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Axis Mundi

Axis mundi

and Ganesha]] The axis mundi (world axis), in religion or mythology, is the center of the world and/or the connection between heaven and earth. It is common to virtually all cultures on Earth, although it plays a much more explicit role among indigenous peoples. It is thought that the idea of the Proto-Indo-European religion axis mundi, spread throughout Eurasia, in particular the concept of the world tree. It is familiar today as the caduceus, the symbol of medicine; the staff is the axis itself, and the serpents are the guardians or guides to the other realm. It is a common shamanic concept, the healer traversing the axis mundi to bring back knowledge from the other world. The axis mundi both connects heaven and earth as well as provided a path between the two. The axis mundi is commonly represented as a rope, tree, vine, ladder or staff, as well as many other things; the yin-yang descends from this in addition to the caduceus. It is sometimes, depending on representation and belief system, considered explicitly male or even phallic. Many cultures consider a specific place, almost always a hill or mountain, to be the axis mundi; for example, the Sioux consider the Black Hills to be the axis mundi, while Mount Kailash is holy to several religions in Tibet. Often, several places may be considered the axis mundi; in Islam, the Dome of the Rock, where Muhammed was raised and lowered from heaven, as well as the shrine at Mecca play this role. The Temple Mount, site of the Dome of the Rock, is also holy to Judaism and Christianity. Other nearby sites that are considered sacred and are on hills include the Mount of Olives and Calvary. The ancient Greeks had several sites that were considered places of the omphalos (navel) stone, such as the oracle at Delphi, while also maintaining a belief in a world tree and Mount Olympus as the abode of the gods. Mount Olympus Many religious structures explicitly mimic axis mundi. The stupa of Hinduism, and later Buddhism, reflects the Mount Meru. The upright bar of the cross is sometimes seen as representing a world axis, while the steeple of a church or minaret of a mosque indicates a place where the earthly and the divine meet. Structures such as maypoles in pre-Christian Europe and totem poles among Native Americans also formed local or temporary world axes. Other times a specific plant is considered the axis mundi. In some Pacific island cultures the banyan tree, of which the Bodhi tree is of the Sacred Fig variety, is the abode of ancestor spirits. Entheogens are often considered to be the axis mundi, such as the Fly Agaric mushroom among the Tungus. Other corrolaries include Yggdrasil of Norse mythology, Jievaras of Lithuanian mythology, the Sefirot of Judaism, the Chakras common to many Eastern religions, and the Trees of Knowledge and Life in the Garden of Eden. Garden of Eden] Some scholars have stated that the architectural axis mundi have transferred into secular societies. In this conception, the Washington Monument of the United States and Eiffel Tower of France represent world axes proclaiming secular power. This transfer of the idea of axis mundi from a religious to non-religious context is sometimes contentious.

Ganesha

In Hinduism, Ganesha (or "lord of the hosts," also spelled as Ganesa and Ganesh, sometimes referred to as Ganapati in Marathi, Gujarati and other Indian languages) is a son of Shiva and Parvati, and the husband of Bharati, Riddhi and Siddhi. He is also called Vinayaka in Marathi and Kannada, Vinayagar (in Tamil) and Vinayakudu in Telugu. 'Ga' symbolizes Buddhi (intellect) and 'Na' symbolizes Vijanana (wisdom). Ganesha is thus considered as the master of intellect and wisdom. He is depicted as a pot bellied yellow or red god with four arms and the head of a one-tusked elephant, riding or attended to by a mouse. Typically, His name is usually prefixed with the Hindu title of respect, 'Shree'.

Overview

mouse Ganesha acquired his head through varying methods in different stories. In one, Shiva decapitated him because Ganesha refused to allow him to enter the bath while Parvati was bathing. Shiva had to give him the new head to placate his wife. In another version, Parvati showed the child off to Shiva, whose face burned his head to ashes, which Brahma told Shiva to replace with the first head he could find—in this case, that of an elephant. The lack of a second tusk is explained by different stories. An avatar of Vishnu, Parashurama, once went to visit Shiva but the way was blocked by Ganesha. Parasurama threw his axe at him and Ganesha, knowing the axe had been given to him by Shiva, allowed it to cut off one of his tusks. Yet another version is that, in the process of writing the Mahabharata (at the dictation of Vyasa), Ganesh found that his pen had broken, and in the urgency of taking down the great words, snapped off his left tusk as a replacement quill. Another variation can be found in the work of the Indian religious scholar, Prof. Pradeep Sarkar. First cited in his paper 'The reflection of ancient India in modern India,' (1999) Sarkar weaves together from various ancient texts an altogether more prosaic sequence of events: frustrated during one of the ascetic Shiva's lengthy pilgrimages to the forest, his wife Parvati took a lover, fell pregnant, and gave birth to a son, Ganesha. When her husband Shiva returned he encountered the boy, who identified himself as Parvati's son. Shiva, immediately understanding the developments which had unfolded during his absence, was enraged, and struck the boy violently, breaking his nose. Remorseful for his misdirected anger, Shiva took the boy to the nearest surgeon, who proceeded to attempt to reconstruct the boy's nose. This could not be done without significant disfigurement. Subsequent religious traditions have attempted to mask this disfigurement with the visage of an elephant, leading to the familiar images of today. Ganesha is known as Aumkara, because his body mirrors the shape of the Aum, the elephant god is thus seen as the embodiment of the cosmos. His elephantine head symbolizes the intelligence and beatitude of the elephant, powerful, yet gentle. His vehicle is a mouse known as Mooshika, Mooshikam, Minjur, or Akhu, and this symbolizes the intellect, small enough to find out any secret in the most remote of places. It also signifies his humility, that he espouses the company of one of the smaller creatures. He is the lord of wisdom, intelligence, education, prudence, luck and fortune, gates, doors, doorways, household and writing. He is the remover of obstacles, and as such it is normal to invoke him before the undertaking of any task with such incantations as Aum Shri Ganeshaya Namah (hail the name of Ganesha), or similar. Throughout India and the Hindu culture, Lord Ganesh is the first idol placed into any new home or abode.

Iconography

According to the strict rules of Hindu iconography, Ganesha figures with only two hands are taboo. Hence, Ganesha figures are most commonly seen with four hands which signify their divinity. Some figures may be seen with six, some with eight, some with ten, some with twelve and some with fourteen hands, each hand carrying a symbol which differs from the symbols in other hands, there being about fifty seven symbols in all, according to the findings of research scholars. The four arms represent the mind (manas), intellect (buddhi), ego (ahankar) and conditioned consciousness (chitta). Lord Ganesha represents the pure consciousness - the Atman - which enables these four equipment to function in us. He is normally shown with one hand in the abhaya pose of protection and refuge and the second holding a sweet (modaka) symbolic of the sweetness of the realized inner self. In the two hands behind him he often holds an ankusha (elephant goad) and a pasha (noose). The noose is to convey that worldly attachments and desires are a noose. The goad is to prod man to the path of righteousness and truth. With this goad Ganesha can both strike and repel obstacles. The large ears of Ganesha signify the importance of listening in order to assimilate ideas. Ears are used to gain knowledge. The large ears indicate that when God is known, all knowledge is known. His pot belly signifies the bounty of nature and also that Ganesha swallows the sorrows of the Universe and protects the world. The image of Ganesha is a composite one. Four animals viz., man, elephant, the serpent and the mouse have contributed for the makeup of his figure. All of them individually and collectively have deep symbolic significance. Ganesha's divine vehicle, the mouse or mooshikam represents wisdom, talent and intelligence. It symbolizes minute investigation of a cryptic subject. A mouse leads a clandestine life below the ground. Thus it is also a symbol of ignorance that is dominant in darkness & fears light and knowledge. As the vehicle of Lord Ganesha, a mouse teaches us to remain always on alert and illuminate our inner-self with the light of knowledge. An intriguing aspect of Ganesha's iconography is his broken tusk, leading to the appellation Ekdanta, Ek meaning one and danta meaning tooth or tusk.

