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Union

Union

Union generally means a organization of formed to conduct an activity. Depending on its context, it can have several other meanings.

Organization

- Trade union, a workers' organization (called a "labor union" in American English)
- Credit union, a co-operative financial institution
- Personal union, separate, independent states that share the same monarch
- Political union, a type of state composed of smaller states
- Rugby union, a type of rugby football.
- Civil union, a commitment ceremony similar to marriage.
- Students' union, an organization on many university campuses which organizes students.

Political

- African Union, an inter-governmental organization in Africa.
- Government of India, officially the Union Government.
- European Union, an inter-governmental organization in Europe.
- Political union, the state of unification between two or more states
- Union (American Civil War), the northern states that did not secede.
- United States Republican Party, known as the Union Party during the 1864 election.

Concepts

- Union (set theory), a mathematical concept.
- Union (computer science), a data structure in some programming languages.

Entertainment

- Union (album), a 1991 album by the musical group Yes.
- Union (band), a rock band

Schools and education

- Union College, a college in Schenectady, New York and other places.
- Union Theological College, a college in Northern Ireland.
- Union Theological Seminary, a college in New York City.
- Union University, A Southern Baptist College in Jackson, TN.

Places

There are many places in the United States named Union:
- Union (American Civil War), the states that did not secede to form the Confederacy.
- Union, Alabama
- Union, Connecticut
- Union, Illinois
- Union, Iowa
- Union, Kentucky
- Union, Maine
- Union, Mississippi
- Union, Missouri
- Union, Nebraska
- Union, New Jersey
- Union, New York
- Union, Ohio
- Union, Oregon
- Union, South Carolina
- Union, West Virginia
- Union, Wisconsin
- Union, Saint Vincent
- Union, Grenadines (in the Caribbean)
- Union City, California
- Union City, Georgia
- Union City, Indiana
- Union City, Michigan
- Union City, New Jersey
- Union City, Ohio
- Union City, Pennsylvania
- Union City, Tennessee
- Union County, Arkansas
- Union County, Georgia
- Union County, Illinois
- Union County, Indiana
- Union County, Iowa
- Union County, Kentucky
- Union County, Mississippi
- Union County, New Jersey
- Union County, New Mexico
- Union County, North Carolina
- Union County, Ohio
- Union County, Oregon
- Union County, Pennsylvania
- Union County, South Carolina
- Union County, South Dakota
- Union County, Tennessee
- Union Township, Michigan
- Union Township, New Jersey
- Union Township, Pennsylvania
- Mount Union, Iowa
- Uniontown
- Unionville
- Union Beach, New Jersey
- Union Grove, Alabama
- Union Hill, Illinois
- Union Park, Florida
- Union Parish, Louisiana
- Union Springs, Alabama
- Union Springs, New York
- West Union, Iowa

Trade union

A union (labor union in American English; trade union in Commonwealth English) is an organisation formed by workers. Most typically, a single union will represent workers in a particular industry (industrial unionism) or craft (craft unionism), within all or part of a country, and will be organised to improve and defend wages, benefits, and working conditions. Unions are often divided into "locals" and united in national federations. Such examples could, depending on the country, be all the assembly workers for one employer, all the teachers in a local school district, or all the workers in a particular industry. In many countries, a union may acquire the status of a legal entity (called a "collective bargaining agent" in the USA) with a mandate to negotiate with employers to maintain and improve wages and working conditions for the workers it represents. In such cases, unions have certain legal rights, most importantly the right to negotiate collectively with an employer (or employers) over wages, working hours and other terms and conditions of employment — meaning that such things are not set unilaterally by management, but must be agreed upon by both parties. In many circumstances, unions do not have such rights and workers may typically threaten strikes or other collective action to pressure employers to negotiate. Unions may also engage in broader political or social struggle; unions in some countries are closely aligned with political parties. Unions often use their organizational strength to advocate for social policies and legislation favorable to their members or to workers in general. Although their political structure and autonomy of varies widely from country to country, union leaderships are usually formed through elections.

History

The concept of trade unions began early in the Industrial Revolution. More and more people left farming as an occupation and began to work for employers, often in appalling conditions and for very low wages. The labour movement arose as an outgrowth of the disparity between the power of employers and the powerlessness of individual employees. The 18th century capitalist economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners (or "masters") in The Wealth of Nations. In chapter 8, Smith wrote: :We rarely hear, it has been said, of the combinations of masters, though frequently of those of workmen. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labour above their actual rate… :[When workers combine,] masters… never cease to call aloud for the assistance of the civil magistrate, and the rigorous execution of those laws which have been enacted with so much severity against the combinations of servants, labourers, and journeymen. As indicated in the preceding quotation, unions were illegal for many years in most countries. There were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. Despite this, unions were formed and began to acquire political power, eventually resulting in a body of labour law which not only legalized organizing efforts, but codified the relationship between employers and those employees organized into unions. Even after the legitimisation of trade unions there was opposition, as the case of the Tolpuddle Martyrs shows. Many consider it an issue of fairness that workers be allowed to pool their resources in a special legal entity in a similar way to the pooling of capital resources in the form of corporations. The right to join a trade union is mentioned in article 23, subsection 4 of the UDHR, which also states in article 20, subsection 2. that "No one may be compelled to belong to an association". Prohibiting a person from joining or forming a union, as well as forcing a person to do the same (e.g. "closed shops" or "union shops", see below), whether by a government or by a business, is generally considered a human rights abuse. Similar allegations can be levelled if an employer discriminates based on trade union membership.

Origin of unions

Unions are sometimes thought to be successors to medieval guilds, though this is still being debated by historians. Medieval guilds existed to protect and enhance their members' livelihoods through controlling the instructional capital of artisanship and the progression of members from apprentice to craftsman, journeyman, and eventually to master and grandmaster of their craft. Guilds exhibited some aspects of the modern trade union, but also some aspects of professional associations and modern corporations, so the comparison between medieval guilds and modern organised trade unions, while somewhat helpful, must be seen in widely different social contexts. Additionally, guilds, like some craft unions today, were highly restrictive in their membership and only included artisans who practiced a specific trade. Many modern labour unions tend to be expansionistic, and frequently seek to incorporate widely disparate kinds of workers to increase the leverage of the union as a whole. A labour union in 2005 might include workers from only one trade or craft, or might combine several or all the workers in one company or industry. Since the publication of the History of Trade Unionism (1894) by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, the predominant historical view is that a trade union "...is a continuous association of wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment" (Webb). A modern definition by the Australian Bureau of Statistics states that a trade union is "...an organisation consisting predominantly of employees, the principal activities of which include the negotiation of rates of pay and conditions of employment for its members". Yet historian R.A. Leeson, in United we Stand (1971), said: "Two conflicting views of the trade-union movement strove for ascendancy in the nineteenth century: one the defensive-restrictive gild-craft tradition passed down through journeymen's clubs and friendly societies,...the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all 'labouring men and women' for a 'different order of things'..." Recent historical research by Dr Bob James in Craft, Trade or Mystery (2001), puts forward that trade unions are part of a broader movement of benefit societies, which includes medieval guilds, Freemasons, Oddfellows, friendly societies and other Fraternal organizations.

Shop types

Companies that employ workers with a union generally operate on one of several models:
- A closed shop (US) employs only people who are already union members. The compulsory hiring hall is the most extreme example of a closed shop—in this case the employer must recruit directly from the union.
- A union shop (US) or a closed shop (UK) employs non-union workers as well, but sets a time limit within which new employees must join a union.
- An agency shop requires non-union workers to pay a fee to the union for its services in negotiating their contract. This is sometimes called the Rand formula. In certain situations involving U.S. state government employees, for example California, fair share laws make it easy to require these sorts of payments.
- An open shop does not discriminate based on union membership in employing or keeping workers. In the UK a series of laws were introduced during the 1980s by Margaret Thatcher's government to restrict closed and union shops. All agreements requiring a worker to join a union are now illegal (except for the case of British Actors' Equity Association which still operates a closed shop for actors). The Taft-Hartley Act outlawed the closed shop in the United States in 1947, but permits the union shop in most states.

