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Umar Tall

Umar Tall

El Hadj Umar Tall (1797 - 1864) was a conqueror and Toucouleur king who founded a brief empire encompassing much of what is now Guinea, Senegal, and Mali.

Early life

Born Umar bin-Said in Halwar, Fouta-Toro (present-day Senegal), Umar Tall attended a madrassa in his youth before embarking on the Hajj in 1820. After many years of scholarship, in 1826 Umar Tall returned with his new title of "El Hadj" to assume the caliphate of the Tijaniyya brotherhood for the Sudan. Settling in Sokoto, he took several wives, one of whom was a daughter of Fulani Sultan Muhammed Bello. In 1836, El Hajj Umar Tall moved to Fouta Djallon in present-day Guinea and began preparations for his jihad.

Initial conquests

In 1848, El Hajj Umar Tall's Toucouleur army, equipped with European light arms, invaded several neighboring Malinké regions and met with immediate success. Umar Tall pressed on into what is today the region of Kayes in Mali, conquering a number of cities and building a tata (fortification) near the city of Kayes that is today a popular tourist destination. In April of 1857, Umar Tall declared war on the Khasso kingdom and besieged the French colonial army at Medina Fort. The siege failed on July 18 of the same year when Louis Faidherbe, French governor of Senegal, arrived with relief forces.

Conqueror of the Bambara

After his failure to defeat the French, El Hadj Umar Tall launched a series of assaults on the Bambara kingdoms of Kaarta and Ségou. The Kaarta capital of Nioro du Sahel fell quickly to Umar Tall's mujahideen, followed by Ségou on March 10, 1861. While Umar Tall's wars thus far had been against the animist Bambara or the Christian French, he now turned his attention to the smaller Islamic states of the region. Installing his son Ahmadu Tall as imam of Ségou, Umar Tall marched down the Niger, on the Massina imamate of Hamdullahi. More than 70,000 died in the three battles that followed until the final fall and destruction of Hamdullahi on March 16, 1862.

Death and legacy

Now controlling the entire Middle Niger, Umar Tall moved against Timbuktu, only to be repulsed. Meanwhile, a rebellion broke out in Hamdullahi under Balobo, brother of executed Massina monarch Amadu Amadu; in 1864, Balobo's combined force of Peuls and Kountas drove Umar Tall's army from the city and into Bandiagara, where Umar Tall died in an explosion of his gunpowder reserves. His nephew Tidiani Tall succeeded him as the Toucouleur emperor, though his son Ahmadu did much of the work to keep the empire intact from Ségou. However, the French continued to advance, finally entering Ségou itself in 1890. El Hadj Umar Tall remains a legendary figure in Senegal, Guinea, and Mali, though his legacy varies by country. Where the Senegalese tend to remember him as a hero of anti-French resistence, Malian sources tend to describe him as an invader who prepared the way for the French by weakening West Africa. Umar Tall also figures prominently in Maryse Condé's historical novel Segu.

References

This article is based on a translation of the corresponding article from the French Wikipedia, retrieved on July 1, 2005, which in turn cites the following sources:
- « La guerre sainte d'al-Hajj Umar Le soudan occidental au milieu du XIXème siècle » de David Robinson (Editions Karthala)
- « Le temps des marabouts Itinéraires et stratégies islamiques en Afrique occidentale française » (collectif) (Editions Karthala) English language source:
- Davidson, Basil. Africa in History. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995.

External links

- [http://www.suertenich.com/html/afriq/empire.html Map of the Toucouleur Empire] ;Audio files :
- [http://www.islamonline.net/English/In_Depth/MuslimAfrica/articles/200/04/sound/06.ram Wolof praise song of Umar Tall] (RealAudio file) Umar Tall, El Hadj Umar Tall, El Hadj Umar Tall, El Hadj Umar Tall, El Hadj Umar Tall, El Hadj Umar Tall, El Hadj Umar Tall, El Hadj

1797

1797 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 3 - The Treaty of Tripoli (a peace treaty between the United States and Tripoli) is signed at Algiers.
- January 7 - The parliament of the Cisalpine Republic adopts the Italian green-white-red tricolour as official flag. It is the birthday of the flag of Italy.
- January 15 - London haberdasher James Hetherington wears the first top hat in public and attracts a large crowd of onlookers. He is later fined £50 for causing public nuisance
- February 14 - The Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797), part of the Wars of the French Revolution.
- February 18 - Spanish Governor Chacon peacefully surrenders the colony of Trinidad and Tobago to a British naval force.
- February 22 - Attempted invasion of Britain at Fishguard in Wales by French forces
- February 26 - The Bank of England (national bank of Britain) issues the first one pound note (discontinued March 11 1988).
- March 4 - John Adams succeeds George Washington as the President of the United States of America.
- May 12 - First Coalition: Napoleon I of France conquers Venice, ending the 1070 years of independence of the city. Last doge of Venice, Ludovico Manin, steps down.
- July 24 - Horatio Nelson is wounded at Tenerife, causing a loss of one arm.
- September 7 - Treaty of Campo Formio ends the War of the First Coalition.
- October 21 - In Boston Harbor, the 44-gun United States Navy frigate USS Constitution is launched to fight Barbary pirates off the coast of Tripoli.
- December 17 - Napoleon leads a successful French charge against Fort l'Aiguilette to secure Toulon for French
- Large-scale mutinies in Royal Navy
- Joseph Haydn composes the music to "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser," the tune of which also became the music to the German national anthem, "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles."

Ongoing events

- French Revolution (1789-1799)
- French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)-First Coalition

Births

- January 10 - Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, German writer (d. 1848)
- January 31 - Franz Schubert, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1828)
- February 15 -Henry Engelhard Steinway, German-American piano manufacturer (d. 1817)
- March 22 - Emperor Wilhelm I of Germany (d. 1888)
- March 27 - Alfred de Vigny, French author (d. 1863)
- May 6 - Joseph Brackett, American religious leader and composer (d. 1882)
- May 18 - Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, (d. 1854)
- July 20 - Sir Paweł Edmund Strzelecki, Polish explorer and geologist (d. 1873)
- August 30 - Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, English writer (d. 1851)
- October 3 - Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1870)
- November 14 - Sir Charles Lyell, British geologist (d. 1875)
- November 29 - Gaetano Donizetti, Italian composer (d. 1848)
- December 13 - Heinrich Heine, German poet (d. 1856)
- December 17 - Joseph Henry, American scientist (d. 1878)