Some incidents related to Ganesha

Birth of Ganesha

mouse in the 13th century.]] The first incident is the birth of Ganesha and how he got his elephant head. Once, while his mother Parvati wanted to bathe, there were no attendants around to guard her and stop anyone from accidentally entering the house. Hence she created a boy's idol out of turmeric paste which she prepared to cleanse her body (In those days when no soap was known, turmeric was used for its anti-septic and cooling properties.) and infused life into it, and thus Ganesha was born. Parvati ordered Ganesha not to allow anyone to enter the house and Ganesha obediently followed his mother's orders. After a while Shiva returned from outside and as he tried to enter the house, Ganesha stopped him. Shiva was infuriated at this strange little boy who dared to challenge him. He told Ganesha that he was Parvati's husband and he demanded Ganesha to let him go in. But Ganesha would not hear any other person's word other than his dear mother's. Shiva lost his patience and had a fierce battle with Ganesha. At last he severed Ganesha's head with his Trishul (trident). When Parvati came out and saw her son's lifeless body she was very angry and sad. She demanded that Shiva restore Ganesha's life at once. But unfortunately, Shiva's Trishul was so powerful that it had hurled Ganesha's head very far off. All attempts to find the head were in vain. As a last resort, Shiva approached Brahma who suggested that he replace Ganesha's head with the first living being that came his way which lay with its head facing north, which happened to be an elephant. Shiva decapitated the elephant and attached the elephant's head to Ganesha's body and brought him back to life. Thus, Ganesha got an elephant's head. The Brahma Vaivarta Purana narrates a different version of the story of Ganesha's birth. On the insistence of Shiva, Parvati fasted for a year to propitiate Vishnu so that he may grant her a son. Vishnu announced that he would incarnate incarnate himself as her son in every kalpa (eon). Accordingly, Vishnu was born to Parvati as a charming infant. This event was celebrated with great enthusiasm and all the gods were invited to take a look at the baby. However Shani, the son of Surya, hesitated in looking at the baby since Shani's gaze is said to be harmful. However Parvati insisted that he look at the baby, which Shani did, and immediately the infant's head fell off and flew to Goloka. Seeing Shiva and Parvati grief stricken, Vishnu mounted on Garuda - his divine eagle and rushed to the banks of the Pushpa-Bhadra river, from where he brought back the head of a young elephant. The head of the elephant was joined with the headless body of Parvati's son, thus reviving him. The infant was named Ganesha and all the Gods blessed Ganesha and wished Him power and prosperity. Another tale of Ganesha's birth relates to an incident in which Shiva slew Aditya, the son of a sage. Shiva however restored life to the dead boy, but this could not pacify the outraged sage Kashyapa, who was one of the seven great Rishis. Kashyap cursed Shiva and declared that Shiva's son would lose his head. When this happenned, the head of Indra's elephant was used to replace it. Still another tale states that on one occasion, the used bath-water of Parvati was thrown into the Ganges and this water was drunk by the elephant-headed Goddess Malini, who gave birth to a baby with four arms and five elephant heads. The river goddess Ganga claimed him as her son, but Shiva declared him to be Parvati's son, reduced his five heads to one and enthroned him as the Controller of obstacles (Vigneshwara).

Ganesha's reverence for his parents

Once there was a competition between Ganesha and his brother Karthikeya as to who could circumambulate the three worlds faster. Karthikeya went off on a journey to cover the three worlds while Ganesha simply circumambulated his parents. When asked why he did so, he answered that to him, his parents meant the three worlds.

Ganesha and Vyasa

When Veda Vyasa was beginning to write the epic Mahabharata, he requested Ganesha to be the scribe. Being playful, Ganesha agreed to be the scribe on one condition - that Vyasa must recite the epic non-stop. Vyasa agreed, but imposed a counter-condition that Ganesha understand each verse completely before transcribing it. Thus the great epic of Mahabharata was written by Ganesha.

Ganesha and the Moon

Once, Ganesha accidentally tripped and fell, breaking one of his tusks in the process (this is also said to be one of the reasons for Ganesha's half or missing tusk). Chandradev (Moon God) saw this and laughed. Ganesha, being the short-tempered one, cursed Chandradev that anyone who happens to see the moon will incur bad luck. Hearing this, Chandradev realised his folly and asked for forgiveness from Ganesha. Ganesha relented and since a curse cannot be revoked, only softened, Ganesha softened his curse such that the moon would wax and wane in intensity every fifteen days and anyone who looks at the moon during Ganesh Chaturthi would incur bad-luck. Another version has it that Ganesha ate too much of his favourite sweet (Modak) and found it difficult to keep them all inside his stomach. So he tried to tie his stomach up and in his struggle, fell down. Seeing this Chandradev laughed and Ganesha cursed him.

Ganesha as a brahmachari

While playing, once, Ganesha wounded a cat. When he returned home he found a wound in his Mother's body. He enquired how she got hurt. Mother Parvati replied that this was caused by none other than Ganesha himself! Surprised Ganesha wanted to know when did he hurt her. Parvati explained that She as Divine Power was immanent in all beings. When he wounded the cat she was hurt. Ganesha realised that all women were veritable manifestations of his Mother. He decided not to marry. That's how he remained a brahmachari, a life-long celibate.

Festivals and Worship of Ganesha

immanent] In India, there is an important festival honouring Lord Ganesha. While it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra, it is performed all over India. It is celebrated for ten days starting from Ganesh Chaturthi. This was introduced by Balgangadhar Tilak as a means of promoting nationalist sentiment when India was ruled by the British. This festival is celebrated and it culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi when the murti of Lord Ganesha is immersed into the most convenient body of water. In Mumbai (earlier known as Bombay), the murti is immersed in the Arabian Sea and in Pune the Mula-Mutha river. In various North and East Indian cities, like Kolkata, they are immersed in the holy Ganga river. One who really wants to taste the festival needs to come down to the city of Mumbai. Particularly at Lalbaug where the divine idol of Lalbaugcha raja (The Lord Of Lalbaug, as Ganesha is fondly called) is set. The Ganesha festival starts on Ganesh Chaturthi (fourth day of Hindu calender month Bhadrapada) and ends on Anant Chaturdashi (fourteenth day of Bhadrapada). It is widely believed that every wish one expresses to Lord Ganesha must come true. All devotees from every corner of the globe gather at Lalbaug for the festival. Day by day the number of devotees for Lalbaugcha Raja has been increasing infinitely. For more details regarding Lalbaugcha Raja please log on the official site http://www.lalbaugcharaja.com/ Lalbaug]] Representations of Shri Ganesh are based on thousands of years of religious symbolism that resulted in the figure of an elephant-head god. In India, the statues are impressions of symbolic significance and thus have never been claimed to be exact replications of a living figure. Ganesh is seen not as a physical entity but a higher spiritual being, and murtis, or statue-representations, act as signifiers of him as an ideal. Thus, to refer to the murtis as idols betrays Western Judeo-Christian understandings of insubstantial object worship whereas in India, Hindu deities are seen to be accessed through points of symbolic focus known as murtis. For this reason, the immersion of the murtis of Ganesh in nearby holy rivers is undertaken since the murtis are acknowledged to be only temporal understandings of a higher being as opposed to being 'idols,' which have traditionally been seen as objects worshipped for their own sake as divine. The worship of Ganesha in Japan has been traced back to 806. Recently, there has been a resurgence of Ganesha worship and an increased interest in the "Western world" due to a spate of alleged miracles in September 1995. On September 21 1995, according to Hinduism Today magazine ([http://www.hinduismtoday.com www.hinduismtoday.com]), Ganesh statues in India began spontaneously drinking milk when a spoonful was placed near the mouth of statues honoring the elephant god. The phenomena spread from New Delhi to New York, Canada, Mauritius, Kenya, Australia, Bangladesh, Malaysia, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Hong Kong, Trinidad, Grenada and Italy among other reported places. This was seen as a miracle by many although skeptics contend that this was another example of collective hysteria. Some scientific experiments conducted in that time frame suggested capillary action as an explanation for this phenomenon. However it still remains a mystery of why such capillary action has not repeated itself. [http://theory.tifr.res.in/bombay/leisure/trivia/ganapati-milk.html] The book Ganesha, Remover of Obstacles by Manuela Dunn Mascetti is another of many resources that testify to the Hindu milk miracle.

Vehicle of Ganesh

Ganesha's vehicle or animal representation is the Mooshak, or rat. Both Ganesh and the Mooshak love modak, which is traditionally offered to them both during worship ceremonies.

Popularity Of Ganesh

modak Ganesha has two Siddhis (symbolically represented as wives or consorts): Siddhi (success) and Riddhi (prosperity). It is widely believed that "Wherever there is Ganesh, there is Success and Prosperity" and "Wherever there is Success and Prosperity there is Ganesh". This is why Ganesh is believed to be the harbinger of good fortune, and why he is invoked first at any ritual or cermony. Whether it is diwali puja, a new house, a new vehicle, students praying before the exams, or people praying before job interviews, it is Ganesha they pray to, because it is believed that he will come to their aid and grant them success in their endeavor. Ganesha is worshipped as Vinayak (knowledgeable) and Vighneshwer (remover of obstacles). It is believed that he blesses those who meditate upon him. Ganesha, in astrology, is believed to help people know what can be achieved and what cannot be.