Criticism

Trade unions are often accused of benefiting the insider workers, those having a secure job and high productivity, at the cost of the outsider workers, consumers of the goods or services produced, and the shareholders of the unionized business. The ones that are likely to lose the most from a trade union are those who are unemployed or at the risk of unemployment or who are not able to get the job that they want in a particular field. The so-called insider-outsider theory analyses this problem. Usually, the marginal benefit of an additional worker decreases as the number of workers increase. This implies that the lower the minimum wage, the more workers a company can profitably employ. Thus, while an increase in the minimum wage benefits the insiders, as a result fewer new workers are recruited and fewer retiring workers replaced. This effect is more pronounced in a work-intensive service company. The economic analysis of a cartel applies completely to most unions, to those that try to fix the (minimum) price of work, to limit supply (e.g., by some criteria on membership or education) or to limit competition. On the other hand, unions often have also other functions than those of a cartel: they may advise the workers, warn about disadvantageous contracts or terms of employment etc. These latter functions are usually considered as beneficial for both the workers and for the society as a whole (though not necessarily for corporations or shareholders), whereas the opposite applies to cartel-type minimum terms. Often the union of a particular industry puts pressure on politicians to subsidize the industry concerned. This benefits both the workers, companies, shareholders and consumers of the product of that industry at a cost to other people. Thus, it depends on the question whether the interests of a trade union are for or against the interests of the companies, workers, unemployed, tax-payers or the society as a whole.

The problem of international comparison

As labour law is very diverse in different countries, so is the function of unions. For instance in Germany, only open shops are legal, that is, all discrimination based on union membership is forbidden. This affects the function and services of the union. On the other hand, German unions have played a greater role in management decisions through participation in corporate boards and co-determination than have unions in the United States. In addition, unions' relations with political parties vary. In many countries unions are tightly bonded, or even share leadership, with a political party intended to represent the interests of working people. Typically this is a left-wing or socialist party, but many exceptions exist. In the United States, by contrast, although it is historically aligned with the Democratic Party, the labour movement is by no means monolithic on that point; the International Brotherhood of Teamsters has supported Republican Party candidates on a number of occasions and the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) endorsed Ronald Reagan in 1980 (the following year, Reagan effectively destroyed PATCO, breaking a strike by bringing in permanent replacement workers). The AFL-CIO has been against liberalising abortion, consistent with a Republican position, so as not to alienate its large Catholic constituency. In the United Kingdom the labour movement's relationship with the Labour Party is fraying as party leadership embarks on privatization plans at odds with what some perceive as workers' interests. In Western Europe, professional associations often carry out the functions of a trade union. Notable cases of these are the German Verein deutscher Ingenieure. In these cases, they may be negotiaing for white collar workers, such as physicians, engineers or teachers. Typically such trade unions refrain from politics or pursue markedly more right-wing politics than their blue-collar counterparts. Finally, the structure of employment laws affects unions' roles and how they carry out their business. In many western European countries wages and benefits are largely set by governmental action. The United States takes a more laissez-faire approach, setting some minimum standards but leaving most workers' wages and benefits to collective bargaining and market forces. Historically, the Republic of Korea has regulated collective bargaining by requiring employers to participate but collective bargaining has been legal only if held in sessions before the lunar new year. In totalitarian regimes such as Nazi-Germany and the Soviet Union, unions have typically been de facto government agencies devoted to smooth and efficient operation of enterprises.

Trade unions in the United Kingdom

Labor unions in the United States

Unions in other countries

lunar new year]Some countries such as Sweden, Finland, and the other Nordic countries have strong, centralized unions, where every type of work has a specific union, which are then gathered in large national union confederations. Usually there are at least two national union confederations, one for academically educated and one for branches with lower education level. The largest Swedish union confederation is Landsorganisationen, or LO. LO has almost two million members, which is more than a fifth of Sweden's population. Finland's equivalent is SAK, the Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions, with about one million members out of the country's 5.2 million inhabitants. In addition, there are two other Finnish union confederations for more educated workers with combined membership of circa one million. In comparison, France is thought to have one of the lowest union densities in Europe, with only about 10% of the workers inside unions. Union membership, however, tends to be concentrated in some specific areas, especially the public sector. Unions in some sectors, such as public transportation (SNCF and RATP...) are likely to enter well-publicized strikes. The Australian labour movement has a long history of craft, trade and industrial unionism. While unions have sometimes been very strong, as of 2005 they are relatively weak and in decline, due in part to the actions of Prime Minister John Howard and his Liberal government.

International cooperation

The largest organization of trade union members in the world is the Brussels-based International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, which today has 231 affiliated organisations in 150 countries and territories, with a combined membership of 158 million. Other global trade union organizations are the World Confederation of Labour and the World Federation of Trade Unions. National and regional trade unions organising in specific industry sectors or occupational groups also form global union federations, such as Union Network International and the International Federation of Journalists.

News

There are several sources of current news about the trade union movement in the world. These include LabourStart and the official website of the international trade union movement [http://www.global-unions.org Global Unions].

References

- Clarke, T. and Clements, L. (1978) "Trade Unions under Capitalism", Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, ISBN 0391007289

External links

- [http://www.unionmillwright.com/history.html Millwright History]
- [http://unionmillwright.com Union Millwrights]
- [http://www.taterenner.com/weingarten.htm Weingarten Rights]
- [http://www.workplacefairness.org/index.php?page=retaliationunion NLRA rights]
- [http://www.eiro.eurofound.eu.int/2004/03/update/tn0403105u.html Trade union membership 1993-2003] - European Industrial Relations Observatory report on membership trends in 26 European countries
- [http://www.che-lives.com/home/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=143 Breaking Away from True Unionism]
- [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/mutual-aid-through-collective-bargaining.htm Mutual Aid Through Collective Bargaining]
- [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/examples-labor-festivities.htm Public Activities and Festivities of Organized Labor in Marin County, California]
- [http://www3.sympatico.ca/n.rieck/docs/unions.html New analysis of economic data shows that unionization could maximize productivity]
- [http://www3.sympatico.ca/n.rieck/docs/unions2.html American Labor Unions Under Stress] Category:Labour relations Category:Organizational studies and human resource management ko:노동조합 ja:労働組合

Credit union

A credit union is a not-for-profit co-operative financial institution that is owned and controlled by its members, through the election of a volunteer Board of Directors elected from the membership itself. Only a member of a credit union may deposit money with the credit union, or borrow money from it. A credit union differs from a traditional financial institution (banks, savings and loan, etc.) in that the members who have accounts in the credit union are the credit union's owners. Since a credit union is a co-operative institution, its policies governing interest rates and other matters are set to benefit the interests of the membership as a whole; for example, credit unions often pay higher dividend (interest) rates on shares (deposits) and charge lower interest on loans. Credit union revenues (from loans and investments) do, however, need to exceed operating expenses and dividends (interest paid on deposits) in order to remain in business, and this excess is used to expense loan losses and build capital. Credit unions offer many of the same financial services as banks, including share accounts (savings accounts), share draft (checking) accounts, credit cards, and share term certificates (certificates of deposit). The for-profit banking industry has a conflicted relationship with credit unions. Bank trade associations are opposed with the tax-free structure on earnings that credit unions enjoy and American Bankers Association has identified the revocation of credit union’s tax free benefits topping its political agenda in 2004 and 2005. However bank holding companies and their affiliate aggressively compete to provide services to credit unions through their ATM networks, corporate checking accounts and Certificate of Deposit programs.