Deaths

- January 13 - Elisabeth Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern, queen of Frederick II of Prussia (b. 1715)
- February 11 - Antoine Dauvergne, French composer (b. 1713)
- February 22 - Karl Friedrich Hieronymus Freiherr von Münchhausen, German officer and adventurer (b. 1720)
- March 2 - Horace Walpole, English politician and writer (b. 1717)
- March 26 - James Hutton Scottish geologist (b. 1726)
- May 17 - Michel-Jean Sedaine, French dramatist (b. 1719)
- May 25 - John Griffin Whitwell, 4th Baron Howard de Walden, British field marshal (b. 1719)
- May 27 - François-Noël Babeuf, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1760)
- May 27 - Augustin Alexandre Darthé, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1769)
- July 9 - Edmund Burke, Irish philosopher (b. 1723)
- August 3 - Jeffrey Amherst, British military commander (b. 1717)
- August 22 - Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, Alsatian-born Austrian general (b. 1724)
- October 9 - Vilna Gaon, Lithuanian rabbi (b. 1720)
- November 16 - King Frederick William II of Prussia (b. 1744)
- November 18 - Jacques-Alexandre Laffon de Ladebat, French shipbuilder and merchant (b. 1719)
- November 29 - Samuel Langdon, American President of Harvard University (b. 1723)
- December 11 - Richard Brocklesby, English physician (b. 1722) Category:1797 ko:1797년 ms:1797 simple:1797

Toucouleur

The Toucouleurs (or Haalpulaaren) are an ethnicity of West Africa. They live primarily in the north of Senegal (where they represent 10% of the population) in the Senegal River valley, in Mauritania, and in Mali. The Toucouleurs are the descendants of the Iron Age state of Takrur, and their French name "Toucouleur" is a corruption of this name. The Toucouleurs speak the Peul dialect of Fouta-Toro. They call themselves Haapulaaren, which means "those who speak pulaar," the Peul language. They are strongly Islamic and differ from other Peuls only by the sedentary nature of their society. Toucouleur society is patriarchal and divided into strict hierarchies, with 12 castes subdivided into 3 classes. The highest caste, the Toorobbê, is made up of religious leaders and marabouts. El Hadj Umar Tall founded a Toucouleur Empire in Mali in the nineteenth century.

Reference

This article is based on a translation of the corresponding article from the French Wikipedia, accessed July 5, 2005. Category:Ethnic groups of Mali Category:Ethnic groups of Senegal Category:Ethnic groups of Mauritania

Monarch

:For other senses, see monarch (disambiguation). A monarch (see sovereign) is a type of ruler or head of state. Monarchs almost always inherit their titles and are rulers for life. Historically monarchs have been more or less absolute rulers, though modern monarchs are typically figureheads with little power. Monarchs usually represent a larger monarchical system which has established rules and customs regarding succession, duties, and powers. A nation ruled by a monarch is called a monarchy. The word "monarch" derives from Greek monos archein, meaning "one ruler," and referred to an absolute ruler in ancient Greece. With time, the word has been succeeded in this meaning by others, like autocrat or dictator, and the word monarch in modern usage almost always refers to a traditional system of hereditary rulership (but see the discussion on elective monarchies below).

Possible definitions of the term

Which rulers are considered monarchs today is partially a matter of tradition, so there are no hard and fast rules. There are, however, a number of characteristics that are commonly, though not universally, distinguishing for monarchs:
- Most monarchs hold their office for life, while most other rulers do not. A monarch may chose to resign his position through abdication, though this is a rare and dramatic practice.
- Exceptions to this include the French co-prince of Andorra, who is not appointed for life (he is the French President, elected for a five year period by the French people), but still generally considered a monarch because of the use of a traditionally monarchical title. (Though, a purist might regard Andorra as a diarchy.) Similarly, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) of Malaysia is considered a monarch although only holding the office five years at a time. On the other hand, several life-time dictators around the world have not been considered monarchs.
- Most monarchs are raised within a royal family where they are taught to expect and obey their future "duties," and they are, formally or informally, succeeded upon their death or abdication by members of their own family, usually their eldest son or eldest child. As a result, most stable monarchies have a long legacy of rule by a single family or bloodline.
- Once again, Malaysia is an exception, as is the Vatican City (the Pope bears the title "Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City"). Also, the practice is not totally uncommon in systems which are not considered monarchical, such as family dictatorships.
- Most monarchs hold titles that are traditional among monarchs (see below). While this is a fairly arbitrary characteristic, it might just be the best distinction between monarchs and non-monarchs at the moment.

Different types of monarchs

Monarchy is the form of government involving a monarch. It can be either absolute or constitutional, and constitutional monarchies may even restrict the powers of the monarch to the point where he is little more than a near-powerless figurehead, which is a common modern practice. The word monarchy can also be used about a country which has such a system. Normally however, such countries identify themselves more narrowly depending on the actual title used by the monarch – e.g., as a kingdom, grand duchy, or principality. Elective monarchies were once common, although only a very small portion of the population was eligible to vote. As the impact of the feudal system diminished, many monarchs were eventually allowed to introduce hereditary succession, guaranteeing that the title and office will stay within the family. Today, almost all monarchies are hereditary monarchies in which the monarchs come from one royal family with the office of sovereign being passed from one family member to another upon the death or abdication of the incumbent. Existing elective monarchies include Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and the Holy See. The former system of the election of the doge in Venice is also widely known. A sovereign is the monarch of a sovereign state. Although non-sovereign states have often had monarchs historically (not least within the Holy Roman Empire), all European monarchs since 1918 have been sovereigns. Outside Europe there still exist several monarchs of subnational entities however, most notably in Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates. A more obscure example is that of Kings of the French Wallis and Futuna territory. In a few cases a monarch is associated with a particular group (or nation) within a state, such as Te Arikinui Te Atairangikaahu of the Maori (the Maori Queen) and Osei Tutu II of the Ashanti.

European monarchical titles

In Europe, a monarch may traditionally bear any of several titles. Although monarchs have normally been male, each of these titles also has a female counterpart. This is used not only in the (historically rare) case that the monarch is female, but also for wives of monarchs (when there is need to distinguish between the two cases, terms like Queen regnant and Queen consort are used). The converse is not true however: the husband of a queen regnant is not automatically a king (e.g., the Duke of Edinburgh is not King Philip of the United Kingdom). The more frequent use of the word monarch in recent years arises from this possibility of a male or female ruler. Formerly, the ruler was expected to be male, therefore a terminology of masculine words developed, the feminine words expressing a different role. The word monarch covers both sexes so is more acceptable in a general discussion in a gender-conscious culture. The normal monarch title in Europe – i.e., the one used if the monarch has no higher title – is Prince. It was a common title within the Holy Roman Empire, along with a number of higher titles listed below. Such titles were granted by the Emperor, while the titulation of rulers of sovereign states was generally left to the discretion of themselves, most often choosing King. Such titulations could cause diplomatic problems, and especially the elevation to Emperor was seen as an offensive action. During the 19th and 20th centuries most small monarchies in Europe disappeared to form larger entities, and so King has become the most common title today.
- As popes are usually Catholic priests (technically not a requirement, see Pope - Election), a celibate office forbidden to women, there is no female equivalent. Legends of female popes (see Pope Joan) refer to them as "pope." Some European languages have a feminine form of the word pope, such as the French papesse (to pape) or German Päpstin (to Papst), used, among other things, for the High Priestess tarot card. Note that some of these titles have several meanings and do not necessarily designate a monarch. A Prince can be a person of royal blood (some languages uphold this distinction, see Fürst). A Duke can be a British peer. In Imperial Russia, a Grand Duke was a son or grand-son of the Tsar. Holders of titles in these alternative meanings did not enjoy the same status as actual monarchs of the same title. Within the Holy Roman Empire, there were even more titles that were occasionally used for monarchs although they were normally noble; Margrave, Count Palatine, Landgrave. An actual monarch with such low titles still outranked a noble Duke. Today, there are seven kingdoms, one grand duchy, and two principalities in Europe, excluding the peculiar case of Andorra.