Other names for Ganesha

Like other Hindu gods and goddesses, Ganesh has many other titles of respect or symbolic names, and is often worshipped through the chanting of sahasranam (pronounced saa-HUS-ruh-naam), or a thousand names. Each is different and conveys a different meaning, representing a different aspect of the god in question. Needless to say, almost all Hindu gods have one or two accepted versions of their own sahasranaam liturgy. Ganesha is also known by other names: :
- Anangapujita, The Formless, or Bodiless :
- Aumkara, the Aum-shaped body :
- Balachandra, one who wears the moon on his head :
- Dhumraketu, or the fiery one :
- Gajakarna, one with ears of an elephant :
- Gajanana, elephant face :
- Ganadhyaksha, leader of the masses :
- Ganapati, Lord of the Ganas, a race of dwarf beings in the army of Shiva :
- Ekadanta, One-Tusked :
- Kapila, the name for a celestial cow. Ganesha represents the characteristic of "giving" that symbolizes a cow, thus this name. :
- Lambodara, big bellied :
- Pillaiyar ,meaning "whose child?", Shiva's question in one story of how Ganesh got his head and also Pillai an affectionate term in Tamil, aar for added respect :
- Shupakarna, Large/Auspicious Ears :
- Sumukh, one who has a beautiful face: Ganesha is said to be possessing all the qualities of Moon, who is also called the God of beauty, and is hence also known as Sumukh. :
- Vakratunda, Curved Trunk :
- Vighnaharta, remover of obstacles :
- Vighnesh, Vighneshwara, controller of obstacles (Vighna = obstacle, eeshwara=lord) :
- Vikat, the ferocious one :
- Vinayaka, a distinguished Leader (Vi stands for vishesha Special and nayaka from root ni to lead, thus Leader Related: Janus, Elephant God

Other Media

In Monkeybone, Jumbo the Elephant God is somewhat based on Ganesha The movie Garden State begins with an invocation to Ganesha. The Ganesha Mantram is sung melodiously several times during a traumatic event.

References

Prof. Pradeep Sarkar, The reflection of ancient India in modern India

External links

- [http://www.siddhivinayak.org Official Site of Shree SiddhiVinayak Temple, Mumbai, INDIA]
- [http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/ganesha.htm Small Portal on Ganesha]
- [http://www.hindunet.org/god/Gods/ganesh/ Lord Ganesh] - Description on hindunet.org
- [http://hinduism.about.com/library/weekly/aa083000a.htm Ganesha: The Elephant-God]
- [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/ganesha Ganesha in Art and Mythology]
- [http://www.sivanandadlshq.org/religions/ganesh.htm Ganesha Chaturthi]
- [http://www.saranam.com/Deities/108Names.asp 108 names of Lord Ganesh with meanings]
- [http://www.ganesh.us Lord Ganesha image gallery]
- [http://www.sahajayoga.org http://www.sahajayoga.org] has information about how to awaken Ganesha's Qualities within you though Self-Realisation
- [http://www.dollsofindia.com/ganesha.htm Ganesha: the Affable Elephant-Headed God] by Madhuri Guin Category:Hindu gods Category:Wisdom gods ja:ガネーシャ

Proto-Indo-European religion

god, most likely Dyeus, the thunderer.]] The existence of similarities among the deities and religious practices of the Indo-European peoples suggests that whatever population they actually formed had some form of polytheistic religion. This hypothetical religion would have been the ancestor of the majority of the polytheistic religions of pre-Christian Europe, of the Dharma Faiths in India, and of Zoroastrianism in Iran. Indications of the existence of this ancestral religion can be detected in commonalities between languages and religious customs of Indo-European peoples to presuppose this ancestral religion did exist, though any details must remain conjectural. While similar religious customs among Indo-European peoples can provide evidence for a shared religious heritage, a shared custom does not necessarily indicate a common source for such a custom; some of these practices may well have evolved in a process of parallel evolution. Archaeological evidence, on the other hand, is difficult to match to a specific culture. The best evidence is therefore the existence of cognate words and names in the Indo-European languages.

Priests

The main functionaries of the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European religion would have been maintained by a class of priests or shamans. There is evidence for sacral kingship, suggesting the tribal king at the same time assumed the role of high priest. This function would have survived as late as 11th century Scandinavia, when kings could still be dethroned for refusing to serve as priests (see Germanic king). Many Indo-European societies know a threefold division of a clerical class, a warrior class and a class of peasants or husbandmen. Such a division was suggested for the Proto-Indo-European society by Georges Dumézil. Examples of the descendents of this class in historical Indo-European societies would be the Celtic Druids and the Indian Brahmins. The Germanic tribes may have been an exception in allowing women to become priests: the Völvas (see also witches). Divination was performed by priests, e.g. from parts of slaughtered animals, see animal sacrifice, haruspex. Birds also played a role in divination, see augur, language of the birds.

Pantheon

-
- Dyeus Ph₂ter(1), is believed to have been the god of the daylit sky and the chief god of the Indo-European pantheon. He survives in Greek Zeus (also Dias), Latin Jupiter (Deus Pater), Sanskrit Dyaus Pita, Baltic Dievas, Slavic Div, Germanic Tyr (also Tiwaz), and Armenian Astwatz (c.f. also deus pater in the Vulgate, e. g. Jude 1:1)
-
- Plth₂vih₂ Mh₂ter (Dg'^hōm) is believed to have been the (Mother) Earth, see Prthivi.
-
- H₂ausos is believed to have been the goddess of dawn, continued in Greek mythology as Eos, in Rome as Aurora, in Vedic as Ushas, and possibly also in Germanic mythology as Eostre, in Lithuanian mythology as Aušra or Auštaras in Armenian Astghik. Other theonyms cannot be reconstructed with certainty, and are disputed:
- Greek Poseidon was originally an Earth-god, or a god of the underworld, from poti daon "lord of Da", c. f. Demeter from Da mater "Mother Da".
-
- Velnos, maybe a god of the night sky, or of the underworld, continued in Sanskrit Varuna and Greek Uranos (which is also a word for sky), Slavic Veles, and Armenian Aray.
- There also seems to have been a god of thunder, maybe originally identical to Dyeus, but later known under other names, as Thor, Taranis, Tarhunt, Perun, Perkūnas and Indra. The thunderer wielded the vajra or thunderbolt.
- There may have been a sea-god, in Persian and Vedic known as Apam Napat, in Celtic Nechtan, in Etruscan as Nethuns, and in Latin as Neptune.
- They may have distinguished between different races of gods (Jotuns, Titans), and (Aesir, Vanir, Asuras, Ahuras). Note 1: See Proto-Indo-European language for the transcription used to represent reconstructed words.

Mythology

There seems to have been a belief in a World tree, which in Germanic mythology was an ash tree (Norse Yggdrasil; Irminsul), in Hinduism a banyan tree, in Lithuanian mythology Jievaras and an oak tree in Slavic mythology. Although this concept is absent from Greek mythology, there is also a later folk tradition about the World Tree, which is being sawed by the Kallikantzaroi (Greek goblins), perhaps a reborrowing from other peoples. It is also likely that they had three fate goddesses, see the Norns in Norse mythology, Moirae in Greek mythology and Deivės Valdytojos in Lithuanian mythology. The first ancestor of men was called
- Manu-, see Germanic Mannus, Hindu Manu. The Sun was represented as riding in a chariot, see Sun chariot.

External links

- [http://www.ceisiwrserith.com/pier/whatwasreligion.htm ceisiwrserith.com - What was the Proto-Indo-European religion like?]
- [http://www.adf.org/articles/cosmology/ierelpos.html Neo-pagan article on PIE religion] Category:Indo-European Category:Indo-European deities Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements

World tree

In certain Indo-European religions there was a belief in a world tree, such as Yggdrasil, in Norse mythology, an Oak in Slavic mythology and in Hinduism, a banyan tree. Although the concept is absent from the Greek mythology, medieval Greek folk traditions and more recent ones claim that the Tree that holds the Earth is shewn by goblins (Kallikantzaroi). A World Tree (Wacah Chan) also appears in the Maya religion as the axis mundi. It connects the Middleworld of man, with Xibalba (Otherworld) and the heavens (Schele & Friedle, 1990). There is a extensive book on the world tree and the axis mundi tracing all possible mythological sources and meeting scientific demands: Santillana, Giorgo de / Dechend, Hertha von: Hamlet's Mill. Gambit, Boston 1969

In popular culture

The "world tree" appears in the Warcraft series of computer games from Blizzard Entertainment - particularly in the games Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos and World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade. ---- World Tree is also the name of a anthropomorphic role-playing game by Bard Bloom - see World Tree at WikiFur. Category:Mythology Category:Mythological Cosmologies