Membership restrictions

Governmental regulatory agencies require that credit unions restrict their membership to defined segments of the population, such as people who live, work, worship, or attend school in a well-defined geographic area, employees of specific companies or trades, members of specific non-profit groups (alumni associations, conservation or other advocacy organizations, lodges, churches, or the like) or a particular occupational group (teachers, doctors, etc.) In the U.S., this is referred to as a credit union's field of membership, in the U.K. it is referred to as the Common Bond Mergers of smaller credit unions with disparate membership bases often result in a credit union with a wide variety of ways to qualify to join, thus a credit union may have a much broader field of membership than that credit union's name would imply. Credit unions generally follow the principle of “Once a member, always a member” which allows credit union membership to continue even if the individual is no longer associated with the qualification under which they joined the credit union.

Corporate credit unions

The majority of credit unions serve consumers. "Corporate" credit unions (also known as "Central Credit Unions") also exist, but instead serve the needs of credit unions with operational support, funds clearing tasks as well as product and service delivery - in effect, they serve as the credit union's credit union. The largest Corporate Credit Union in the United States is US Central Credit Union of Lenexa, Kansas.

Credit unions in the United States

[http://www.stmarysbank.com/ St. Mary's Bank Credit Union] holds the distinction as the first credit union established in the United States and is based in Manchester, NH. St. Mary's was founded by French-speaking immigrants to Manchester from the Maritime Provinces of Canada in 1908. Massachusetts was the first state to enact a credit union law. Department store magnate Edward Filene is credited as being the father of credit unions in the United States. Early credit unions were viewed as the “poor man’s bank” because they would extend credit to people who otherwise would not qualify for credit. In 1934, those interested in seeing credit unions grow as an industry gathered in Estes Park, Colorado. From the Estes Park Conference, the Credit Union National Extension Bureau (the forerunner of CUNA) was established. Attendees at the meeting included Dora Maxwell who would go on to helping to establish hundreds of credit unions and programs for the poor in her lifetime and Louise Herring, whose work to form credit unions and ensure their safe operation earned the title of “Mother of Credit Unions” in the United States. Credit unions in the United States have traditionally employed a state/national trade association relationship that aligns credit unions with state “Credit Union Leagues” followed by national affiliation with the Credit Union National Association (CUNA) of Madison, Wisconsin. Federal credit unions may also be members of the National Association of Federal Credit Unions (NAFCU). Credit unions in the United States may be chartered under one of two governmental authorities:
- Federally chartered credit unions (those with “Federal Credit Union” in their names) are chartered under the authority of the National Credit Union Administration. Federal credit unions insure their members share accounts through the National Credit Union Share Insurance Fund (NCUSIF), which guarantees the safety and soundness of the credit union.
- State chartered credit unions may exist in states that allow for the chartering of financial institutions under the authority of the state. Unlike Federally chartered credit unions, state chartered credit unions in some states may choose to insure their assets through either the NCUSIF, or through private insurers such as American Share Insurance (ASI). As of the end of 2004, the National Credit Union Administration ([http://www.ncua.gov NCUA]) insured more than $500 billion in deposits at 9,000 nonprofit cooperative US credit unions. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ([http://www.fdic.gov FDIC]) insured more than $3,000 billion in deposits at 8,900 banks and thrift institutions. The NCUA and the FDIC are both independent federal agencies backed by the full faith and credit of the US government.

North American statistics

Canada is the country with the highest per capita use of credit unions, with over a third of the population enrolled in one. They are concentrated in Quebec, where they are known as caisses populaires (people's bank), and on the Western prairies. In Canada, trade association memberships for credit unions is required. Canada has a 100% affiliation of its credit unions in their trade associations, referred to as credit union leagues. The United States has nearly 85 million credit union members, however less than 1 in 7 people who qualify for a credit union know that they qualify for membership. In United States, Federal credit unions may apply to the National Credit Union Administration for Low-Income Credit Union or LICU status. To qualify for LICU status, the majority of the credit union's membership must be low-income. This LICU status allows the credit unions to benefit from certain NCUA programs to enhance its capacity to serve underserved populations who may otherwise lack access to credit or other financial services. In addition, some state regulators also provide for similar low-income designations.

External links

- US: [http://www.ncua.gov National Credit Union Administration] regulates all Federal credit unions and insures most US credit unions (through its National Credit Union Share Insurance Fund, aka NCUSIF).
- .......[http://www.howtojoinacu.org "How to Join a CU" finds US credit unions by location, employer, or affiliation]
- .......[http://www.bankrate.com/brm/news/cu/19990526b.asp Bankrate lists US credit unions by state]
- .......[http://www.creditunions.com/data/ CreditUnions.com] is a community portal and financial/contact data resource for all U.S. credit unions
- US: [http://www.cuna.coop Credit Union National Association] is a trade association for US credit unions
- US: [http://www.woccu.org World Council of Credit Unions] is a trade association for credit unions world-wide
- UK: [http://www.abcul.org Association of British Credit Unions] largest national body for British Credit Unions
- Canada: [http://www.fin.gc.ca/toce/2003/ccu_e.html Department of Finance Canada]
- Ireland: [http://www.creditunion.ie Irish League of Credit Unions] representative and services agency.
- Australia: [http://www.cu.net.au Credit Union Services Corporation] represents 85% of the credit unions. Category:Cooperatives

Political union

A Political Union is a type of state which is composed of smaller states. Unlike a Personal union, the individual states share a common government and the union is recognized internationally as a single political entity. Examples include the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates.

Rugby union

Rugby union is a team sport that was developed from the rules used to play football at Rugby School in England. Two teams, each of 15 players have the task of outscoring the opposing team. Players clutch a prolate spheroid ball in their hands or arms, and may pass it backwards or laterally across the pitch, or kick it in any direction. The opposing players attempt to halt the ball-carrier by tackling him or her with their arms and bodies. When tackled, the ball carrier must release the ball, at which time a contest for possession of the ball commences (either a ruck or a maul). The game is closely related to rugby league. The main points of difference are the number of players per side (league has 13, union 15), the number of tackles allowed before a change of posession (league is limited to six, union has no limit), and league's use of the play the ball rule. The International Rugby Board (IRB), founded in 1886, governs the sport and also publishes the game's [http://www.irb.com/Laws/Laws/home.htm laws].

Method of play

As noted above, rugby union differs from association football in that the hands can be employed to move the ball. However, a player can only pass the ball backwards or laterally (i.e. not forward) to another player, or kick it. This means that the majority of progress made by an attacking team occurs through a leap frog cycle of passing the ball, running to make ground, being tackled and repeating this process. Each of these cycles (greatly simplified) is called a phase of play. The aim of rugby is to score more points than the opposition. Teams score in several ways:

Scoring

- Touching the ball down, in a controlled fashion, with downward pressure from any point on the body from the waist to the neck on or over the opponents' goal line, including the base of the posts, which is considered to be part of the goal line (a try, worth 5 points). A penalty try can be awarded if, following an incident of foul play, in the judgment of the referee a try would have been scored had the foul not occurred. The try got its name because originally the touching down of the ball only gave you a "try" at scoring by successfully kicking for post, which were the only points scored if the kick was good.
- After scoring a try, the scoring team attempts a conversion: a player takes a kick at goal in line with where the touch-down occurred. Scoring the goal earns 2 points.
- Kicking the ball above the crossbar and between the uprights of a large 'H'-shaped set of posts. This may either occur from a penalty kick or kicked from the hand during play. In the latter case, the ball must strike the ground before being kicked (a drop goal). Both types of goal score 3 points.

