships over the course of the American Revolutionary War, but no more than about 20 at one time. After the war, Congress sold the surviving ships and released the seamen and officers. Congress ordered the construction and manning of six frigates on March 27, 1794, and three years later welcomed into service the first three: USS United States, Constellation and Constitution. The frigates became famous in the War of 1812, where they unexpectedly defeated British Royal Navy forces several times. During the American Civil War, the Navy was an innovator in the use of ironclad warships, but after the war slipped into obsolescence. A modernization program beginning in the 1880s brought the U.S. into the first rank of the world's navies by the beginning of the 20th century. 20th century (middle) and USS Annapolis (SSN 760) (front)]] The Navy saw little action during World War I, but grew into a formidable force in the years before World War II. Japan unsuccessfully attempted to allay this strategic threat with a late-1941 surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. During the next three years, the U.S. Navy grew into the most powerful in the world. It is widely accepted that currently the United States Navy remains the most powerful in the world.

Organization

The Navy is administered by the Department of the Navy, led by the Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV). The senior naval officer, the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), is the four-star admiral immediately under the Secretary of the Navy. The Secretary of the Navy and Chief of Naval Operations are responsible for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping the Navy so the Navy is ready for operation under the command of the Unified Combatant Commanders. (Also see United States Armed Forces Organization.) President | SECDEF | ------------------- | | SECNAV | | | CNO Unified Combatant Commanders | | -------------------- | | | | Shore establishment Operating Forces (including fleets)

Fleets

The two main fleets are the Pacific Fleet and the Atlantic Fleet. Under these two organizations fall the numbered fleets.
- 1st Fleet - no longer active
- 2nd Fleet – Atlantic Ocean — Flagship Iwo Jima, Norfolk, Virginia
- 3rd Fleet – Eastern and Northern Pacific Ocean — Flagship Coronado, San Diego, California (In peacetime the Third Fleet has no ARG and the carriers in the area are either on their way to the Seventh Fleet or conducting training cruises, after an overhaul for example.)
- 4th Fleet – Disbanded.
- 5th Fleet – Middle East — Headquartered at Manama, Bahrain
- 6th Fleet – Mediterranean Sea — Flagship Mount Whitney, Gaeta, Italy
- 7th Fleet – Western Pacific and Indian Ocean — Flagship Blue Ridge, Yokosuka, Japan

Shore commands

In addition to afloat fleets, the Navy maintains several "Naval Forces Commands" which operate naval shore facilities and serve as liaison units to local ground forces of the Air Force and Army. Such commands are answerable to a Fleet Commander as the shore component of the afloat command. During times of war, all Naval Forces Commands augment to become task forces of a primary fleet. Some of the larger Naval Forces Commands include:
- Commander Naval Forces Korea (CNFK)
- Commander Naval Forces Marianas (CNFM)
- Command Naval Forces Japan (CNFJ)

Staff corps

In addition to the regular line commands of the navy, several staff corps are also maintained which augment the line community and whose personnel are assigned to both line and staff commands. The current staff corps of the United States Navy are as follows:
- Navy Supply Corps
- Navy Medical Corps
- Navy Medical Service Corps
- Navy Nurse Corps
- Navy Chaplains Corps
- Navy Civil Engineer Corps (Seabees)
- Navy Judge Advocate General (JAG)

Weapons

Ships

Main article: U.S. Navy ships See also List of ships of the United States Navy for a more complete listing of ships past and present. The names of commissioned ships of the U.S. Navy start with USS, meaning 'United States Ship'. Non-commissioned, civilian-manned vessels of the U.S. Navy have names that begin with USNS, standing for 'United States Naval Ship'. A letter-based hull classification symbol is used to designate a vessel's type. The names of ships are selected by the Secretary of the Navy. The names are usually those of U.S. states, cities, towns, important people, famous battles, fish, and ideals. The U.S. Navy pioneered the use of nuclear reactors aboard naval vessels; today, they power most U.S. aircraft carriers and submarines. See United States Naval reactor. As of January 2004, a relatively small number of ship classes accounted for the bulk of the U.S. naval fleet. These include:

Aircraft carriers

United States Naval reactor on November 3, 2003. Approximately fifty aircraft can be counted on deck.]] Aircraft carriers are the major strategic arm of the Navy. They put U.S. air power within reach of most land-based military power. The US Navy's carriers are much larger and more powerful than those of the rest of the world. See also: List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy and List of escort aircraft carriers of the United States Navy. Modern aircraft carriers since CV-67 are typically named for living or dead politicians; previous aircraft carriers were named for battles and famous fighting ships of the Navy.
- Kitty Hawk class (1 ship)
- Enterprise — Norfolk, Virginia
- John F. Kennedy — Mayport Naval Station, Florida
- Nimitz class (9 ships, 1 under construction)
- USS Nimitz (CVN-68)
- USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69)
- USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70)
- USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)
- USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)
- USS George Washington (CVN-73)
- USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74)
- USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)
- USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76)
- USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77)

Amphibious assault ships

The largest of all amphibious warfare ships amphibious assault ships resemble small aircraft carriers; capable of V/STOL, STOVL, VTOL tiltrotor and rotary wing aircraft operations; contains a welldeck to support use of Landing Craft Air Cushion and other watercraft. Amphibious assault ships are typically named after World War II aircraft carriers, a name source kept over from the earliest ones, which were converted WWII carriers.
- Wasp class (7 ships)
- Tarawa class (4 ships active, 1 decommissioned)

Amphibious transport docks

Amphibious transports are warships that embark, transport, and land elements of a landing force for a variety of expeditionary warfare missions. Amphibious transport docks are named for cities, except for USS New York (LPD-21), which is named for the state of New York and USS Somerset (LPD-25), which is named for Somerset County, Pennsylvania.
- San Antonio class (3 launched, 2 under construction, 3 planned, 2 projected)
- Austin class (10 ships active, 1 Decommissioned, 1 converted to AGF)

Submarines

:Main article: Submarines in the United States Navy There are two major types of submarines, ballistic and attack. Ballistic subs have a single, strategic mission: carrying nuclear SLBMs. Attack submarines have several tactical missions, including sinking ships and subs, launching cruise missiles, and gathering intelligence. Sea attack submarines are typically named for cities; land attack submarines (Virginia and Ohio-class boats) are typically named for states. Earlier attack submarines were named for fish, while earlier ballistic missile submarines were named for "famous Americans" (although many of these were actually foreigners).
- Ohio class (18 in commission) — ballistic missile submarines, 4 to be converted into guided missile submarines
- Virginia class (1 in commission, 3 under construction, 2 on order) — attack submarine