Caduceus

A caduceus (kerykeion in Greek) is a staff with two snakes wrapped around it. It was a symbol of commerce and is associated with the Greek god Hermes, the messenger for the gods, creator of magical incantations, conductor of the dead and protector of merchants and thieves. It was originally a herald's staff, sometimes with wings, with two white ribbons attached. The ribbons eventually evolved into snakes in the figure-eight shape. In the seventh century, the caduceus came to be associated with a precursor of medicine, alchemy, based on the Hermetic spells. The caduceus is used interchangeably with the Rod of Asclepius, especially in the United States. Historically, the two symbols had distinct and unrelated meanings. Occasionally the caduceus may be combined with a DNA double-helix, which the intertwined snakes coincidentally resemble. The symbol's origins are thought to date to as early as 2600 BC in Mesopotamia, and there are several references to a caduceus-like symbol in the Bible, namely in Numbers 21:4-9, and 2 Kings 18:4. During the Exodus, Moses was instructed by God to fashion a pole upon which he was to position a serpent made of brass; when looked upon, this Nehushtan, as it was called in Hebrew, would spare the lives of the Israelites stricken by venomous snake bites. This symbol was apparently worshiped by the Hebrew people until the reign of Hezekiah as described in 2 Kings 18:4. It was used by the priests in the Eleusinian Mysteries of ancient Greece, and has been associated with the Gnostic Corpus Hermeticum and Kundalini Yoga, where it is thought to be a symbolic representation of the "subtle" nerve channels the "ida", "pingala", and "sushumna" described in yogic kundalini physiology. In Unicode, the "caduceus" symbol is U+2624 (☤).

- Rod of Asclepius

External links

- [http://drblayney.com/Asclepius.html Blayney, Keith, "The Caduceus vs the Staff of Asclepius"]
- [http://www.rosicrucian.com/images/rccen015.gif Rosicrucian diagram: The Symbolism of Caduceus] Category:Symbols Category:Yoga Category:Esoteric schools of thought ja:ケリュケイオン

Serpent

Serpent can be any of the following:
- The reptile commonly called snake.
- A representation of a snake used as a symbol, see serpent (symbolism).
- Among musical instruments, a Serpent is member of the brass family.
- In astronomy, several constellations are identified as serpents .
- In cryptography, the Serpent cipher is a symmetric key block cipher developed by Ross Anderson and colleagues for the AES competition. It was one of the finalists.
- The British Royal Navy ship HMS Serpent crashed into the rocks on Trece beach during a storm on the night of November 10th, 1890, killing 172 sailors. This occurred in NW Spain, off the coast of Finisterre (The Death Coast).
- "The Serpent" is a nickname of serial killer Charles Sobhraj. ja:サーペント

Shamanism

:This article is about the practice of shamanism; for other uses, see Shaman (disambiguation). Shaman (disambiguation) Shamanism refers to the traditional healing and religious practices of Northern Asia (Siberia) and Mongolia. By extension, the concept of shamanism has been extended in common language to a range of traditional beliefs and practices that involve the ability to diagnose, cure, and sometimes cause human suffering by traversing the axis mundi and forming a special relationship with, or gaining control over, spirits. Shamans have been credited with the ability to control the weather, divination, the interpretation of dreams, astral projection, and traveling to upper and lower worlds. Shamanistic traditions have existed throughout the world since prehistoric times. Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits that affect the lives of the living. In contrast to animism and animatism, which any and usually all members of a society practice, shamanism requires specialized knowledge or abilities. It could be said that shamans are the experts employed by animists or animist communities. Shamans are not, however, often organized into full-time ritual or spiritual associations, as are priests. It is questionnable whether there was an -ism called "Shamanism" until such a thing was invented in the West out of the diverse practices of indigenous people in particular locations worldwide.

Etymology

The word "shaman" probably originated among the Siberian Tungus (Evenks) and literally means "he (or she) who knows"; the belief that the word may be derived from Sanskrit is perhaps due to the relation between the words "shamanism" and "shramanism", from the sanskrit "shramana", Pali and Prakrit "samana"; the samanas were ascetics, not shamans, however. However, in Sanskrit, the word "shamana" also exists, and it means the act of calming, tranquilizing, soothing or destroying - this, through Buddhism, could have led to the formation of the modern word Shamanism. (cf. Merril-Webster Sanskrit Dictionary) It has replaced the older English language term witch doctor, a term which unites the two stereotypical functions of the shaman: knowledge of magical and other lore, and the ability to cure a person and mend a situation. However, at the present time this term is generally considered to be pejorative and anthropologically inaccurate. Medicine man is preferred, especially as not all traditional peoples approve of the use of shaman as a generic term, given that the word comes from a specific place and people. When people are ill or are of ill-health, it is advised they see a medical doctor first, rather than a shaman (for obvious reasons).

History

witch doctor tribe from Vancouver Island, Canada]] Shamanistic practices are sometimes claimed to predate all organized religions, and certainly date back to the Neolithic period. Aspects of shamanism are encountered in later, organized religions, generally in their mystic and symbolic practices. Greek paganism was influenced by shamanism, as reflected in the stories of Tantalus, Prometheus, Medea, and Calypso among others, as well as in the Eleusinian Mysteries, and other mysteries. Some of the shamanic practices of the Greek religion were later adopted into the Roman religion. The shamanic practices of many cultures were marginalized with the spread of Christianity. In Europe, starting around 400, the Christian church was instrumental in the collapse of the Greek and Roman religions. Temples were systematically destroyed and key ceremonies were outlawed or appropriated. The Early Modern witch trials may have further eliminated lingering remnants of European shamanism. The repression of shamanism continued as Christian influence spread with Spanish colonization. In the Caribbean, and Central and South America, Catholic priests followed in the footsteps of the Conquistadors and were instrumental in the destruction of the local traditions, denouncing practitioners as "devil worshippers" and having them executed. In North America, the English Puritans conducted periodic campaigns against individuals perceived as witches. More recently, attacks on shamanic practitioners have been carried out at the hands of Christian missionaries to third world countries and by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) against its own citizens. As recently as the nineteen seventies, historic petroglyphs were being defaced by missionaries in the Amazon. A similarly destructive story can be told of the encounter between Buddhists and shamans, e.g., in Mongolia. It has been postulated that modern state campaigns against the use of entheogenic substances are the offshoot of previous religious campaigns against shamanism. Today, shamanism, once possibly universal, survives primarily among indigenous peoples. Shamanic practice continues today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and also in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially widespread in Africa as well as South America, where "mestizo shamanism" is widespread. Many recent efforts have been made trying to link shamanic practice and knowledge with Western, scientific beliefs. Anthropologist Jeremy Narby has proposed that shamans take their consciousness down to the molecular level, working with DNA and viruses that they see as the twin serpents or malicious "darts". The holomovement theory proposed by David Bohm is often seen as an approach to create a scientific foundation for concepts such as parallel worlds and alternative ways to traverse time and space.

Asia

There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Bön religion of central Asia, and in Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism became popular with shamanic peoples such as the Tibetans, Mongols and Manchu beginning in the eighth century. Forms of shamanistic ritual combined with Tibetan Buddhism became institutionalized as the state religion under the Chinese Yuan dynasty and Qing dynasty. One common element of shamanism and Buddhism is the attainment of spiritual realization, at times mediated by entheogenic (psychedelic) substances.

Americas

In Native American groups, only the shaman had the power to commune with the gods or spirits, to mediate between them and ordinary mortals, to talk with the souls on behalf of the living. The shaman, man or woman, was often an extraordinary character, both in physical appearance and in acting talents. He would be a mystic, poet, sage, healer of the sick, guardian of the tribe, and the repository of stories. Those who did not possess the full range of the shamanistic attributes became simply "medicine men", and functioned as respected healers. To become a shaman, a person had to "receive the call", to suffer a religious experience, and would then be initiated into the mysteries of the art. By symbolic death and resurrection, he acquired a new mode of being; his physical and mental frame underwent a thorough change. During this period of initiation, the novice would see the spirits of the universe and leave his body like a spirit, soaring through the heavens and underworld. There he would be introduced to the different spirits and taught which to address in future trances. According to Mircea Eliade's book "Shamanism", during the initiation, spirits would take the shaman's old bones and replace them with new ones. Since sickness was thought to be caused by an evil spirit entering the victim's body, the shaman would call it out in order to affect a cure. He would do so by a special ritual, beating a rhythm on his drum, swaying and chanting steadily increasing the sound and interspersing it with long drawn out sighs, groans, and hysterical laughter.

Aspects of the practice

Different forms of shamanism are found around the world, and practitioners are also known as medicine men or women, as well as witch doctors.