Set-pieces

Various set-pieces occur in play, principally:

Restart kicks

At the start of each half, one side kicks off. One side, determined following the toss of a coin, takes a drop kick from the middle of the centre line to start the first half. The ball must travel at least 10 metres into the opposition half. The other team kicks off the second half. The kicking side frequently kicks the ball high and aims to drop it just over the 10 metre minimum, which is marked by a dashed line across the pitch. This tactic gives their players time to chase the lobbed ball and hope to catch it before the defenders can do so. Alternatively the kick may be a long kick deep into opposition territory, sacrificing the chance to regain possession for territorial gain. Similarly, there is also a 22 metre drop-out. This is awarded if the attacking side is responsible for sending the ball into the in-goal area, but instead of their player grounding the ball and scoring a try it is first grounded by a defender. If the ball is kicked into the in-goal area by the attackers and instead of being grounded there by either side it continues, under its own momentum, through the in-goal area and crosses the dead-ball line, then the defenders have the option of choosing either a 22 drop out or a scrum at the place where the attackers kicked the ball. The 22 metre drop out is taken at any point along (or behind) the 22 metre line. Note: in rugby union, unlike association football (soccer), the lines bordering the field of play are themselves regarded as out of play. Thus, a player standing on but not over the touch line is regarded to be "in touch".

Tackle

A player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by holding him while bringing him to ground. If a ball carrier is held by an opposition player but still has forward momentum he may continue to slide over the goal-line and score a try. One knee touching the ground, or the ball touching the ground, is sufficient for a ball carrier to be deemed to be grounded. A tackled player must release the ball, and the tackler must release him and move away, allowing the ball to become available, or for a ruck to form. If the ball-carrier is held but is not on the ground, then it is not a tackle and a maul may form. Players will often deliberately go to ground rather than allow a maul to form, to take advantage of the rules governing rucks. Once a player has gone to the ground and at least two others players, one from each side, are rucking (usually by locking shoulders and pushing each other, in an attempt to secure positioning), and the ball is on the ground, a ruck is formed. No player can advance past the back foot of the members of their team unless they are joining the ruck from behind the back foot. If a player does so and interferes with the play, for example by touching the ball, the result would be an offside call. The ball is recovered from a ruck when a player coming from his own side of the ruck from an onside position is able to heel the ball to a player behind the ruck who can then either make a run or pass the ball from the base of the ruck. A ball may not be handled in the ruck. In a maul, the team not in possession is allowed to actively compete for the ball by trying to wrestle it from the carrier. Therefore, it is easier to retain possession of the ball in a ruck (in which the opposition cannot touch the ball) than in a maul, and a ruck will often allow a team to recover the ball quickly and move it on so as to launch another attack before the defenders have had time to re-organise. There are a number of laws governing how to tackle, the most notable of which are that the tackler cannot tackle above the shoulder (the neck and head are out of bounds), and the tackler has to attempt to wrap his arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle. It is illegal to trip a player using feet or legs, but hands may be used (this being referred to as a tap-tackle or ankle-tap).

Ruck

A ruck is a contest for possession. Once a tackle has grounded a player, he must release the ball and try to move out of the way, as must the tackler. The first player(s) arriving from either side may pick up the ball; however as soon as two players, one from each side, bind together — usually by locking shoulders as they face each other — with the ball at their feet they have formed a ruck, as more players arrive they may join the ruck, but must do so from the last foot (also known as the "gate") of their own side. In a ruck no player may use his hands to win the ball, instead each side attempts to push the other side back, and players use their feet to hook the ball backwards towards their own side — an action known as "rucking the ball" where it will be picked up by the scrum-half or half-back who waits behind the ruck. Players in a ruck may not deliberately go to ground themselves. If the ball becomes trapped in a ruck, the referee awards a scrum to the side going forward. Most infringements occur in rucks. Players may seek to slow down the speed of the recycling of the opposition's ball or speed up their own by using their hands illegally, or by lying over the ball, or going to ground deliberately. Such infringements result in penalties. If the attacking team loses possession by legal means, either because of the attacking player dropping the ball or a defending player stealing it, then the ball is said to have been "turned over". After a turn over play carries on as before, except that the attacker/defender roles of the two teams are switched.

Maul

A maul is formed if the ball carrier is held up after a tackle and one player from each side binds onto him and tries either to rip the ball away or push him forwards. Once a maul has formed other players may join in but, as in a ruck, they must do so from the "gate" on their own side. If the maul stops moving forward, then the referee awards a scrum to the side not in possession when the maul began. The tactic of the rolling maul occurs when mauls are set up, and the ball is passed backwards through the players hands to one at the rear, who rolls off the side to create a new maul. This tactic can be extremely effective in gaining ground and takes great skill and technique to both do properly and to try to prevent. It's a tactic most commonly used when the attacking side is inside their opponents' 22. It is illegal, on safety grounds, to pull down a maul, so that players fall to the ground. Referees are aware that many sides will try to stop a maul by deliberately collapsing it and will watch carefully for this illegal tactic.

Scrum

: Referees generally call scrums for knock-ons, where a player drops the ball forwards, or for other accidental infringements. If a penalty is awarded for a more serious offence, the team to which it is awarded may elect to have a scrum rather than take a penalty kick. This is usually called for if the attacking team is close to the opposition's goal-line, and want to wrap up all of the defending forwards in one place to give the backs more space — or if they believe they can force the scrum over the goal-line and score a "pushover" try.

Line-out

: try When the ball goes into touch the referee calls a line-out. The forwards of each team line up a metre apart between 5m and 15m from the touchline. If the ball went out from a penalty, the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in, if not the other team does so. Both sides compete for the ball, and some players may lift their teammates.

Team positions

A rugby union team consists of 15 players, eight forwards numbered 1 to 8, and seven backs, numbered 9 to 15. Depending upon the competition, there may be up to seven replacements. The main role of the forwards is to gain and retain possession of the ball. They take part in set pieces of the scrum and the line-out. Generally, forwards are larger than the backs, which makes them stronger but slower. Forwards also have a role in taking the ball forwards, but generally do so by driving into the opposing forwards. The role of the backs is to move the game forward by running or kicking the ball. The scrum-half will gain possesion of the ball from the forwards and usually feed it to the fly half (no.10) who then controls how the attacking team will proceed. The backline will tend to score its tries by focussing on the tactical placement of players, creating holes in the opposition defence line. A successful backline will cause the opposition to commit too many players at strategic points allowing for space to open up for the faster, outside backs (wingers and fullback). The following diagram locates the various positions in the 15-man team. All members of the starting 15 wear jerseys numbered from 1 to 15 and keyed to their positions (though alternatives exist); see rugby union positions and rugby union numbering schemes for more information. The first eight players, known as forwards or the pack, play in the scrum. The remaining seven players play as the backs. A referee controls the match, usually assisted by two touch judges.

The rugby union nations

The major rugby union playing nations are those classified as "Tier 1" by the sport's governing body, the International Rugby Board (IRB). The Tier 1 nations are:
- The three which play in the southern hemisphere Tri Nations Series:
- Australia
- New Zealand
- South Africa
- The European nations which play in the northern hemisphere Six Nations Championship:
- England
- France
- Ireland
- Italy
- Scotland
- Wales
- One nation that is not currently involved in any regular multinational competition:
- Argentina The British and Irish Lions tour once every four years and select from the best players from England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The most recent tour was a 2005 tour of New Zealand; the next will be a 2009 tour of South Africa. The minor nations include those nations, apart from the Tier 1 countries, which have qualified for the Rugby Union World Cup. The IRB classifies the following seven nations as "Tier 2":
- Canada
- Fiji
- Japan
- Romania
- Samoa
- Tonga
- United States Other nations classified as "Tier 3" by the IRB that have qualified for a World Cup include Georgia, Namibia, Portugal, Spain, and Uruguay. For further details see the List of international rugby union teams. Rugby union is the national sport of New Zealand, Wales, and Pacific countries such as Tonga, Fiji, and Samoa. The International Rugby Board has 96 Unions and 5 regional Associations. The rugby-playing world often sees a distinction between the Northern hemisphere and the Southern hemisphere teams. After decades of domination by New Zealand, South Africa, and more recently Australia, England under Clive Woodward succeeded in turning the rugby world upside down by regularly beating the three Southern Hemisphere giants culminating in 2003 when they beat Australia in the final of the 2003 Rugby Union World Cup. New Zealand and France also reached the semifinals.