Monarchical titles in use by non-monarchs

It is not uncommon that people who are not generally seen as monarchs nevertheless use monarchical titles. There are three cases of this:
- Claiming an existing title, challenging the current holder. This has been very common historically. For centuries, the British monarch used, among his other titles, the title King of France, despite the fact that he had no authority over French territory. There have also been numerous antipopes.
- Retaining the title of an extinct monarchy. This can be coupled with a claim that the monarchy was in fact never, or should never have been, extinct. An example of the first case is the Prince of Seborga. Examples of the second case are several deposed monarchs or otherwise pretenders to thrones of abolished monarchies, e.g., Leka, Crown Prince of Albania who is styled by some as the "King of Albania." Retaining the title of an extinct monarchy can, however, be totally free of claims of sovereignty, as when Juan Carlos I of Spain includes "King of Jerusalem" in his full title. When it comes to deposed monarchs, it is customary to continue the usage of their monarchical title (e.g., Constantine II, King of the Hellenes) as a courtesy title, not a constitutional office, for the duration of their lifetime. However the title then dies with them and cannot be used by anyone else unless the crown is restored constitutionally. (Some republicans take offence at this custom.) Monarchs who have freely abdicated lose their right to use their former title. However where a monarch abdicated under duress (e.g., Michael I of Romania), it is customary to see the abdication as invalid and to treat them as deposed monarchs entitled to use their monarchical style for their lifetime.
- Inventing a new title. This is common by founders of micronations, and also may or may not come with a claim of sovereignty. When it does, it is most often disregarded by state leaders. A notable example is Paddy Roy Bates, styling himself the "Prince of Sealand," but not recognized as such by any national government, thus failing at least the constitutive condition for statehood (see Sealand for a fuller discussion of his claims).

Other monarchical titles

In China, "king" is the usual translation for the term wang, which designated the sovereign before the Qin dynasty and during the Ten Kingdoms period. During the early Han dynasty, China had a number of small kingdoms, each about the size of a county and subordinate to the Emperor of China. When a difference exists, male titles are placed to the left and female titles are placed to the right of the slash.

By region

- Africa
- Chieftain - Leader of a "primitive" people
- Pharaoh - early Egypt
- Negus - Ethiopia
- Oba - Yoruba people of Nigeria
- Americas
- Cacique - Aboriginal Hispaniola
- Hueyi Tlatoani - Aztec Empire
- Ajaw - Maya
- Inca - Tahuantinsuyu (Inca Empire)
- Asia
- Druk Gyalpo —heriditary title given to the king of Bhutan
- Chogyal — "Divine Ruler" — ruled Sikkim till 1975
- Hwangje - States that unified Korea
- Wang - States of Korea that do not have control over all of Korea
- Badshah - India (emperor)
- Huangdi - Imperial China
- Maharaja/Maharani - India
- Nawab, Wali - Muslim rulers of principalities or princes under Mughal (Mogul) or British Indian Empires
- Nizam - Hyderabad, India
- Susuhanan - the Indonesian princely state of Surakarta until its abolition
- Sultan - Aceh, Brunei Darussalam
- Meurah -Aceh before Islam
- Yang Dipertuan Agong - king of Malaysian Federations, elected each 5 years among the reining monarch in Malaysia.
- Tenno or Mikado - Japan
- Wang - pre-Imperial China
- Europe
- Arqa / Thagavor - Armenian king
- Germanic king
- Βασιλεύς-Greek
- Vezér - Ancient Hungarian
- Fejedelem - Ancient/Medieval Hungarian
- Vojvod (Serbian) / Vajda (Hungarian) - Serbian / Hungarian / Romany Title
- Rí and Ard Rí - Respectively King and High King in Ireland.
- Kniaz'/Knyaginya (generally translated as "prince") - Kievan Rus'
- Tsar/Tsaritsa - Imperial Russia
- Kunigaikshtis (Kunigaikštis) - Lithuanian,duke as in Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
- Middle East
- Bei
- Caliph - Islamic holy title
- Emir - Arabic holy title
- Khan - Mongol Emperor or Turkish, Afghan, Pashtun or other Central Asian chieftain
- Malik/Malika - Arabic leader
- Pharaoh - Ancient Egypt
- Shah - Persia/Iran, Afghanistan
- Shahenshah - Persia/Iran, "King of Kings" or emperor
- Shaikh - Arabic leader
- Sultan/Sultana - Arabic King
- Oceania
- Chieftain - Leader of a "primitive" people
- King - there were/are also kings in Oceania (i.e. Tonga,Wallis and Futuna, Nauru)
- Houeiki - Chief status in the Tongan traditional system.

General monarch titles

- Autocrat - General term for absolute monarch.
- Emperor/Empress - Empire
- Grand Duke/Grand Duchess - Grand Duchy
- King/Queen - Kingdom
- Prince/Princess - Sovereign Principality
- Sovereign Duke/Count/Baron - Sovereign Duchy/County/Barony - (Grand)Children have the title Princely-, like Princely-Lord

Succession

Succession from one monarch to another varies from country to country. Traditionally, hereditary succession within members of one family has been most common. The usual hereditary succession has based on some cognatic principles and on seniority, though also merits have influenced. Thus, the most common hereditary system in feudal Europe was based on cognatic primogeniture, where a lord was succeeded by his eldest son, and failing sons, by either daughters or by sons of daughters. The system of tanistry was semi-elective and gave weight also to merits and capability. The Quasi-Salic succession provided firstly male members of the family to succeed, and secondarily males also from female lines. In most feudal fiefs, females (such as daughters and sisters) were allowed to succeed, brothers failing, but usually the husband of the heiress became the real lord and most often also got title, iure uxoris. Great Britain and Spain are today continuing this old model of succession law, in form of cognatic primogeniture. In more complex medieval cases, the sometimes conflicting principles of proximity and primogeniture battled, and outcomes could have been idiosyncratic. As the average life span increased (lords limited their own participation in dangerous battles, and society's more wealthy had increasingly better sustenance and living conditions, which improved general health among princes), primogeniture began to win the battle against proximity, tanistry, seniority and election. Later, when lands were strictly divided among noble families and tended to remain fixed, agnatic primogeniture (practically the same as Salic Law) became the most usual: succession going to the eldest son of the monarch; if the monarch had no sons, the throne would pass to the nearest male relative through male line. Some countries however accepted female rulers early on, so that if the monarch had no sons, the throne would pass to the eldest daughter. (This, cognatic primogeniture, was the rule that let Elizabeth II become Queen.) In 1980, Sweden became the first European monarchy to abolish this preference for males altogether, declaring equal primogeniture or full cognatic primogeniture, so that the eldest child of the monarch now ascends to the throne, be that child male or female. Other kingdoms (Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991 and the Netherlands) have followed. In some monarchies, e.g. Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne has passed to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only to the monarch's children after that (= agnatic seniority). In some other monarchies (e.g. Jordan), the monarch chooses who will be his successor, who need not necessarily be his eldest son.