Initiation and learning

In Shamanic cultures, the shaman plays a priest-like role; however, there is an essential difference between the two, as Joseph Campbell describes: :"The priest is the socially initiated, ceremonially inducted member of a recognized religious organization, where he holds a certain rank and functions as the tenant of an office that was held by others before him, while the shaman is one who, as a consequence of a personal psychological crisis, has gained a certain power of his own." (1969, p. 231) A shaman may be initiated via a serious illness, by being struck by lightning, or by a near-death experience (e.g., the shaman Black Elk), and there usually is a set of cultural imagery expected to be experienced during shamanic initiation regardless of method. According to Mircea Eliade, such imagery often includes being transported to the spirit world and interacting with beings inhabiting it, meeting a spiritual guide, being devoured by some being and emerging transformed, and/or being "dismantled" and "reassembled" again, often with implanted amulets such as magical crystals. The imagery of initiation generally speaks of transformation and granting powers, and often entails themes of death and rebirth. In some societies shamanic powers are considered to be inherited, whereas in others shamans are considered to have been "called": Among the Siberian Chukchis one may behave in ways that Western clinicians would characterize as psychotic, but which Siberian culture interprets as possession by a spirit who demands that one assume the shamanic vocation. Among the South American Tapirape shamans are called in their dreams. In other societies shamans choose their career: First Nations would seek communion with spirits through a "vision quest"; South American Shuar, seeking the power to defend their family against enemies, apprentice themselves to accomplished shamans.

Shamanic illness

Shamanic illness, also called shamanistic inititatory crisis, is a psycho-spiritual crisis, or a rite of passage, observed among those becoming shamans. The episode often marks the beginning of a time-limited episode of confusion or disturbing behavior where the shamanic initiate might sing or dance in an unconventional fashion, or have an experience of being "disturbed by spirits". The symptoms are usually not considered to be signs of mental illness by interpreters in the shamanic culture; rather, they are interpreted as introductory signposts for the individual who is meant to take the office of shaman (Lukoff et.al, 1992).

Practice and method

The shaman plays the role of healer in shamanic societies; shamans gain knowledge and power by traversing the axis mundi and bringing back knowledge from the heavens. Even in western society, this ancient practice of healing is referenced by the use of the caduceus as the symbol of medicine. Oftentimes the shaman has, or acquires, one or more familiar helping entities in the spirit world; these are often spirits in animal form, spirits of healing plants, or (sometimes) those of departed shamans. In many shamanic societies, magic, magical force, and knowledge are all denoted by one word, such as the Quechua term "yachay". While the causes of disease are considered to lie in the spiritual realm, being effected by malicious spirits or witchcraft, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman will "enter the body" of the patient to confront the spirit making the patient sick, and heal the patient by banishing the infectious spirit. Many shamans have expert knowledge of the plant life in their area, and an herbal regimen is often prescribed as treatment. In many places shamans claim to learn directly from the plants, and to be capable of harnessing their effects and healing properties only after obtaining permission from its abiding or patron spirit. In South America, individual spirits are summoned by the singing of songs called icaros; before a spirit can be summoned the spirit must teach the shaman its song. The use of totem items such as rocks is common; these items are believed to have special powers and an animating spirit. Such practices are presumably very ancient; in about 368 BCE, Plato wrote in the Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that everyone who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth". The belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujeria in South America, is prevalent in many shamanic societies. Some societies distinguish shamans who cure from sorcerers who harm; others believe that all shamans have the power to both cure and kill; that is, shamans are in some societies also thought of as being capable of harm. The shaman usually enjoys great power and prestige in the community, and is renowned for their powers and knowledge; but they may also be suspected of harming others and thus feared. By engaging in this work, the shaman exposes himself to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from any enemy shamans, as well as from the means employed to alter his state of consciousness. Certain of the plant materials used can be fatal, and the failure to return from an out-of-body journey can lead to physical death. Spells are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is usually very highly ritualized.

Shamanic technology

Generally, the shaman traverses the axis mundi and enters the spirit world by effecting a change of consciousness in himself, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens. The methods used are diverse, and often are used in conjunction with each other. Some of the methods for effecting such altered states of consciousness are:
- Drumming
- Singing
- Fasting
- Sweat lodge
- Vision quests / vigils
- Dancing / Spinning (game)
- Use of "power plants" such as
- Tobacco
- Fly Agaric
- Psychedelic Mushrooms Alluded to euphemistically as "holy children" by Mazatec shamans such as Maria Sabina.
- Peyote
- San Pedro Named thus (St. Peter) by Andean natives because he's the guardian of Gates of Heaven (Quechua name: Huachuma)
- Ayahuasca Quechua for "Vine of the Dead"
- Iboga
- Datura
- Morning Glory
- Salvia Divinorum
- Cannabis Shamans often observe special diets or fasts and taboos particular to their vocation. Sometimes these have physical purposes beyond effecting a change in brain state or taboo; for example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices when drinking Ayahuasca includes eating foods rich in tryptophan (which produces serotonin) as well as avoiding foods rich in tyramine, which could cause a hypertensive crisis if ingested with an MAOI such as Ayahuasca.

Gender and sexuality

Most shamans are men, but there are societies in which women may be shamans. In Old Norse Religion, shamanism was seen as unmanly and was practiced mainly by women (see Völvas and Wiccas). However, in Old Norse mythology, the supreme god Odin was also seen as the foremost shaman. In some societies, shamans exhibit a two-spirit identity, assuming the dress and attributes of the opposite sex from a young age, for example, a man taking on the role of a wife in an otherwise ordinary marriage. This practice is common, and found among the Chukchee, Sea Dyak, Patagonians, Aruacanians, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Navajo, Pawnee, Lakota, and Ute, as well as many other Native American tribes. Such two-spirit shamans are thought to be especially powerful. They are highly respected and sought out in their tribes, as they will bring high status to their mates.

Shamanism and New Age

The New Age movement imported some ideas from shamanism as well as Eastern religions. As in other such imports, the original users of these ideas frequently condemn New Age use as misunderstood and superficial. At the same time, there is an endeavor in occult and esoteric circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, drawing from core shamanism, a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by Michael Harner and often revolving around the use of ritual drumming and dance; various indigenous forms of shamanism, often focusing on the ritual use of entheogens; as well as chaos magic. Much of this is focused upon in Europe, where ancient shamanic traditions were suppressed by the Christian church and where people compelled to be shamans often find it improper to use shamanic systems rooted in other parts of the earth. Various traditional shamans express respect for this endeavor, sharply distinguishing it from "light" New Age shamanism. Sometimes people from Western cultures claim to be shamans (i.e., Wicca, Neo-Paganism). This is considered offensive by many indigenous medicine men, who view these New Age, western "shamans" as hucksters out for money or affirmation of self. Many shamanistic cultures feel there is a danger that their voices will be drowned out by self-styled "shamans," citing, for example, the fact that Lynn Andrews has sold more books than all Native American authors put together.

External links

- [http://www.buryatmongol.com/shamanism.html Buryat-Mongol Shamanism]
- DMOZ's Religion and Spirituality : [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Shamanism/ Shamanism]
- [http://www.deoxy.org/shaman.htm General shamanism page with American traditions dominant]
- [http://www.kondor.de/indexe.html Flight of the Condor - Contemporary Shamanism] Large collection of essays and teachings from a contemporary shaman
- [http://www.haidukpress.com/tantalus/index.html The story of Tantalus] a shamanic story from Greek mythology.
- [http://www.thefourwinds.com/store.htm Dance of the Four Winds: Secrets of the Medicine Wheel] In this riveting narrative of spiritual discovery Dr. Alberto Villoldo journeys to Peru to investigate the practices used by Indian shamans to access the four paths of the Medicine Wheel ISBN 0892815140
- [http://www.shamanismcanada.com Shamanism Training in North America] - Links to articles on contemporary shamanic practice and trainings.
- [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Culture/NativeAmerica/amerindian.htm The Two-Spirit Tradition] Two-Spirit Shamanism in North America.
- [http://www.breakingopenthehead.com Breaking Open the Head: A Psychedelic Journey into the Heart of Contemporary Shamanism] - Complements book (see below) and offers public discussion forums.
- [http://www.shamanism.dk Scandinavian Center of Shamanic Studies] - Dedicated to the contemporary practice of shamanism
- [http://www.spiritplants.org Spiritplants Refuge] - Public forums
- [http://www.geocities.com/the_wanderling/how.html POWER OF THE SHAMAN] - Where Does It Come From, How Does It Work? Category:Spirituality ja:シャーマニズム

Phallus

The Latin word phallus (from the Greek phallos) and its derived adjective phallic, adopted in English and in many modern languages, refers to the penis.
- Any object that visually resembles a penis or acts as a symbol for it (and for male fertility) may also be referred to as a "phallus"; however, such objects are more correctly referred to as being "phallic".
- The word may also refer to a type of fungus having the cap hanging free around the stem. fungus

In physical anatomy

The phallus refers to the erect male penis or, more rarely, the clitoris of a female; particularly during fetal development before sexual differentiation is evident. It's also known as dick, willie, wang, cok, bead, tic tac, weewee, etc. The clitoris is known as bead, fanny, fagina, g-spot, xxx, pussy, little licky and etc.