Teams

International teams

The major international teams (represented on the IRB) are:
- Argentina (nicknamed Los Pumas)
- Australia (nicknamed The Wallabies)
- England logo is the English rose
- France (nicknamed Les Bleus also Les Coqs or Les Tricolores)
- Ireland logo is a four-leaf clover
- Italy (nicknamed The Azzurri)
- Japan - the Cherry Blossoms
- New Zealand (nicknamed The All Blacks)
- Scotland logo is a Scottish thistle
- South Africa (nicknamed The Springboks)
- Wales logo is the Prince of Wales crown complete with the ostrich feathers See also:
- List of international rugby union teams

Tournaments

Major tournaments

Rugby Union World Cup

- Men's and women's versions of the Rugby World Cup take place every four years. England won this most recently on Saturday 22 November, 2003, with Jonny Wilkinson scoring a last minute drop-goal to win the match 20-17 in extra time (normally a game is 80 minutes, in extra time it goes to 100 minutes), beating Australia in a closely contested match. Previous winners have all been participants in the Tri-Nations competition, with South Africa and New Zealand winning one World Cup apiece and Australia winning two World Cups. The next world cup will be held in France in 2007, with New Zealand hosting the tournament in 2011.

Six Nations Rugby Tournament

The first steps towards the modern day Six Nations tournament took place in 1871 when England lost by one goal to Scotland at Raeburn Place, Edinburgh. In the 1880s, both Wales and Ireland joined and the Home International Championships emerged. France joined the tournament in the 1900s and in 1910 the term Five Nations first appeared. However, the Home Nations (England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland) excluded France in 1931 amid a run of poor results, allegations of professionalism (rugby union was officially amateur until 1995) and concerns over on-field violence. France then rejoined in 1939-1940, though World War II halted proceedings for a further eight years. France has played in all the tournaments since WWII, the first one of which was played in 1947. In 2000, Italy also joined the tournament, leading to the modern-day Six Nations competition that takes place annually.
- If a team wins all five of their games they achieve a "Grand Slam".
- If one of the Home Nations beats the other three, this is called the "Triple Crown".
- The Calcutta Cup is contested in the annual Six Nations match between England and Scotland.
- The team finishes bottom is said to have won the "Wooden Spoon". Wales won the Grand Slam, the Triple Crown, and the Six Nations championship in 2005 and Italy was left with the Wooden Spoon.

Tri Nations Series

The Tri Nations Series is an annual international rugby union series held between Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The series is played on a home and away basis with the three nations playing each other twice. However, starting in 2006, there will be a new system in which each nation will play the others three times. Since the inception of the Tri Nations in 1996, the games played between Australia and New Zealand also determine the winner of the Bledisloe Cup each year. The Nelson Mandela Challenge Plate, scheduled every two years between Australia and South Africa, may in the future also be contested annually within the Tri Nations.

Other tournaments

- Super 14 — teams from Australia, New Zealand and South Africa
- National Provincial Championship (NPC) — New Zealand provincial tournament
- Ranfurly Shield — New Zealand provincial challenge trophy
- Currie Cup — South African provincial tournament
- English Rugby Union competitions — includes Guinness Premiership and National Division 1.
- Powergen Cup — English and Welsh clubs knock-out tournament
- Celtic League — provincial/regional teams from Ireland, Scotland, and Wales
- Ligue Nationale de Rugby — French clubs
- Super 10 (Italian premiership) — Italian clubs
- Heineken Cup — European club, provincial and regional teams
- European Challenge Cup and European Shield — European club, provincial and regional teams knock-out tournament
- Top League - Japanese club teams
- Colonial Cup — Fiji club competition
- Churchill Cup — Canada, England, and the United States, with one invited team. From 2006, the tournament is to expand to include 3 invited teams.
- In this competition, England does not send its full national side, instead sending its "senior A" team. The invited teams are likewise to be senior A-caliber teams from among the European and Southern hemisphere powers.
- European Nations Cup — national teams from second tier countries
- Pacific Tri-Nations — Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa
- Pan-American Championship — Uruguay, Canada, United States and Argentina
- Super Powers Cup — Canada, Japan, Russia and United States
- Rugby World Cup Sevens — Sponsored by the IRB, and held every four years, this is the highest prize in the Sevens version of the game.
- World Sevens Series — Annual IRB-sponsored series of tournaments for national Sevens teams.
- Ulster Schools Cup — Annual Schools competition
- Craven Week — Annual South Africa schools competition
- Rosslyn Park Sevens — Biggest Sevens competition in England
- Bingham Cup — Held every two years, this is the largest international gay rugby tournament and honors 9/11 hero, Mark Bingham
- see also: Rugby union at the Olympic Games

International trophies

- Antim Cup — Georgia and Romania
- Bledisloe Cup — Australia and New Zealand
- Calcutta Cup — England and Scotland
- Cook Cup — Australia and England
- Freedom Cup — New Zealand and South Africa
- Gallaher Cup — France and New Zealand
- Hopetoun Cup — Australia and Scotland
- Lansdowne Cup — Australia and Ireland
- Mandela Challenge Plate — Australia and South Africa
- Millennium Trophy — England and Ireland
- Puma Trophy — Argentina and Australia
- Trophée des Bicentenaires — Australia and France

History

Main article: history of rugby union The legendary story about the origin of Rugby football, whereby a young man named William Webb Ellis "took the ball in his arms (ie caught the ball) and ran" while playing football at Rugby School is almost certainly a complete fiction. Sports historians have dismissed the story as unlikely since an official investigation by the Old Rugbeian Society in 1895. However, the trophy for the Rugby Union World Cup bears the name of "Webb Ellis" in his honour, and a plaque at the school 'commemorates' the 'achievement'. Playing football has a long tradition in England and football games had probably taken place at Rugby School for two hundred years before three boys published the first set of written rules in 1845. Until the formation of the Football Association (FA) in October 1863 each football team would agree on a set of rules with opponents before a match. Teams which competed against each other regularly would tend to agree to play a similar style of football. Rugby football has a claim to the world's first "football club", formed at Guy's Hospital Football Club, London in 1843, by Rugby School old boys. A number of other clubs formed to play games based on the Rugby School rules. Dublin University Football Club is the oldest world's oldest surviving football club having been formed in 1854 and currently playing rugby in the All Ireland League Division One. Blackheath Rugby Club was founded in 1858 ad is probably England's oldest club was a founding member of the Football Association. But when it became clear that the FA would not agree to rules which allowed 'hacking' and 'hacking over' (fundamental parts of the rugby game), Blackheath withdrew from the FA just over a month after the initial meeting. Other rugby clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA. For the next few years rugby clubs continued to agree rules before the start of each game as they had always done, but on January 26, 1871, the Rugby Football Union (RFU) formed, leading to the standardisation of the rules for all clubs in England that played a variety of the Rugby School laws. Soon most countries with a sizable rugby community had formed their own national unions. In 1886, the International Rugby Board (IRB) become the world governing and law-making body for rugby. The RFU recognised it as such in 1890. The introduction of Rugby Football Union into New Zealand was by Charles John Monro, son of Sir David Monro, who was then speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives. The younger Monro had been sent to Christ's College, East Finchley in north London, England. That school had adopted rugby rules and Monro became an enthusiatic convert. He brought the game back to his native Nelson, and arranged the first rugby match between Nelson College and Nelson Football Club on May 14, 1870 In North America, rugby developed into American football and into Canadian football. The 1890s saw a clash of cultures within the game, between working men's rugby clubs of northern England and the southern clubs of gentleman, a dispute revolving around the nature of professionalism within the game. On August 29, 1895 22 clubs split from the RFU and met at the George Hotel in Huddersfield to form the Northern Rugby Football Union, commonly called the Northern Union. NRFU rules gradually diverged from those of rugby union, although the name rugby league did not become official until the Northern Rugby League formed in 1901. The name Rugby Football League dates from 1922. A similar schism open up in Australia and other rugby playing nations. Initially rugby league in Australia operated under the same rules as rugby union. But after a tour by a professional New Zealand team in 1907 of Australia and Great Britain; and an Australian Rugby League tour of Great Britain the next year; rugby league teams in the southern hemisphere adopted rugby league rules. For clarity and convenience it became necessary to differentiate the two codes of rugby. The code played by those teams who remained in national organisations which were members of the IRB became known as "rugby union". The code played by those teams which played "open" rugby and allowed professionals became known as "rugby league". Although the IRB claimed to be enforcing the amateur status of rugby union, many referred to the situation as "shamateurism". On August 26, 1995 the IRB declared rugby union an "open" game and removed all restrictions on payments or benefits to those connected with the game. ". The move from amateurism to professionalism has been one of great success and has undoubtedly increased the quality of rugby being played. However, professionalism has meant a huge increase in the gap between the top nations and the second tier. Alongside the success stories there have been some famous rugby clubs which have not coped well with the new era.