Current monarchs

NOTE: The table comprises all sovereign monarchs of the world today, but is severely incomplete with regard to the non-sovereign monarchs.

External links

- [http://www.heraldica.org/topics/odegard/titlefaq.htm A Glossary of European Noble, Princely, Royal and Imperial Titles]
- [http://www.archontology.org Archontology]
- Monarch Monarch Category:Titles zh-min-nan:Ông ko:군주 ja:君主

Toucouleur Empire

The Toucouleur Empire was founded in the nineteenth century by El Hadj Umar Tall of the Toucouleur people, in part of present-day Mali. Umar Tall returned from the Hajj in 1836 with the titles of El Hadj and caliph of the Tijaniyya brotherhood of the Sudan. After a long stay in Fouta-Toro (present day Senegal), he moved to Fouta Djallon (present-day Guinea), which became the staging ground for his 1850 jihad. Abandoning his assault on the French colonial army after an 1857 failure to conquer Medina fort, Umar Tall struck out against the Bambara kingdoms with much greater success. Conquering Ségou on March 10, 1861, he made it the capital of his empire, though a year later he left its management to his son Ahmadu Tall to conquer Hamdullahi, capital of the Peul empire of Massina. Umar Tall again tasted defeat in a failed attempt to conquer Timbuktu, and retreated to Deguembéré, near Bandiagara of the Dogon region. In 1864, he died there in an explosion of his gunpowder reserves. His nephew Tidiani Tall succeeded him and installed the capital of the Toucouleur Empire at Bandiagara. At Segou, Ahmadu Tall continued to reign, successfully suppressing the attempts of several neighboring cities to break away, but he found himself in increasing conflict with his brothers. In 1890, the French, allied with the Bambara, entered Ségou, and Ahmadu fled to Sokoto in present-day Nigeria, marking the effective end of the empire.

Reference

This article is based on a translation of the corresponding article from the French Wikipedia, retrieved on July 1, 2005.

External link

[http://www.suertenich.com/html/afriq/empire.html A Map of the Toucouleur Empire] Category:History of Mali

Guinea

The Republic of Guinea (French: République de Guinée) is a nation in West Africa. It borders Guinea-Bissau and Senegal on the north, Mali on the north and north-east, the Côte d'Ivoire on the south-east, Liberia on the south, and Sierra Leone on the west. Its territory encompasses the water source for the Niger, Senegal, and Gambia rivers, with a coastline facing the Atlantic Ocean. The name Guinea (geographically assigned to most of Africa's west coast, south of the Sahara desert and north of the Gulf of Guinea) originates from Berber and roughly translates into 'land of the blacks.'

History

Main article: History of Guinea The area covered by the modern state of Guinea has seen itself incorporated into a succession of empires across the centuries. The earliest of these was the Ghana Empire which came into being c. 900. This was followed by the Sosso kingdom in the 12th and 13th centuries. The Mali Empire came to power in the area following the Battle of Kirina in 1235. The Mali Empire prospered until internal problems weakened it, allowing its states to seize power in the 15th century. Chief among these was the Songhai state which became the Songhai Empire. This empire exceeded its predecessors in territory and wealth, but it too fell prey to internal wrangling and civil war and was eventually toppled at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591. After this the area fragmented until an Islamic state was founded in the 18th century, bringing some stability to the region. Europeans first came to the area as part of the slave trade, beginning in the 16th century. Present-day Guinea was created as a colony by France in 1890 with Noël Balley being the first governor. The capital Conakry was founded on Tombo Island in 1890. In 1895 the country was incorporated into French West Africa. Guinea gained her independence from France in 1958 and was governed by a dictatorship headed by Ahmed Sékou Touré. Touré pursued broadly socialist economic policies and suppressed opposition and free expression with little regard for human rights. After his death in 1984 Lansana Conté took power and immediately turned away from his predecessor's economic policies but continued to keep a close grip on power. Elections were held for the first time in 1993 but their results and the results of subsequent elections were disputed. Conté faces regular criticism for the condition of the country's economy and for his heavy handed approach to political opponents. As of 2005 Guinea still faces very real problems and according to the International Crisis Group is in danger of becoming a failed state.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Guinea
- List of Presidents of Guinea

Prefectures

Guinea is divided into 8 administrative regions which are further subdivided into 33 prefectures. Additionally, the national capital Conakry ranks as a special zone. These are listed below, with their parent administrative region in parenthesis. Conakry #Beyla Prefecture (Nzérékoré Region) #Boffa Prefecture (Boké Region) #Boké Prefecture (Boké Region) #Conakry Special Zone (Conakry Region) #Coyah Prefecture (Kindia Region) #Dabola Prefecture (Faranah Region) #Dalaba Prefecture (Mamou Region) #Dinguiraye Prefecture (Faranah Region) #Dubréka Prefecture (Kindia Region) #Faranah Prefecture (Faranah Region) #Forécariah Prefecture (Kindia Region) #Fria Prefecture (Boké Region) #Gaoual Prefecture (Boké Region) #Guéckédou Prefecture (Nzérékoré Region) #Kankan Prefecture (Kankan Region) #Kérouané Prefecture (Kankan Region) #Kindia Prefecture (Kindia Region) #Kissidougou Prefecture (Faranah Region) #Koubia Prefecture (Labé Region) #Koundara Prefecture (Boké Region) #Kouroussa Prefecture (Kankan Region) #Labé Prefecture (Labé Region) #Lélouma Prefecture (Labé Region) #Lola Prefecture (Nzérékoré Region) #Macenta Prefecture (Nzérékoré Region) #Mali Prefecture (Labé Region) #Mamou Prefecture (Mamou Region) #Mandiana Prefecture (Kankan Region) #Nzérékoré Prefecture (Nzérékoré Region) #Pita Prefecture (Mamou Region) #Siguiri Prefecture (Kankan Region) #Télimélé Prefecture (Kindia Region) #Tougué Prefecture (Labé Region) #Yomou Prefecture (Nzérékoré Region)

Geography

Main article: Geography of Guinea The highest point in Guinea is Mont Nimba. Mont Nimba

Economy

Main article: Economy of Guinea Guinea possesses major mineral, hydropower, and agricultural resources, yet remains an underdeveloped nation. The country possesses over 30% of the world's bauxite reserves and is the second-largest bauxite producer. The mining sector accounted for about 75% of exports in 1999. Long-run improvements in government fiscal arrangements, literacy, and the legal framework are needed if the country is to move out of poverty. Fighting along the Sierra Leonean and Liberian borders, as well as refugee movements, have caused major economic disruptions, aggravating a loss in investor confidence. Foreign mining companies have reduced expatriate staff. Panic buying has created food shortages and inflation and caused riots in local markets. Guinea is not receiving multilateral aid. The IMF and World Bank cut off most assistance in 2003. Growth rose slightly in 2004, primarily due to increases in global demand and commodity prices on world markets.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Guinea