In art

Ancient sculptures of phalli have been found in many parts of the world, notably among the vestiges of ancient Greece and Rome; it is also common in India where the phallus (i.e. lingam) is a symbol of Shiva. The Hohle phallus, a 28,000 year old siltstone phallus discovered in the Hohle Fels cave and first assembled in 2005, is among the oldest phallic representations known. Shakespeare often incorporated phallic symbols into his plays. Swords and knives, for example, were phallic symbols representing the masculinity of their wielders. :See also: phallicism [http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_art_phallus.php The Phallic art of Bhutan]

In psychoanalysis

The symbolic version of the phallus, a phallic symbol is meant to represent male generative powers. According to the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, males possess a penis, but no one can possess the symbolic phallus. In Jacques Lacan's Ecrits: A Selection he includes an essay "The Signification of the Phallus," which articulates the difference between "being" and "having" the phallus. Men are positioned as men insofar as they are seen to have the phallus. Women, not having the phallus, are seen to "be" the phallus, within a heterosexual framework.

Sociopolitical usages

In cultural terms, phallocentrism is used to describe a male-centered doctrine or behavior, and sometimes refers to patriarchy. The term gynocentrism is sometimes used to describe female-centered doctrine or behavior, and sometimes refers to matriarchy.

In the theory of Judith Butler

In Judith Butler's Gender Trouble, she explores the Freud and Lacan discussions of the symbolic phallus by pointing out the connection that the phallus maintains to the penis. She writes, "The law requires conformity to its own notion of 'nature' and gains its legitimacy through the binary and asymmetrical naturalization of bodies in which the Phallus, though clearly not identical with the penis, nevertheless deploys the penis as its naturalized instrument and sign" (135). In Bodies that Matter, she further explores the possibilities for the phallus in her discussion of "The Lesbian Phallus." If, as she notes, "Freud enumerates a set of analogies and substitutions that rhetorically affirm the fundamental transferability of that property," that is, the transferability of the phallus from the penis elsewhere, then any number of other things might come to stand in for the phallus (62). Category:Sexology Category:Symbols Category:psychoanalysis

Black Hills

The Black Hills are a small, isolated mountain range rising from the Great Plains of North America in western South Dakota and extending into Wyoming, USA. Set off from the main body of the Rocky Mountains, the region is somewhat of a geological anomaly. The region is considered sacred by many of the AmerInd (Native Americans) of the Great Plains. It is accurately described as an "island of trees in a sea of grass."

History

After the public discovery of gold in the 1870s, the conflict over control of the region sparked the last major Indian War on the Great Plains, the Black Hills War. The Black Hills are considered by the Lakota (Teton Sioux) to be the axis mundi, or center of the world; the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) had confirmed their ownership of the mountain range before the discovery of gold; the Lakota had conquered the Black Hills by defeating the Cheyenne in 1776. Although rumors of gold in the Black Hills had circulated in North America for decades (See Thoen Stone and Father DeSmet), Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer led an 1874 expedition into the Black Hills, and officially announced the presence of gold through newspaper reporters which accompanied the expedition by the 7th US Cavalry. The following year, 1875, the first detailed survey of the Black Hills was conducted by the Newton-Jenney Party. The surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, was the first person to ascend to the top of Harney Peak, the highest point in the Black Hills. Following the defeat of the Lakota and their allies in 1876, the United States "purchased" the region (no actual purchase was ever completed and this area is under dispute to this day). In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Black Hills were illegally taken and that remuneration of the initial offering price plus interest — over $100 million — be paid. However, the Lakota wanted the return of their land rather than money, and refused the settlement. The Lakota Nation still demands its land back to this day and, with the help of former Senator Bill Bradley of New Jersey, did attempt to introduce a bill into Congress for return of a portion of the Black Hills. The bill eventually failed due to lack of support from the South Dakota congressional delegation. In the gold rush of 1875-1878, thousands of miners went to the Black Hills, and in 1880 the area was the most densely populated part of Dakota Territory with three large towns in the Northern Hills: Deadwood, Central City, and Lead. Around these also lay groups of smaller gold camps, towns and villages, while Hill City and Custer City lay in the Southern Hills, and railroads were already reaching the previously remote area. From 1880 the gold mines yielded about $4,000,000 annually, and the silver mines about $3,000,000 annually. Unlike the rest of the Dakotas, the Black Hills was primarily settled from the west and south, as a result of miners flocking to the Hills from earlier gold boom locations in Colorado and Montana. Today, the South Dakota side of the Black Hills is economically and socially more like Wyoming or Colorado than the Dakotas. The nearby reservations and Ellsworth Air Force Base make for a unique diversity in population unlike the rest of Wyoming or South Dakota.

Geology

The geology of the Black Hills is complex. A Tertiary mountain-building episode is responsible for the uplift and current topography of the Black Hills region. This uplift was marked by volcanic activity in the northern Black Hills. The southern Black Hills are characterized by Precambrian granite, pegmatite, and metamorphic rocks that comprise the core of the entire Black Hills uplift. This core is rimmed by Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks.

Biosystems

As with the geology, the biology of the Black Hills is complex. Most of the Hills are a fire-climax Ponderosa Pine forest, with more spruce and Douglas fir located in the Northern Hills, especially in the Bear Lodge Mountains which make up most of the Wyoming portion of the Black Hills. However, large open parks (mountain meadows) with lush grassland rather than forest are scattered through the Hills, and the southern portions of the Hills, due to the rainshadow of the higher elevations, are dry grassland and scrub pine and juniper. Wildlife is both diverse and plentiful, with trout and other species in the creeks, while the forests and grasslands offer good habitat for buffalo, deer, antelope, big-horn sheep, mountain goats, mountain lions, and a variety of smaller animals, including prairie dogs. Biologically, the Black Hills is a meeting and mixing place, with species common both to the east and west, north and south, sharing common habitat.

Tourism and economy

The region is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Harney Peak (the highest point in South Dakota), Custer State Park (the largest state park in the US), Bear Butte State Park, Devils Tower National Monument, and the Crazy Horse Memorial (the largest sculpture in the world). The Black Hills also hosts the Black Hills, or Sturgis, Motorcycle Rally each August. Started in 1940, the 65th Rally in 2005 saw more than 550,000 bikers visit the Black Hills, and are a key part of the regional economy. Today, the major city in the Black Hills is Rapid City, with an incorporated population of 60,000 and a metropolitan population of 85,000. It serves a market area covering much of five states: North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana. In addition to tourism and mining (including coal, specialty minerals, and the now declining gold mining), the Black Hills economy includes ranching (sheep and cattle, primarily, with buffalo and ratites becoming more common), timber (lumber), Ellsworth Air Force Base, and some manufacturing, including jewelry (Black Hills Gold Jewelry), cement, electronics, cabinetry, guns and ammunition. In many ways, the Black Hills functions as a very spread-out urban area with a population (not counting tourists) of 250,000. Other important Black Hills cities include Belle Fourche, a ranching town; Spearfish, home of Black Hills State University; Deadwood, a historic and well preserved gambling mecca; its twin city of Lead, home of the now-closed Homestake Mine (gold); Keystone outside Mount Rushmore; Hill City, a timber and tourism town in the center of the Hills; Custer City, a mining and tourism town and headquarters for Black Hills National Forest; Hot Springs, an old resort town in the southern Hills; Sturgis, originally a military town (Fort Meade, now a VA center, is located just to the east); and Newcastle, center of the Black Hills petroleum production and refining.