External links

- [http://www.rugbytactics.com RugbyTactics.com] Free coaching resource, rugby guide and forums.
- [http://www.heavensgame.com Heavensgame rugby news] (no popups)
- [http://www.planet-rugby.com Planet Rugby] for news, etc. WARNING: popups
- [http://www.itsrugby.com?lang=gb Itsrugby.com from for results, statistics etc. (in English and in French)]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/default.stm BBC site] (no popups!)
- [http://www.uidaho.edu/clubs/womens_rugby/RugbyRoot/rugby/FAQ/positions.html List of player positions in languages other than English]
- [http://wesclark.com/rrr/rugby_phrase_guide.html Guide to rugby union phrases]
- [http://www.sarugby.com rugby news Southern Hemisphere]
- [http://www.rugbydata.com International Rugby Union Statistics] Stats on more than 5000 games.
- [http://www.easports.com/games/rugby2005/home.jsp EA Sports Rugby 2005 official site] new rugby union game
- [http://www.irb.com International Rugby Board] ja:ラグビー・フットボール ko:럭비

Students' union

A students' union, student government, or student council is a student organization present at many colleges and universities, often with its own building on the campus, dedicated to social and organizational activities of the student body. At a few institutions, the students' union is a formally-organized group analogous to a labor union. Similar organizations by the same names also exist in many high schools, but are generally less expansive in scope, much less political, and more concerned with social functions. Many students' unions are run by students for students, independent of the university. The purpose of the union is to represent students' views within the university and sometimes on local and national issues. It is also responsible for providing a variety of services to students. Students can get involved in its management, through numerous and varied committees, councils and general meetings, or become one of its elected officers. Many students' unions are highly politicised bodies, and often serve as a training ground for aspiring politicians. Campaigning and debate is often very vigorous, with the youthful enthusiasm of the various partisans, a student media that is itself often partisan, inexperienced, and under no financial pressure to slant coverage to please a broad readership, and a general lack of serious consequences for decision all encouraging political gamesmanship. These groups also often officially recognise and allocate a yearly budget to other organisations on campus. In some countries, postgraduate students are within the general students'unions, whereas in other countries they have their own National Postgraduate Representative Body

United Kingdom

In British universities, the students' union is often, but not always, affiliated with the National Union of Students. It generally runs some facilities attached to the university such as shops and nightclubs, and publishes information and sometimes student newspapers. It may also provides counselling and welfare/academic advice services. Most students' unions also operate the "student activities" such as sports clubs, societies and volunteering opportunities, though some rare arrangements see the university providing the competitive sport, with the union retaining participative sport. The oldest students' union in England is believed by many to be University College London Union, founded in 1893. Membership of a students' union is generally the default, but not mandatory. That is, students may opt out of membership if they wish, for example on ideological grounds, although this is rare. Such students may still use the social facilities provided by the Union (often the main or only such facilities available) since they are for the benefit of the students of the institution, not just Union members.

Reduction in influence

Although the Conservative government under John Major attempted to severely reduce the influence of students' unions in Britain, the NUS and individual student unions, particularly at Oxford and Cambridge, managed to successfully lobby against the moves to restrict their political activities. The role of students' unions is now enshrined in the Education Act 1994. In 2004, lobbying by the NUS against a bill to introduce variable student fees in English and Welsh universities contributed towards the Labour government's majority being slashed to just five in the Commons vote on the bill. However, the passing of this bill as the Higher Education Act 2004 has led to some observers suggesting that students' unions in the UK have been "broken".

Scotland

The oldest students' union in Scotland is in St Andrews founded in 1864 and the oldest students' union building is the purpose-built Teviot Row House at the University of Edinburgh, built in 1889. The Edinburgh University Students' Representative Council was founded in 1884. All students of the ancient universities of Scotland are, by default, elligble to elect members to the Students' Representative Council of each University, and the President of the SRC is often a member of the University Court, the governing body of a Scottish Ancient.

Officers

In a British students' union a Sabbatical officer is a full-time paid officer elected by the students from their membership. The sabbatical officers are generally trustees of the students' union. Most if not all students' unions also have unpaid Officers who study full time or part time during their term of office. Some of these non-sabbatical officers may sit on the Executive Committee of the Union, or on the Union Council. Generally an executive committee will include variants on the following:
- President
- Vice-President (Services) or Services Officer
- Vice-President (Welfare) or Welfare Officer
- Press and Publicity or Communications Officer
- Entertainments, commonly known as Ents Officer
- Academic Affairs or Educational Campaigns Officer
- LGB or LGBT Officer
- Secretary
- Equal Opportunities or Liberation Officer
- Clubs & Societies Officer
- Campaigns Officer

Ireland

Most of Ireland's universities and colleges have students' unions which were established to represent the students in the context of internal college issues and on wider student related issues and also a means of solidarity with other movements globally. An on going campaign of virtually every students' union in Ireland is to prevent the reintroduction of tuition fees which were abolished in 1995. Most of the students' unions are affiliated with the [http://www.usi.ie Union of Students in Ireland]. The students' unions are operated in accordance with the rules set down in their constitution which invariable enumerates a strong democratic and inclusive procedure for the governance on the union. Since 1998 there has been sustained developmnet of student councils is Irish post primary schools and aprox 56% of Irish Post Primary schools have local student councils. In 2001 the [http://www.ussonline.net Union of Secondary Students] was founded as the National Umbrella body to organise and coordinate the national campaign efforts of the student councils. The Union of Secondary Students has a membership of 13% of post primary students in the republic of Ireland although this figure is forever increasing. : # Although there's a difference between 'college' and 'university' the words have become almost synonymous in informal speech

Australia

(Main article: Student unionism in Australia) In Australia, all universities have one or more student organisations. Whilst membership is typically voluntary, fees are not; the current federal government plans to implement voluntary student unionism some time in 2006. Australian student unions typically provide such services as eateries, small retail outlets (e.g., newsagencies), student media (e.g., campus newspapers), advocacy, and support for a variety of social, arts, political, recreational, special interest and sporting clubs and societies. Most also operate specialised support services for female, LGBT, international and indigenous students. The National Union of Students of Australia represents most student unions at a national level.