Culture

Main article: Culture of Guinea
- Like other West African countries, Guinea has a rich musical tradition. The group Bembeya Jazz became popular in the 1960s after Guinean independence. The Vancouver-based guitarist Alpha Yaya Diallo hails from Guinea and incorporates its traditional rhythms and melodies into his original compositions, for which he has won two Juno Awards.
- List of writers from Guinea

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Guinea
- Transportation in Guinea
- Military of Guinea
- Foreign relations of Guinea
- National Park of Upper Niger

Language

- Taki language
- French language
- Arabic language
- Fula language

External links

Government

- [http://www.un.int/guinea/ Permanent UN Mission of the Republic of Guinea] official government site
Overviews

- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gv.html CIA World Factbook - Guinea]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1032311.stm BBC News Country Profile - Guinea]
Music

- [http://www.coraconnection.com/ Cora Connection] West African music resources
Directories

- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559924/ LookSmart - Guinea] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Guinea/ Open Directory Project - Guinea] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/guinea.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Guinea] directory category
- [http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Guinea/ The Index on Africa - Guinea] directory category
- [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Guinea.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: Guinea] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Guinea/ Yahoo! - Guinea] directory category
Tourism

-
- Category:African Union member states ko:기니 ms:Guinea ja:ギニア th:ประเทศกินี zh-min-nan:Guinea

Mali

:See also the Empire of Mali and the town of Mali, Guinea. MLI is the IATA airport code for Quad City International Airport in Moline, Illinois. The Republic of Mali (République du Mali) is a landlocked nation in West Africa. It is the second largest country among West African nations. It borders Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Its straight borders on the north stretch into the centre of the Sahara desert, while the country's south, where the majority of inhabitants live, features the Niger and Senegal rivers. Formerly French Sudan, the country is named after the Empire of Mali.

History

Main article: History of Mali The Mandé peoples settled the Sahel (including present-day Mali), and formed a succession of Sahelian kingdoms, including the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire, and the Songhai Empire. Timbuktu was a key city in these empires as an outpost for trans-Saharan trade and a center for scholarship. The Songhai Empire declined under a Moroccan invasion in 1591. Mali was invaded by France starting in 1880, which annexed it as an overseas department of France. The colony, which at times also included neighbouring countries, was known as French Sudan or the Sudanese Republic. In early 1959, the union of Mali and Senegal became the Mali Federation, which gained independence from France on June 20, 1960. Senegal withdrew from the Mali Federation after a few months. The Republic of Mali, under Modibo Keïta, withdrew from the French Community on September 22, 1960. Mali was ruled by a series of dictators from independence until 1991. Anti-government protests in 1991 led to a coup, a transitional government, and a new constitution. In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election. Upon his reelection in 1997, President Konaré pushed through political and economic reforms and fought corruption. In 2002 he was succeeded in democratic elections by Amadou Toumani Touré, who had been a key figure in the 1991 democratic uprising.

Politics

Main Article: Politics of Mali Mali's constitution provides for a multi-party democracy, with the only restriction being a prohibition against parties based on ethnic, religious, regional, or gender lines. The National Assembly is the sole legislative arm of the government. It currently consists of 147 members. Representation is apportioned according to the population of administrative districts. The government has a 5 year term.

Regions

Politics of Mali Main article: Regions of Mali Mali is divided into nine regions, including the capital district of Bamako:
- Bamako Capital District
- Gao
- Kayes
- Kidal
- Koulikoro
- Mopti
- Ségou
- Sikasso
- Tombouctou

Geography

Tombouctou Main article: Geography of Mali Mali is landlocked and has a subtropical to arid climate. It is mostly flat, rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand, with savanna around the Niger River in the south. The hills of the Air Massif and Djado Plateau lie in the northeast. Most of the country lies in the Sahara Desert, which produces a hot, dust-laden harmattan haze common during dry seasons and leads to recurring droughts. The nation has considerable natural resources, with gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolin, salt and limestone being most widely exploited. See List of cities in Mali

Economy

List of cities in Mali List of cities in Mali] List of cities in Mali List of cities in Mali] List of cities in Mali Main article: Economy of Mali Mali is among the poorest countries in the world, with 65% of its land area desert or semidesert. Economic activity is largely confined to the riverine area irrigated by the Niger River. About 10% of the population is nomadic and some 80% of the labor force is engaged in farming and fishing. Industrial activity is concentrated on processing farm commodities. Mali is heavily dependent on foreign aid and vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices for cotton, its main export. In 1997, the government continued its successful implementation of an IMF-recommended structural adjustment program that is helping the economy grow, diversify, and attract foreign investment. Mali's adherence to economic reform, and the 50% devaluation of the African franc in January 1994, has pushed up economic growth. Several multinational corporations increased gold mining operations in 1996-1998, and the government anticipates that Mali will become a major Sub-Saharan gold exporter in the next few years.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Mali

Culture

Main article: Culture of Mali
- Architecture of Mali- Great Mosque of Djenné
- List of writers from Mali
- Languages of Mali
- Music of Mali

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Mali
- Foreign relations of Mali
- Military of Mali
- Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2002: Rank 43 out of 139 countries (2 way tie)
- Transportation in Mali

External links

Government

- [http://www.maliembassy.us/ The Embassy of Mali in Washington DC] government information and links

News

- [http://allafrica.com/mali/ allAfrica.com - Mali] news headline links

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1021454.stm BBC News Country Profile - Mali]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ml.html CIA World Factbook - Mali]
- [http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/897ce24a48d43c82802565f700407640?Opendocument United Nations Human Rights - Mali] dating from 1997
- [http://www.malifolkecenter.org/lowersection/mali-context.html Mali Folkecenter - Mali] from an organisation aiming to promote the sustainable management of natural resources

Directories

- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559933/ LookSmart - Mali] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Mali/ Open Directory Project - Mali] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/mali.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Mali] directory category
- [http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Mali/ The Index on Africa - Mali] directory category
- [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Mali.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: Mali] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Mali/ Yahoo! - Mali] directory category

Music

- [http://www.coraconnection.com/ Cora Connection] West African music resources

Tourism

-
- [http://www.officetourisme-mali.com/ official tourism site] Category:African Union member states Category:Landlocked countries zh-min-nan:Mali ko:말리 ms:Mali ja:マリ共和国

Senegal

The Republic of Senegal is a country south of the Senegal River in West Africa. Senegal is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Mauritania to the north, Mali to the east, and Guinea and Guinea-Bissau to the south. The Gambia forms an enclave within Senegal, following the Gambia River more than 300 km inland. The Cape Verde islands lie some 560 km off the Senegalese coast.