Black Hills in film

Several major motion pictures have been filmed in the Black Hills including North by Northwest, How the West Was Won, A Man Called Horse, Lakota Woman, and Dances with Wolves. The Black Hills has been the setting of still more movies or portions thereof, including Walt Disney's "The One and Only Genuine Original Family Band" and several movies based on Louis L'Amour movies. The Black Hills is also the setting for the popular HBO series Deadwood, although the show is actually filmed in California. However, the City Fathers of Deadwood have created a wooden "false front" street similar to the television set and the original town - a series of fires in the late 1800s destroyed all the original log and frame buildings, which were replaced with the brick and stone structures which grace the city today. Sources: The Americana Personal knowledge and research on Black Hills history by Nathan A Barton 05:37, 13 December 2005 (UTC) Category:Mountain ranges of the United States Category:Volcanoes of South Dakota Category:Disputed territories Category:Lakota mythology Category:George Armstrong Custer

Tibet

:This article is on historic Tibet. "Tibet" can also refer to the Tibet Autonomous Region, which is a part of cultural Tibet. Tibet (older spelling Thibet; Tibetan: བོད་, Bod, pronounced pö in Lhasa dialect; Chinese: 西藏, pinyin: Xīzàng or 藏区 Zàngqū [the two names are used with different connotations; see Names section below]) is a region in Central Asia and the home of the Tibetan people. With an average elevation of 4,900 m (16,000 ft), it is often called the 'Roof of the World'. All or most of historic Tibet (depending on definition) is currently a part of the People's Republic of China (PRC).

Definitions

When the Government of Tibet in Exile refers to Tibet, they mean a large area that formed the cultural entity of Tibet for many centuries, consisting of the traditional provinces of Amdo, Kham (Khams), and Ü-Tsang (Dbus-gtsang), but excluding areas outside the PRC like Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Ladakh that have also formed part of the Tibetan cultural sphere. When the PRC refers to Tibet, they mean the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR): a province-level entity which, according to the territorial claims of the PRC, includes Arunachal Pradesh; some Chinese may consider Sikkim, Bhutan, and Ladakh to be parts of cultural Greater Tibet in addition to Amdo, Kham, and Ü-Tsang. The TAR covers only the former Ü-Tsang province and western Kham province, while Amdo and eastern Kham have been incorporated into the present-day Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Yunnan, and Sichuan.

Status

Sichuan While there is little dispute that Tibet was once an independent country, there is intense dispute over the legitimacy of the PRC's rule over Tibet today. Since 1959 the former government of Tibet, led by the 14th Dalai Lama, has maintained a government in exile at Dharamsala, in northern India. It claims sovereignty over Tibet, with borders defined as the entirety of what it terms "Historic Tibet", although it controlled only about half of that area before 1959. The Government of Tibet claims Tibet to be a distinct nation independent before conquest by the Mongol Empire (Yuan Dynasty) 700 years ago; between the fall of the Mongol Empire in 1368 and subjugation by the Manchu Empire (Qing Dynasty) in 1720; and again between the fall of the Manchu Empire in 1912 and incorporation into the PRC in 1951. Moreover, even during the periods of nominal subjugation to the Mongol and Manchu Empires, Tibet was largely self-governing. As such, the Tibetan government in exile views current PRC rule in Tibet as colonial and illegitimate, motivated solely by the natural resources and strategic value of Tibet, and in gross violation of both Tibet's historical status as an independent country and the right of Tibetan people to self-determination. It also points to the autocratic and divide-and-rule policies imposed by the PRC, as well as what it claims to be assimilationist policies of the PRC, regarding those as an example of Chinese imperialism bent at destroying Tibet's distinct ethnic makeup, culture, and identity, thereby cementing it as an indivisible part of China. On the other hand, the PRC claims to rule Tibet legitimately, by claiming that Tibet has been an indivisible part of China de jure since Mongol (Yuan) conquest 700 years ago, comparable to other states such as the Kingdom of Dali and the Tangut Empire that were also incorporated into the Mongol Empire at the time and have remained in China ever since. The PRC contends that all subsequent Chinese governments (Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty, Republic of China, and People's Republic of China) have succeeded the Yuan Dynasty in exercising de jure sovereignty and de facto power over Tibet. Moreover, the PRC contends that even during the period (1912-1951) commonly held to be the last period of Tibetan independence, China continued to maintain sovereignty over Tibet; no country gave Tibet diplomatic recognition; and Tibet itself acknowledged Chinese sovereignty by sending delegates to the Drafting Committee for a new constitution of the Republic of China in 1925; to the National Assembly of the Republic of China in 1931; to the fourth National Congress of the Kuomintang in 1931; to a National Assembly for drafting a new Chinese constitution in 1946; and to another National Assembly for drafting a new Chinese constitution in 1948. [http://www.chinaemb.or.kr/chn/zgzt/zgxz/t81209.htm] Finally, the PRC considers all movements aimed at ending Chinese sovereignty in Tibet, starting with British attempts in the late 19th century and early 20th century, to the Government of Tibet in Exile today, as one long campaign abetted by malicious Western imperialism aimed at destroying Chinese integrity and sovereignty, thereby weakening China's position in the world. The PRC also points to the autocratic and theocratic policies of the government of Tibet before 1959, as well as its renunciation of Arunachal Pradesh, claimed by China as a part of Tibet occupied by India, and its association with India, and as such claims the Government of Tibet in Exile has no moral legitimacy to govern Tibet.

Name

In English

The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European languages, ultimately derives (via Arabic and Persian) from a Turkic word Töbän (pl. Töbäd) meaning "the heights". (Behr, W. Oriens 34 (1994): 557-564.) The Chinese word for the Tibetan Empire (7th - 11th centuries), 吐蕃 (tǔfān or tǔbō), may have the same origin.

In Tibetan

Tibetans call their homeland Bod (བོད་), pronounced pö in Lhasa dialect. It is first attested in the geography of Ptolemy as βαται (batai) and in Chinese texts as fa (Beckwith, C. U. of Indiana Diss. 1977). They refer to a fatherland, rather than a motherland as does India.

In Chinese

The Chinese name for Tibet, 西藏 (Xīzàng), is a phonetic transliteration derived from Tsang (western Ü-Tsang) The name originated during the Manchu Qing Dynasty of China. It can be broken down into Xi 西 (literally "West"), and Zang 藏 (literally "Tibetan"). The term can be interpreted as either "Western Tibet", or "Tibet of/in the West". The government of the People's Republic of China equates Tibet with Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR). As such, the name "Xizang" is equated with the TAR. In order to refer non-TAR Tibetan areas, or to all of cultural Tibet, the term 藏区 Zàngqū (literally, "ethnic Tibetan areas") is used. However, Chinese-language versions of pro-Tibetan independence websites, such as the [http://www.freetibet.org/ Free Tibet Campaign], the [http://www.vot.org/ Voice of Tibet], and [http://www.tibet.net/ Tibet Net] use 西藏 ("Xizang"), not 藏区 ("Zangqu"), to mean historic Tibet. Many English-speakers reserve "Xizang", the Chinese word transliterated into English, for the TAR, to keep the concept distinct from that of historic Tibet. Some pro-independence advocates duplicate the situation into the Chinese language, and use 土伯特 or 图伯特, which are both phonetic transcriptions of the word "Tibet", to refer to historic Tibet, though this usage is rare. The character 藏 (zàng) has been used in transcriptions referring to Tsang as early as the Ming Dynasty, if not earlier, though the modern term "Xizang" was devised in the 18th century. The Chinese character 藏 (Zàng) has also been generalized to refer to all of Tibet, including Tibetan things such as the Tibetan language (藏文, Zàngwén) and the Tibetan people (藏族, Zàngzú). The two characters of Xīzàng can literally mean "western storehouse", which some Tibetans find offensive. However, the offending character, "zàng", can also mean "treasure" or "Buddhist scripture". In addition, Chinese transliterations of non-Chinese names do not necessarily take into account the literal meanings of words; usually a positive or neutral connotation combined with phonetic similarity is enough for the transliteration to come into use.

Cities

Lhasa is Tibet's traditional capital and the capital of Tibet Autonomous Region. Other cities in Historic Tibet include Shigatse (Gzhis-ka-rtse), Gyantse (Rgyang-rtse), Chamdo (Qamdo)/(Chab-mdo), Nagchu (Nag-chu), Nyingchi (Nying-khri), Nedong (Sne-gdong), Dartsendo (Dar-btsen-mdo), Jyekundo (Skyes-rgu-mdo) or Yushu (Yul-shul), Golmud (Na-gor-mo), Barkam ('Bar-khams), Gartse (Dkar-mdzes), Lhatse (Lhar-tse), Machen (Rma-chen), Pelbar (Dpal-'bar), Sakya (Sa-skya) and Tingri (Ding-ri).