New Zealand

All universities, and most polytechnics and colleges of education have a students association. Students associations have a strong history in New Zealand of involvement in social justice causes, notably the Halt All Racist Tours campaign during the Springboks Tour in violation of the Gleneagles Agreement. Since the economic reforms of the 1990s and the introduction of user pays in tertiary education, students associations and the national body have shifted their focus to challenging inequities in the student loan scheme and high levels of student debt. Part-time work along side the introduction of internal assessment and the change of semester structure has been attributed to the declining involvement in extra-curicular activities and a shift in focus of the student movement from mass protest to lobbying. The Voluntary Student Membership amendment to the Education Act was passed by the right-wing National party in 1998, however with a compromise pushed by the centrist New Zealand First party that allowed each students' association the opportunity every to hold a referendum every two years on whether membership to the association is Compulsory or Voluntary. The first wave of referenda were held in 1999. Waikato Student Union and Auckland University Students Association were the only campuses to turn Voluntary. Today AUSA (Auckland University Students Association) is the only students association with Voluntary Student Membership. The New Zealand University Students Association is a con-federation of most New Zealand students' associations.

Canada

In Canada, membership in a college or university students' union is mandatory. Included in Canadian students' tuition fees is anywhere from an additional $50-$300 fee to pay for the services of the union. The money raised from dues often supports a staff and office that helps students maintain a strong union over a period of time. Student elections usually happen around March as the student bodies elect officials who sometimes work through the summer, and then throughout the next year. Student voter turnout for student elections varies widely depending on the area of the country, and the size of the institution. These non-profit student unions usually provide numerous services not only to their own students, but to the educational institution and community at large. Running things like newspapers, radio stations, various consumer businesses, clubs, societies and cultural groups, concerts, bars, various entertainment, athletic programs, financial support, scholarships, medical and dental plans are quite common throughout Canadian schools. Student unions are also well known for their political involvement. Most student governments are charged by their student body to protect their best interests at the university, municipal, provincial and federal government levels. Most unions in Canada are also members of one of two rival national lobby organizations: the Canadian Federation of Students and the Canadian Alliance of Student Associations. The goals of these two organizations are, broadly speaking, representing students to the politicians that make decisions about education in Canada. These two national organizations, despite sharing similar goals, take different approaches to achieving them.

Offices in Canada

Finland

In Finland the higher education system comprises two parallel sectors: universities and universities of applied sciences (polytechnics). Universities are characterised by scientific research and the highest education based thereon. Universties of applied sciences are oriented towards working life and base their operations on the high vocational skill requirements set by it. Every university has a student union (In Finnish, ylioppilaskunta). Membership is mandatory by law for all students studying for master's or bachelor's degree. The student unions are based on a parliamentary model, the general assembly (about 50 members) elected every second year using an open list -election. The student union is autonomous, its internal life organized by its by-laws. The student unions are considered a part of Finnish administration, however, and their decisions can be appealed against to the Ministry of Education, although this is extremely rare. In such case, the claimant must prove that the decision has violated the law or by-laws. The student unions are responsible for all representation of the students and elect the student members of different administrative organs. They are responsible for the health care of the students and usually coordinate and finance the activities of smaller, more specialized student organizations. For the financing of their activities, the student unions exact a membership fee and engage in different businesses. Differences in the scale of such businesses are mirrored in the fees exacted by the student unions. Generally, the older universities have wealthier student unions. For example, at Helsinki University of Technology, the student union owns and governs the dormitory village on the campus. The student unions are members of the Finnish Association of Student Unions which represents the students on the national level. Part of the student unions are politically active, while in others, Nations and subject-based groups are dominant in the general assembly. The question whether the student unions should take stances in the political life is open and each student generation finds its own answer. Every university of applied sciences also has a student union (In Finnish, opiskelijakunta) and its status is guaranteed by law. The student unions are much younger in this sector because the dual model system that makes the higher education in Finland came in 1996. The membership in opiskelijakunta differs from ylioppilaskunta. This is because the membership is not mandatory and every student can decide if he or she wants to join the student union. The student union is autonomous, its internal life organized by its by-laws which are confirmed by the rector. The student unions are based on a parliamentary model, the general assembly elected every year. The student union represents all students and is responsible in electing the student members of different administrative organs. The student union finances its operations mainly with membership fees, financial support from the university and small business operations. The student unions are members of the organization The National Union of Finnish Polytechnic Students which represents the student on the national level. The institutions of the secondary education (secondary high schools, lukio, and vocational schools) in Finland have student councils. They incorporate all the students of the institution but as they do not have a right to exact a membership fee, their status is quite low. Such organizations should be heard in all matters pertaining to the education in the institution, but this is often not done. The Finnish Reserve Officer School has a student council, which is interesting as a curiosity, being a democratically governed, autonomous organization of conscripts within a military structure. It has relatively high budget, in the range of 200.000 euros, financed by an association founded for this specific purpose.

Japan

In Japan, student body is called 学生自治会(gakusei-jiti-kai). The meaning of 学生自治会(gakusei-jiti-kai) is students' self-government-organizations. The student body in Japan is promoting extracurricular activities. Usually, a cultural association, for example 文化会(bunka-kai), and sports association, for example 体育会(taiiku-kai), etc. is in the inside of a student body as autonomy organization. A student belongs to one or more students' organizations, and he or she does extracurricular activities through a students' organizations. However, the extracurricular activities of a university and colleges are declining after the 1990s.

Portugal

In Portugal, every university, polytechnic institute or any other higher education schools have their own students' unions. This organizations are generally aimed to organize and promote extracurricular activities such as sports and culture events, parties, and academic festivities. For the other side, they act also as "labour unions for students" promoting and defending the student's points of view and rights, and dealing with the teaching institutions and the State's education agencies policies. The oldest and biggest students' union of Portugal is the Associação Académica de Coimbra (founded in 1887) which belongs to the students of the University of Coimbra.

Sweden

At Swedish universities, students' unions are responsible for representing the students in evaluation of the education. Membership is mandatory by law. Students' unions generally provide counselling services to its members and publishes their own magazines or newspapers. Large universities often have several students' unions, where the smaller students' unions only provide basic services. Larger students' unions often own and run their own facilities at the university such as shops, restaurants and night clubs. Which students' union a student belongs to is decided by the course of study, and competing for members is as such not possible. Many students' unions, but not all, are affiliated with the Swedish National Union of Students.

United States

In the United States, these groups are often known as student government. Other titles include Student Government Association, Student Senate, House of Student Representatives, Student Congress or Student Parliament. The phrase "student union," on the other hand, often refers to a "student center," a building containing a dining hall, game rooms, lounge, and other spaces for student activities. Most American law schools have a Student Bar Association that fulfills the roles of a student government.

Structures

Many times, student governments are structured similarly to that of the United States Government consisting of distinct executive, legislative and judicial branches. Alternatively, a parliamentary model is followed. As a result of the particularities of university environments, these structures often include elements which are not found in the federal government (e.g. legislative veto, programming branches, initiative, recall, referendum). Also, many universities with significant graduate programs have separate student governments for the graduate and undergraduate student bodies.

Responsibilities

Within their capacity as representatives of the student body, student governments may fulfill a range of responsibilities, such as:
- Representing the interests and concerns of the student body
- Collecting mandatory fees for student activities
- Sponsoring campus-wide programs (e.g. Homecoming, concerts, parades, speakers, entertainment, etc.)
- Chartering and regulating student organizations

Relationship to the University

Most universities and colleges in the United States are governed by a Board of Trustees or Regents. Student governments tend to be chartered by the Board but, in the case of public universities operated by a State, may be created by the state legislature. Their structure, purpose and responsibilities are usually established in a constitution ratified by the student body. Student governments have historically been considered departments of the university to which they belong. Since ultimate responsibility over the direction of a university is usually vested in a Chancellor or President appointed by the Board, some conflicts may arise between student government and the university administration, especially in the area of fiscal matters. In addition to a student government, many universities also establish governments for faculty (e.g. Faculty Senate) and staff (e.g. Staff Assembly). In such cases, there often exist links and dependencies between these bodies.