History

Main article: History of Senegal Archaeological findings throughout the area indicate that Senegal was inhabited in prehistoric times. Islam, the dominant religion in Senegal, first came to the region in the 11th century. Today, 95% of Senegalese are Muslims. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the area came under the influence of the Mandingo empires to the east; the Jolof Empire of Senegal also was founded during this time. Various European powers came to the area from the 15th century onward, until France ended up in possession of what had become an important slave trade departure point. Independence from France was gained in 1960. In January 1959, Senegal and the French Sudan merged to form the Mali Federation, which became fully independent on June 20, 1960, as a result of the independence and the transfer of power agreement signed with France on April 4, 1960. Due to internal political difficulties, the Federation broke up on August 20. Senegal and Soudan (renamed the Republic of Mali) proclaimed independence. Léopold Senghor was elected Senegal's first president in August 1960. After the breakup of the Mali Federation, President Senghor and Prime Minister Mamadou Dia governed together under a parliamentary system. In December 1962, their political rivalry led to an attempted coup by Prime Minister Dia. Although this was put down without bloodshed, Dia was arrested and imprisoned, and Senegal adopted a new constitution that consolidated the President’s power. In 1980, President Senghor decided to retire from politics, and he handed power over in 1981 to his handpicked successor, Abdou Diouf. Senegal joined with The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia on February 1, 1982. However, the the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace talks, a southern separatist group in the Casamance region has clashed sporadically with government forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history of participating in international peacekeeping. Abdou Diouf was president between 1981 and 2000. He encouraged broader political participation, reduced government involvement in the economy, and widened Senegal's diplomatic engagements, particularly with other developing nations. Domestic politics on occasion spilled over into street violence, border tensions, and a violent separatist movement in the southern region of the Casamance. Nevertheless, Senegal's commitment to democracy and human rights strengthened. Diouf served four terms as President. In the presidential election of 2000, he was defeated, in a free and fair election, by opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade. Senegal experienced its second peaceful transition of power, and its first from one political party to another. On December 30, 2004 President Abdoulaye Wade announced that he would sign a peace treaty with the separatist group in the Casamance region. This will end West Africa's longest-running civil conflict.

Geography

Casamance Main article: Geography of Senegal Senegal is located on the west of the African continent. The Senegalese landscape consists mainly of the rolling sandy plains of the western Sahel which rise to foothills in the southeast. Here is also found Senegal's highest point, an otherwise unnamed feature near Nepen Diakha at 581 m. The northern border is formed by the Senegal River, other rivers include the Gambia and Casamance Rivers. The capital Dakar lies on the Cap-Vert peninsula, the westernmost point of continental Africa. Africa The local climate is tropical with well-defined dry and humid seasons that result from northeast winter winds and southwest summer winds. Dakar's annual rainfall of about 24 in (600 mm) occurs between June and October when maximum temperatures average 27 °C; December to February minimum temperatures are about 17 °C. Interior temperatures are higher than along the coast, and rainfall increases substantially farther south, exceeding 1500 mm annually in some areas.

Politics

Senegal is a republic with a powerful presidency; the president is elected every seven years, amended in the 2001 to every five years, by universal adult suffrage. The current president is Abdoulaye Wade. Senegal also has 65 political parties which contribute to development of the country through working towards a successful transition to democracy in the country, and even among other developing countries on the African continent. The unicameral National Assembly has 120 members elected separately from the president. A single house legislature, and a fair and independent judiciary also exist in Senegal. The nation's highest courts that deal with business issues are the constitutional council, and the court of justice, members of which are named by the president. Senegal has a reputation for transparency in government operations. The level of economic corruption that has damaged the development of the economies in other parts of the world is very low. Today Senegal has a democratic political culture, being part of one of the most successful democratic transitions in Africa. Senegal recognizes and respects all cultures, religions and traditions.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Senegal In January 1994, Senegal undertook a bold and ambitious economic reform programme with the support of the international donor community. This reform began with a 50 percent devaluation of Senegal's currency, the CFA franc, which was linked at a fixed rate to the former French franc and now to the euro. Government price controls and subsidies have been steadily dismantled. After seeing its economy contract by 2.1 percent in 1993, Senegal made an important turnaround, thanks to the reform programme, with real growth in GDP averaging 5 percent annually during 1995-2001. Annual inflation had been pushed down to less than 1 percent, but rose to an estimated 3.3 percent in 2001. Investment rose steadily from 13.8 percent of GDP in 1993 to 16.5 percent in 1997. 1997 As a member of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), Senegal is working toward greater regional integration with a unified external tariff. Senegal also realised full Internet connectivity in 1996, creating a miniboom in information technology-based services. Private activity now accounts for 82% of GDP. On the negative side, Senegal faces deep-seated urban problems of chronic unemployment, trade union militancy, juvenile delinquency, and drug addiction.

Demographics

drug addiction Main article: Demographics of Senegal Senegal has a population of some 10 million, about 70% of whom live in rural areas. Density in these areas varies from about 77 km² in the west-central region to 2 km²in the arid eastern section.

Ethnicity

Senegal has a wide variety of ethnic groups and, accordingly, multiple languages are spoken. French is the official language but is used regularly only by the literate minority. The Wolof are the largest single group in Senegal at 43%, other ethnic groups include the Fula (24%), the Serer (15%), the Jola (4%), Mandinka (3%), beside numerous smaller communities. About 50,000 Europeans (mostly French) and Lebanese reside in Senegal, mainly in the cities. Among those cities as well, there are also some Chinese and Vietnamese minorities.

Religion

Senegal recognizes and respects all cultures, religions, and traditions. Islam is the predominant religion, practiced by approximately 94 percent of the country’s population; the Christian community, at 4 percent of the population, includes Roman Catholics and diverse Protestant denominations.

Islam

Protestant Islamic communities are generally organized around one of several Islamic Sufi orders or brotherhoods, headed by a khalif (xaliifa in Wolof, from Arabic khalīfa), who is usually a direct descendant of the group’s founder. The two largest and most prominent Sufi orders in Senegal are the Tijaniyya, whose largest sub-groups are based in the cities of Tivaouane and Kaolack, and the Murīdiyya (Murid), based in the city of Touba. The Halpulaar, a widespread ethnic group found along the Sahel from Chad to Senegal, representing 20 percent of the Senegalese population, were the first to be converted to Islam. The Halpulaar, composed of various Fula people groups, named Peuls and Toucouleurs in Senegal. Many of the Toucouleurs, or sedentary Halpulaar of the Senegal River Valley in the north, converted to Islam around a millennium ago and later contributed to Islam's propagation throughout Senegal. Most communities south of the Senegal River Valley, however, were not thoroughly Islamized until the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During the mid-nineteenth century, Islam became a banner of resistance against the traditional aristocracies and French colonialism, and Tijānī leaders Al-Hajj Umar Tall and Màbba Jaxu Ba established short-lived but influential Islamic states but were both killed in battle and their empires than annexed by the French. The spread of formal Quranic school (called daara in Wolof) during the colonial period increased largely through the effort of the Tijaniyya. In Murid communities, which place more emphasis on the work ethic than on literary Quranic studies, the term daara often applies to work groups devoted to working for a religious leader. Other Islamic groups include the much older Qādiriyya order and the Senegalese Laayeen order, which is prominent among the coastal Lebu. Today, most Senegalese children study at daaras for several years, memorizing as much of the Qur'an as they can. Some of them continue their religious studies at informal Arabic schools (majlis) or at the growing number of private Arabic schools and publicly funded Franco-Arabic schools.