History

:Main articles: History of Tibet and Foreign relations of Tibet Little is known of Tibet before the 7th century, though the Tibetan language is generally considered to be a Tibeto-Burman language and related distantly to Chinese. According to a legend in 14th century Mani Bka' 'bum, the Tibetans are descended from the union of a monkey and a rock ogress. The monkey was an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara (Spyan ras gzigs in Tibetan, pronounced Cenrezik), the Buddha of compassion, and the ogress an incarnation of Tara ('Grol ma in Tibetan, pronounced Drolma). Tibet was a strong empire between the 7th and 10th centuries. The distinctive form of Tibetan society, in which land was divided into three different types of holding - estates of noble families, freeheld lands and estates held by monasteries of particular Tibetan Buddhists sects - arose after the weakening of the Tibetan kings in the 10th century. This form of society was to continue into the 1950s, at which time more than 700,000 of the country's population of 1.25 million were serfs. serf In the 13th century Tibet was incorporated into the Mongolian empire. The Mongol rulers granted secular leadership of Tibet to the Sa-skya school of Tibetan Buddhism. There followed an interregnum period in which there were three secular dynasties. In the 16th century, Altan Khan of Tumet Mongolian tribe supported the Dalai Lama's religious lineage to be the dominant religion among Mongols and Tibetans. By the early 18th century Chinese central government sent resident commissioner (amban) to Lhasa. When Tibetan factions rebelled in 1759 and killed the resident commissioners after the central government decided to reduce the number of soldiers to about 100, a Qing army entered and defeated the rebels and reinstalled the resident commissioner. The number of soldiers in Tibet was kept at about 2000. The defensive duties were partly helped out by a local force which was reorganized by the resident commissioner, and the Tibetan government continued to manage day-to-day affairs as before. In 1904 the British sent a largely Indian military force and seized Lhasa, forcing Tibet to open a border crossing with British India. A 1906 treaty with China repeated these conditions, making Tibet a de facto British protectorate. There was also a Nepalese mission in Lhasa remaining from a similar invasion by Nepal in 1855. 1855 After 1907, a treaty between Britain, China, and Russia recognized Chinese sovereignty over Tibet. The Qing central government established direct rule for the first time in 1910; however, Chinese troops had to withdraw to China proper due to the unrest of the 1911 Revolution, giving the Dalai Lama the opportunity to re-establish control. In 1913, Tibet and Mongolia signed a treaty proclaiming mutual recognition and their independence from China. In 1914 a treaty was negotiated in India by representatives of China, Tibet and Britain: the Simla Convention. During the convention, the British tried to divide Tibet into Inner and Outer Tibet. When negotiations broke down over the specific boundary between Inner and Outer, the British demanded instead to advance their line of control, enabling them to annex 90,000 square kilometers of traditional Tibetan territory in southern Tibet, which corresponds to most of the modern Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, while recognizing Chinese suzerainty over Tibet and Tibetan autonomy. Tibetan representatives secretly signed under British pressure; however, the representative of Chinese central government declared that the secretive annexation of territory was not acceptable. The boundary established in the convention, the McMahon Line, was considered by the British and later the independent Indian government to be the boundary; however, the Chinese view since then has been that since China, which was sovereign over Tibet, did not sign the treaty, the treaty was meaningless, and the annexation and control of southern Tibet / Arunachal Pradesh by India is illegal. This paved the way to the Sino-Indian War of 1962 boundary dispute between China and India today. The subsequent outbreak of World War I and civil war in China caused the Western powers and the infighting factions of China proper to lose interest in Tibet, and the 13th Dalai Lama ruled undisturbed. At that time the government of Tibet controlled all of Ü-Tsang (Dbus-gtsang) and western Kham (Khams), roughly coincident with the borders of Tibet Autonomous Region today. Eastern Kham, separated by the Yangtze River was under the control of Chinese warlord Liu Wenhui. The situation in Amdo (Qinghai) was more complicated, with the Xining area controlled by ethnic Hui warlord Ma Bufang, who constantly strove to exert control over the rest of Amdo (Qinghai). Neither the Nationalist government of the Republic of China nor the People's Republic of China has ever renounced China's sovereignty over Tibet. In 1950 the People's Liberation Army entered Tibet, crushing the Tibetan army. In 1951 the Plan for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet, a treaty signed under Chinese pressure by representatives of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, provided for rule by a joint administration under representatives of the central government and the Tibetan government. Most of the population of Tibet at that time were serfs, bound to land owned by lamas. Any attempt at land reform or the redistribution of wealth would have proved unpopular with the established landowners. This agreement was initially put into effect in Tibet proper. However, Eastern Kham and Amdo were outside the administration of the government of Tibet, and were thus treated like any other Chinese province with land reform implemented in full. As a result, a rebellion broke out in Amdo and eastern Kham in June of 1956. The rebellion, supported by the American CIA, eventually spread to Lhasa. It was crushed by 1959. Tibetan exiles claim that during this campaign, tens of thousands of Tibetans were killed. The 14th Dalai Lama and other government principals fled to exile in India, but isolated resistance continued in Tibet until 1969 when CIA support was withdrawn. Although he remained a virtual prisoner, the Chinese set the Panchen Lama as a figurehead in Lhasa, claiming that he headed the legitimate Government of Tibet in the absence of the Dalai Lama, the traditional head of the Tibetan government. In 1965, the area that had been under the control of the Dalai Lama's government from the 1910s to 1959 (U-Tsang and western Kham) was set up as an Autonomous Region. The monastic estates were broken up and secular education introduced. During the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards, which included Tibetan members, inflicted a campaign of organized vandalism against cultural sites in the entire PRC, including Tibet's Buddhist heritage. Of the several thousand monasteries in Tibet, over 6000 were destroyed [http://www.tibetanculture.org/culture_traditions/religion/monastic_education.htm], only a handful remained without major damage, and thousands of Buddhist monks and nuns were killed or imprisoned. Since 1979 there has been economic reform, but no political reform, like the rest of the PRC. Some PRC policies in Tibet have been described as moderate, while others are judged to be more oppressive. Most religious freedoms have been officially restored, provided the lamas do not challenge PRC rule. Foreigners can visit most parts of Tibet, and it is claimed that the less savoury aspects of PRC rule are kept hidden from visitors. In 1989 the Panchen Lama died, and the Dalai Lama and the PRC recognised different reincarnations. The Dalai Lama named Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th Panchen Lama but without confirmation by the vase lot, while the PRC named another child, Gyancain Norbu by the vase lot. Gyancain Norbu was raised in Beijing and has appeared occasionally on state media. Gedhun Choekyi Nyima and his family have gone missing, into imprisonment according to Tibetan exiles, and under a hidden identity for protection and privacy according to the PRC. [http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA170071996] The PRC continues to portray its rule over Tibet as an unalloyed improvement, and foreign governments continue to make occasional protests about aspects of PRC rule in Tibet. All governments, however, recognise PRC sovereignty over Tibet, and none has recognised the Dalai Lama's government in exile in India.

Evaluation of PRC rule

Tibetan exiles generally say that the number that have died in the Great Leap Forward, violence, or other unnatural causes since 1950 is approximately 1.2 million, which the Chinese Communist Party denies. According to Patrick French, a supporter of the Tibetan cause who was able to view the data and calculations, the estimate is not reliable because the Tibetans were not able to process the data well enough to produce a credible total. There were, however, many casualties, perhaps as many as 400,000. This figure is extrapolated from a calculation Warren W. Smith made from census reports of Tibet which show 200,000 "missing" from Tibet. Even The Black Book of Communism expresses doubt at the 1.2 million figure, but does note that according to Chinese census there was a population of 2.8 million in 1953, but only 2.5 million in 1964 in Tibet proper. The government of Tibet in Exile also says that millions of Chinese immigrants to the TAR are diluting the Tibetans both culturally and through intermarriage. Exile groups say that despite recent attempts to restore the appearance of original Tibetan culture to attract tourism, the traditional Tibetan way of life is now irrevocably changed. It is also reported that when Hu Yaobang, the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, visited Lhasa in 1980 he was unhappy when he found out the region was behind neighbouring provinces. Reforms were instituted, and since then the central government's policy in Tibet has granted most religious freedoms. But monks and nuns are still sometimes imprisoned, and many Tibetans (mostly monks and nuns) continue to flee Tibet yearly. At the same time, many Tibetans view projects that the PRC claims to benefit Tibet, such as the China Western Development economic plan or the Qinghai-Tibet Railroad, as politically-motivated actions to consolidate central control over Tibet by facilitating militarization and Han Chinese migration while benefiting few Tibetans. The government of the PRC says that the population of Tibet in 1737 was about 8 million, and that due to the backward rule of the local theocracy, there was rapid decrease in the next two hundred years and the population in 1959 was only about 1.19 million. Today, the population of Greater Tibet is 7.3 million, of which 5 million is ethnic Tibetan, according to the 2000 census. The increase is viewed as the result of the abolishment of the theocracy and introduction of a modern, higher standard of living. Based on the census numbers, the PRC also rejects claims that the Tibetans

Axis mundi

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