K-12

Student governments are present in most K-12 school systems across the United States. In the majority of cases, these governments are either representative-based and modeled loosely after the U.S. Congress, or based on the Executive Branch of the United States, with a President, Vice-President, etc. Student representatives and officers are usually elected from and by the student body, although there may be prerequisites for candidacy or suffrage. In elementary schools, there are typically one or two student representatives per classroom and one presiding set of officers. However, many secondary schools have one set of officers per grade level. K-12 student government exists for largely the same purpose as college-level student unions, but K-12 differs in complexity and power. Most K-12 governments do not have a constitution or a judicial branch and are easily stifled by school administration, resulting in a general perception by the student body that the student council is powerless and irrelevant. As K-12 governments are perceived as powerless, elections for these positions are often reduced to popularity contests in which the traditional High School Social Classes become the most prominent voting blocks.

Offices in the United States

In the United States, many student unions are often set up in a fashion similar to the United States government. Student unions often are set up into three branches, the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Positions include:
- Executive branch: President, Vice-President, Attorney General, Chief of Staff to the President
- Legislative branch: Speaker of Senate, Deputy Speaker of Senate
- Judicial branch: Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court Other US student unions have officerships similar to those in Canada.

External links

- [http://www.esib.org/ ESIB - The National Unions of Students In Europe] - an umbrella organization of 44 national unions of students from 34 european countries
- [http://www.syl.helsinki.fi/english/nom/ NOM - The Nordic Presidential Meeting (Nordiskt Ordförande Möte)] - The network is a consultative meeting of the National Unions of Students of Nordic Countries who are members of the Nordic Council of Ministers.
- [http://www.samok.fi/english/ The National Union of Finnish Polytechnic Students SAMOK] - a finnish umbrella organization of 30 finnish polytechnic (also known as University of Applied Sciences) student unions
- [http://www.syl.fi/english/ The National Union of Students in Finland] - a finnish umbrella organization of 21 finnish university student unions
- [http://www.asu.edu/usg Arizona State University Student Government] - an example of a three-branched government of undergraduates, graduates, and programming
- [http://www.asmsu.msu.edu Associated Students of Michigan State University] - ASMSU is an example of a bicameral legislative body.
- [http://www.ucsa.org/ University of California Students Association] - a coalition of the student governments throughout the UC system
- [http://www.nusonline.co.uk UK NUS Home]
- [http://www.asgaonline.com/ American Student Government Association]
- [http://www.schoolelection.com How To Win A High School Election] - a book devoted to successful campaign strategies for student council candidates
- [http://students.syr.edu/sa Student Association of Syracuse University & SUNY-ESF] - since 1957 - an example of a student association modeled with the labor union concept in mind; the Association's voice is articulated by the Student Assembly chaired by a student-elected president (no branch structure)
- [http://sga.tamu.edu/ Student Government Association of Texas A & M University] - an example of a student government modeled after the United States Government
- [http://www.usstudents.org/ The United States Student Association] organizing and advocating for students since 1947
- [http://www.tcu.edu/ Texas Christian University] - an example of a university with faculty, staff and student governments Students' unions ja:学生自治会

European Union

: This article is about the European Union. For other meanings of 'EU', see the EU (disambiguation) page. The European Union or the EU is an intergovernmental and supranational union of 25 European countries, known as member states. It will include another 2 countries in 2007 - Romania and Bulgaria. The European Union was established under that name in 1992 by the Treaty on European Union (the Maastricht Treaty). However, many aspects of the Union existed before that date through a series of predecessor relationships, dating back to 1951. The European Union's activities cover all areas of public policy, from health and economic policy to foreign affairs and defence. However, the extent of its powers differs greatly between areas. Depending on the area in question, the EU may therefore resemble:
- a federation (for example, on monetary affairs, agricultural, trade and environmental policy)
- a confederation (for example, on social and economic policy, consumer protection, home affairs)
- an international organisation (for example, in foreign affairs) A key activity of the EU is the establishment and administration of a common single market, consisting of a customs union, a single currency (adopted by 12 of the 25 member states), a Common Agricultural Policy, a common trade policy, and a Common Fisheries Policy. The most important EU institutions are the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the European Parliament and the European Court of Justice.

Status

The members of the European Union have transferred to it considerable sovereignty, more than that of any other non-sovereign regional organisation. As has been mentioned, in certain areas the EU begins to take on the character of a federation or confederation. However, in legal terms, member states remain the masters of the Treaties, which means that the Union does not have the power to transfer additional powers from states onto itself without their agreement through further international treaties. Further, in many areas member states have given up relatively little national sovereignty, particularly in key areas of national interest such as foreign relations and defence. This unique structure means the European Union is perhaps best seen as a sui generis entity. On 29 October, 2004, European heads of government and state signed the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. This has been ratified by some member states and is currently awaiting ratification by the other states. However, this process faltered on May 29, 2005 when the majority of French voters rejected the constitution in a referendum by 54.7%. The French rejection was followed three days later by a Dutch one on June 1 when in the Netherlands 61.6% of voters refused the constitution as well. The current and future status of the European Union therefore continues to be subject of political controversy, with widely differing views both within and between member states. For example, in the United Kingdom, currently holding the EU presidency, one poll suggested that around 75% of the population are indifferent or opposed to the European Union. However, other countries are more in favour of European integration — soon after the Netherlands and the French voted "no" on the constitution, Luxembourg voted "yes."

Current issues

Major issues currently facing the European Union cover its membership, structure, procedures and policies; they include the adoption, abandonment or adjustment of the new constitutional treaty, the Union's enlargement to the south and east (see below), resolving the Union's problematic fiscal and democratic accountability, revision of the rules of the Stability and Growth Pact, and the future budget and the Common Agricultural Policy. At the next Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), which is a semi-annual meeting of EU member states' heads of state and government, EU member states must decide on how it will allocate the EU budget. Also, here is the issue of the "Financial Perspective", which is renegotiated every seven years. The next Financial Perspective will be for 2007-2013. Issues that will be controversial during upcoming budget debates will be the British rebate, France's benefits from the Common Agricultural Policy, Germany and the Netherlands' large contributions to the EU budget, and reform of the European Regional Development Funds. Many commentators have envisaged these debates to yield a major split between governments such as France and Germany, who call for a broader budget and a more federal union, and governments such as that of the UK, who demand a slimmer budget with more funding transferred to science and research (and whose watchword is modernisation). Turkey on 4 October 2005 furthered its will to enter the European Union, making them the first predominantly Muslim country to open membership talks with the organisation. Many states within the union are wary of this decision, chiefly Austria. Austrian apprehension for Turkey dates back for centuries, leading from the 1683 Battle of Vienna, where the Austrians defeated the Ottoman Turks. Fears of an influx of migration from Turkey into Austria if the country and its 70 million inhabitants are allowed into the union is a heated topic. Others argue that most of the country is on the wrong side of the Bosporus Strait, which many believe to be the dividing line between Europe and Asia. Turkey also refuses to acknowledge any relations with the state of Cyprus since Turkish troops invaded the northern section of the island in 1974 following a coup attempt by Greek ultra-nationalists. Austria has proposed for an esteemed partnership for Turkey which would come short of an actual membership. Turkey rejected that proposal. Other European states claim that denying Turkey to a membership would brew future hostilities with other Muslim nations.

Origins and history

1974 Attempts to unite the disparate nations of Europe precede the modern nation states; they have occurred repeatedly throughout the history of Europe. Three thousand years ago, Europe was dominated by the Celts, and then conquered and ruled by the Mediterranean centred Roman Empire. These early unions were created by force. The Frankish empire of Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire united large areas under a loose administration for hundreds of years. More recently the 1800s customs union under Napoleon and the 1940s conquest