Christianity

Small Roman Catholic communities are mainly found in coastal Serer, Diola and Balant populations, and in Oriental Senegal among the Bassari and Coniagui. In Dakar, Catholic and Protestant rites are also practiced by a portion of the Lebanese, Capeverdian, European, and American immigrant population, and among certain Africans of other countries. Although Islam is Senegal's majority religion, Senegal's first president, Léopold Sédar Senghor, was a Catholic Serer.

Subdivisions

Dakar Dakar Senegal is divided into eleven administrative regions:
- Dakar
- Diourbel
- Fatick
- Kaolack
- Kolda
- Louga
- Matam
- Saint-Louis
- Tambacounda
- Thiès
- Ziguinchor Local administrators are all appointed by and responsible to the President. Senegal joined with The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982. However, the envisaged integration of the two countries was never carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace talks, a separatist group in the southern Casamance region has sporadically clashed with government forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history of participating in international peacekeeping.

Culture

peacekeeping] peacekeeping Main article: Culture of Senegal
- Cinema of Senegal
- List of writers from Senegal
- List of Senegalese
- Music of Senegal
- Ousmane Sembène This Senegalese writer and film director is considered to be the 'father' of African Cinema.

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Senegal
- Foreign relations of Senegal
- Indigenous cultures, kingdoms and ethnic groups of Senegal
- Military of Senegal
- Transportation in Senegal
- Education in Senegal
- University of Dakar

External links

Government
- [http://www.gouv.sn Gouvernement du Sénégal] - Official governmental website (in French)
- [http://www.senegalembassy.co.uk/ Embassy of the Republic of Senegal in London] government information and links News
- [http://allafrica.com/senegal/ allAfrica.com - Senegal] news headline links Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064496.stm BBC News Country Profile - Senegal]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sg.html CIA World Factbook - Senegal] Directories
- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559945/ LookSmart - Senegal] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Senegal/ Open Directory Project - Senegal] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/sene.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Senegal] directory category
- [http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Senegal/index.html The Index on Africa - Senegal] directory category
- [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Senegal.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: Senegal] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Senegal/ Yahoo! - Senegal] directory category "Music"
- [http://www.coraconnection.com/ Cora Connection] West African music resources Tourism
- Other
- [http://www.teranga-senegal.com Teranga Senegal] - French Portal - Travel guide (in French) Category:African Union member states Category:Peace and Security Council zh-min-nan:Senegal ko:세네갈 ms:Senegal ja:セネガル simple:Senegal

Hajj

The Hajj or Haj (Arabic: حَجّ Ḥaǧǧ) is the Pilgrimage to Mecca (or, "Makkah") and is the fifth of the "Five Pillars of Islam" in Sunni Islam and one of the ten Branches of Religion in Shi'a Islam. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. The government of Saudi Arabia issues special visas to foreigners for the purpose of the pilgrimage, which takes place during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Entrance to the city itself is forbidden to non-Muslims, and the entire city is considered a holy site to Islam.

Preparations

Many people go to Mecca in groups with their friends or family, or friends from the local mosque, in order to save money. Some airlines have special package holidays for Muslims going to Mecca. A woman is encourged to go to Mecca in the company of a male relative (father, husband, or brother), but the Saudi government permits an unaccompanied woman to go provided that she travels in a group with other women and has written permission to do so from a male relative. While in Mecca for the Hajj, male pilgrims are required to dress only in an ihram, a garment consisting of two sheets of white unhemmed cloth, the top draped over the torso and the bottom secured by a belt; plus a pair of sandals. The ihram is intended to show the equality of all pilgrims in the eyes of Allah, as there is no difference between a prince and a pauper when everyone is dressed equally. The ihram also symbolizes purity and absolution of sins. Many female pilgrims traditionally wear a simple white or black dress with a headcovering. While the pilgram is wearing the ihram, he may not shave, cut his nails, or wear jewelery. An invocation known as the talbiyah should be chanted as the pilgrim is donning the garment.

Performing the Hajj

Umrah

Upon arrival in Mecca, the pilgrim ('Hajji') performs a series of ritual acts symbolic of the life of the prophet Abraham (Ibrahim) and his wife Hagar (Hajarah), and of solidarity with Muslims worldwide. These acts of faith are:
- Perform a tawaf, which consists of circling the Kaaba four times at a hurried pace, followed by three times, more closely, at a leisurely pace, in a counter-clockwise direction.
- Rapidly walk seven times back and forth between the hills of Safa and Marwah. This is a re-enactment of Hagar's frantic search for water, before the Zamzam Well was revealed to her by Allah. These rituals complete the umrah, sometimes called the "lesser hajj". Although not a part of the ritual, most pilgrims drink water from the Well of Zamzam when the umrah is completed. At this point, the pilgrim can change from the ihram to regular clothes, that is known as Mut'ah of Hajj.

Optional journey to Medina

Though it is not required as part of the Hajj, after the Umrah, pilgrims often travel to visit the city of Medina and the Mosque of the Prophet. Muhammad's tomb is enclosed by the mosque, as are the tombs of Abu Bakr and 'Umar.

Completing the Hajj

After spending a night or more in Medina (Although this is not part of the Hajj ritual), the Hajj continues. The pilgrim dons the ihram once again and performs the final three acts of faith. This is known as the Al Hajjul Akbar, or "greater hajj." The duties of the greater hajj are:
- Journey to the hill of Arafat and spend an afternoon there. The journey usually takes three to five days for the full round trip. At the plain of Arafat, the pilgrim stays from afternoon until sundown. No specific rituals or prayers are required during the stay at Arafat, though many pilgrims spend the time praying, talking to Allah, and thinking about the course of their lives.
- Upon returning from Arafat, pilgrims travel to the city of Mina just outside of Mecca, and participate in the stoning of the devil. This requires collecting a number of pebbles from the ground on the plain of Muzdalifah (various Hajj accounts list the number of pebbles as between 49 and 70), and throwing the pebbles at the three pillars at Mina, which represent the devil. All three pillars represent the devil: the first and largest is where he tempted Abraham against sacrificing Ishmael, the second is where he tempted Abraham's wife Hagar to induce her to stop him, and the third is where he tempted Ishmael to avoid being sacrificed. He was rebuked each time, and the throwing of the stones symbolizes those rebukes.
- Perform a second tawaf around the Kaaba. This completes the requirements of the Hajj. After stoning the devil, many male pilgrims will then shave their head; women may cut off a lock of their hair. This is a symbol of rebirth, signifying that their sins have been cleansed by completion of the Hajj. The "lesser hajj" can be performed at any time of the year, but the "greater hajj" must take place during the month of Dhu al-Hijjah and is one of the five pillars of Sunni Islam. Most pilgrims will perform the "greater hajj" because of the difficulty and expense of traveling to the city of Mecca. For many pilgrims (especially ones who had difficulty travelling due to health or finances), the journey to Mecca is a once in a lifetime event.

Spiritual aspects of the Hajj

The pilgrimage structures the entire life of the sincere Muslim. A believer is required to make the pilgrimage at least once in his or her life time. A devout Muslim's whole life is directed towards this spiritual goal; all of life becomes a pilgrimage. The pilgrim, the haji, is honoured in his or her community. For some, this is an incentive to perform the Hajj. In some communities, a person that has done the hajj can be nicknamed "haajji" or "haajjaah" - which can be translated as "honorable pilgrim". Some Islamic teachers would say that this is a wrong incentive, as the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a means to gain social standing. The talbiyah prayer reflects this sentiment. The believer should be self-aware and examine his or her intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to constant striving for self-improvement. The Hajj rituals have a deep psychological significance for Muslims. The pilgrimage is usually a very profound experience for those who participate in it. When life is lived according to the precepts of the religion and the mind is in a suitable condition, the pilgrimage can spiritually transform the individual. In spite of the physical hardships for some, pilgrims who complete the Hajj consider it one of the greatest spiritual experiences of their lives. Many Muslims regard the Hajj as one of the great achievements of civilization, because it brings together people from one-fifth of the population of the entire world and focuses them upon a single goal: completing the Hajj.

Incidents during the Hajj

There are an estimated 1.3 billion Muslims living today. Modern jet travel also makes Mecca and the Hajj more accessible to pilgrims from all over the world. As a consequence, the Hajj has become increasingly crowded. During the month of the Hajj, the city of Mecca must cope with as many as four million pilgrims. City officials are consequently required to control large crowds and provide food, shelter, and sanitation for millions. Unfortunately, they have not always been able to prevent disasters. Some of the worst incidents include:

Failures in crowd control

Sometimes the surging crowds, trekking from one station of the pilgrimage to the next, stampede. Panic spreads, pilgrims jostle to avoid being trampled, and hundreds of deaths can result.
- On February 1, 2004 251 Muslim pilgrims were killed and another 244 injured in a stampede during the stoning of the jamaraat (pillars) ritual.
- On April 9, 1998, at least 118 pilgrims were trampled to death.
- On May 23, 1994 a stampede killed at least 270 pilgrims at the stoning of the jamaraat (pillars) ritual.
- On July 2, 1990 a stampede inside a pedestrian tunnel leading to the holy sites led to the deaths of 1,426 pilgrims.

Fires

- On April 15, 1997 343 pilgrims were killed and 1,500 injured in a tent fire.

Protests and violence

- On July 9, 1989 two bombs exploded, killing one pilgrim and wounding a further sixteen. Saudi authorities beheaded sixteen Kuwaiti Shiite Muslims for the bombings after originally blaming Iranian terrorists.
- On July 31, 1987 Iranian pilgrims rioted, causing the deaths of over 400 people.
- On November 20, 1979 a group of approximately 200 militant Muslims occupied Mecca's Grand Mosque. They were driven out by French commandos (allowed into the city under these special circumstances despite their being non-Muslims) after bloody fighting that left 250 people dead and 600 wounded.

Disease

Mingling of visitors from so many countries, can lead to the spread of epidemics. This was more of a problem in the past.

Official response

Critics say that the Saudi Arabian government should have done more to prevent such tragedies. The Saudi government insists that any such mass gatherings are inherently dangerous and difficult to handle, and that they have taken a number of steps to prevent problems. One of the biggest steps, one which is also controversial, is a new system of registrations, passports, and travel visas to control the flow of pilgrims. This system is designed to encourage and accommodate first-time visitors to Mecca, while imposing restrictions upon those who embark upon the trip multiple times. Pilgrims who have the means and desire to perform the Hajj several times have protested what they see as discrimination, but the Hajj Commission has stated that they see no alternative if further tragedies are to be prevented. Sources: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3450333.stm] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1204816.stm] [http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-11664.html] [http://www.nmhschool.org/tthornton/mehistorydatabase/war_in_lebanon.htm] [http://www.saudi-us-relations.org/newsletter2004/saudi-relations-interest-01-10.html]

Non-Muslims in Mecca

The second caliph, Umar, is believed by many Muslims to have expelled non-Muslims from Arabia. Non-Muslims were not to visit nor to live in the holy land. There is much evidence against this claim, at least so far as it relates to the early centuries of the Islamic empire, but it is well documented that by the 18th and 19th centuries, non-Muslims were emphatically unwelcome in most parts of Arabia. There were small colonies of merchants in various port and trading cities, as well as communities of Yemeni Jews, but ordinary travelers journeyed at risk of their lives. This was not so much imposed by the authorities as enforced by rioting crowds. The prohibition was most strictly enforced with regard to the Hijaz, and the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. As one might expect, the existence of "forbidden cities" and the mystery of the Hajj aroused intense curiosity in European travellers. A number of them pretended to be Muslims and entered the city of Mecca and then the Kaaba to experience the Hajj for themselves. The most famous account of a foreigner's journey to Mecca is A Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Mecca and Al-Madina, written by Sir Richard Francis Burton. Burton traveled as a Qadiri Sufi from Afghanistan; his name, as he signed it in Arabic below his frontispiece portrait for "The Jew, The Gypsy and al-Islam," was al-Hajj 'Abdullah. The prohibition on non-Muslims visiting Mecca still exists, and is enforced by Saudi Arabian law. However, the penalty is no longer death by rioting crowd. There is less curiosity these days, since photographs of Mecca, the Grand Mosque, and the Kaaba are easily available. However, some may still want to experience the events of the Hajj first-hand.

External links

- [http://www.al-islam.org/hajj/shariati/ Hajj]
- [http://www.soundvision.com/info/hajj/diary.asp A Hajj Diary]
- [http://www.world-federation.org/MAB/Articles/Health_+Hajj_Ziarat_2003.htm Protect Your Health during Hajj and Ziarat]
- [http://www.asinah.org/travel-guides/saudiarabiahajj.html The Hajj - Al Hajj - Haji]
- [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/AroundtheKabba.html Description of and reflection on the tawaf around the Kaaba] Category:Islam Category:Five Pillars of Islam Category:Mecca Category:Pilgrimages ms:Haji th:ฮัจญ์

1826

See also 1826 in the United States. 1826 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- February 8 - Argentina. Unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia becomes the first President of the country.
- February 11 - University College London is founded, under the name University of London.
- February 13 - American Temperance Society founded.
- April 1 - Samuel Morey patents the internal combustion engine.
- June 14-15 – The Auspicious Incident: Mahmud II, sultan of Ottoman Empire, crushes the last mutiny of janissaries in Istanbul
- June 22 - the Pan-American Congress of Panama tries to unify American republics (it fails)
- July 26 - Last auto de fe.
- Nicéphore Niépce creates the first permanent photograph
- First railway tunnel built in route between Liverpool and Manchester in England
- Cholera epidemic begins in India
- The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established.

Births

- January 12 - William Chapman Rawlston, banker and financier
- January 26 - Louis Favre, Swiss engineer (d. 1879)
- February 16 - Joseph Victor von Scheffel, German poet (d. 1886)
- February 16 - Julia Grant, First Lady of the United States (d. 1902)
- March 4 - Theodore Judah, railroad engineer (d. 1863)
-