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Conservation

Conservation

Conservation may refer to the following:
- Conservation ethic in relation to preserving ecosystems
- Conservationist
- Conservation movement
- Conservation ecology
- Conservation law of physics
- Conservation of energy
- Conservation of mass
- Conservation (genetics) in genetics
- conservation (botany) in botanical nomenclature
- Conservation (psychology) in psychology
- Prolonging the material integrity of cultural and artistic objects
- Art conservation
- Architectural conservation or immovable object conservation
- Archaeological site conservation
- The conservation of cultural heritage or historic preservation

Conservation ethic

Conservation can be confused with conversation and vice versa. This article is about the conservation ethic. For the laws of conservation in the physical sciences, see conservation law. ---- conservation law The Conservation ethic is an ethic of resource use, allocation, exploitation, and protection. Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the natural world: its forests, fisheries, habitats, and biological diversity. Secondary focus is on materials conservation and energy conservation, which are seen as important to protect the natural world.

Introduction

To conserve habitat in terrestrial ecoregions and stop deforestation is a goal widely shared by many groups with a wide variety of motivations. These issues and groups are covered in their own articles. To protect sea life from extinction due to overfishing is another commonly stated goal of conservation - ensuring that "some will be available for our children" to continue a way of life. The consumer conservation ethic is best expressed by the four R's:
- Reduce
- Recycle
- Reuse
- Rethink This social ethic primarily relates to local purchasing, moral purchasing, the sustained and efficient use of renewable resources, the moderation of destructive use of finite resources, and the prevention of harm to common resources such as air and water quality, the natural functions of a living earth, and cultural values in a built environment. The principal value underlying most expressions of the conservation ethic is that the natural world has intrinsic and intangible worth along with utilitarian value - a view carried forward by the scientific ecology movement and some of the older Romantic schools of conservation. More Utilitarian schools of conservation seek a proper valuation of local and global impacts of human activity upon nature in their effect upon human well being, now and to our posterity. How such values are assessed and exchanged among people determines the social, political, and personal restraints and imperatives by which conservation is practiced. This is a view common in the modern environmental movement. These movements have diverged but they have deep and common roots in the conservation movement. In the United States of America, the year 1864 saw the publication of two books which laid the foundation for Romantic and Utilitarian conservation traditions in America. The posthumous publication of Henry David Thoreau's Maine Woods established the grandeur of unspoiled nature as a citadel to nourish the spirit of man. From George Perkins Marsh a very different book, Man and Nature, later subtitled "The Earth as Modified by Human Nature", cataloged his observations of man exhausting and altering the land from which his sustenance derives. :"here introduce specific concerns like supporting populations, global warming, biodiversity, the value of wilderness, fish and timber harvest, etc,etc."

Usage of term

In common usage, the term refers to the activity of systematically protecting natural resources such as forests, including biological diversity. Carl F. Jordan defines the term in his book Replacing Quantity With Quality As a Goal for Global Management :"biological conservation as being a philosophy of managing the environment in a manner that does not despoil, exhaust or extinguish." While that usage is not new, the idea of biological conservation has been applied to the principles of ecology, biogeography, anthropology, economy and sociology to maintain biodiversity. Even the term "conservation" may cover the concepts such as cultural diversity, genetic diversity and the concept of movements environmental conservation, seedbank (preservation of seeds). These are often summarized as the priority to respect diversity, especially by Greens. Much recent movement in conservation can be considered a resistance to commercialism and globalization. Slow food is a consequence of rejecting these as moral priorities, and embracing a slower and more locally-focused lifestyle.

History of biological conservation

The origins of biological conservation can be traced to philosophical and religious beliefs about Man as a full part of Nature: Taoist and Shintoist philosophies encourage recognition of special sites, allowing spiritual experiments.
Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism, grant a sacred value to animals. Primitive religions also recognize sacred values to sites such as forests, lakes, mountains. Islam recognizes each species as its own "nation", and an obligation of man to khalifa, or "stewardship" of the Earth. Specific conservation mechanisms such as haram and hima zones, and the origins of the idea of carrying capacity, were a product of Islamic civilization. Indigenous strategies successfully combated soil erosion and deforestation in precolonial East Africa, as well as in the early colonial empires in China and Venice. As early as 450 BCE Artaxerxes I attempted to restrict cutting Lebanese timber (Grove 1992). Plato, writing in the 4th century BCE, noted that the removal of trees in Attica produced soil erosion "and what remains is like the skeleton of a body wasted by disease". Some historians claim that the idea of conservation originated in conflicts over the use of forests (Glacken 1965). Conservationism embraces a spectrum of views, ranging from anthropocentric, utilitarian conservationism to radical ecocentric green eco-political views which advocate the total preservation of forest resources and which seek to establish a radically new relationship between humanity and nature. There are three main philosophical movements roughly characterized as conservation movements (plural):

Romantic-Transcendental

Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, in 1880, defend the idea that Nature has a meaning, beyond economic profits. Nature is a temple where the Man can share and communicate with God.
John Muir defends a preservationist ethic, according to which the beauty of Nature stimulates the religious feelings and supports spiritual experiments. He also sees in biological communities, groups of species evolving together and depending ones on the others. These communities, superorganisms, are a prelude to the Gaia hypothesis developed later by James Lovelock (1988) and the Gaia philosophy that began to stem from it.

Resource Conservation

Gifford Pinchot, at the beginning of the 20th century, develops an ethics of resource conservation, which is based on an utilitarian philosophy encapsulated in his slogan "the greatest good for the greatest number for the longest time". Pinchot, trained as a forester in Europe, believed in the complementarity of conservation and development. According to him, Nature is a set of things defined by their utility or their harmful character. He defends the sharing of resources between all users, current and future (a first approach to sustainable development) by avoiding despoiling. However, he does not take into account the costs of degradation and pollution of the environment nor the erosion of resources. This view is taken by the modern environmental movement and the attempts to assign a value of Earth, value of life and quantify nature's services.

Evolutionary-Ecological

With Aldo Leopold (A Sand County Almanac, 1949), an evolutionary ecology develops, a prospect marked by dynamism rather than by static conservation. In his famous chapter Land ethics, Leopold states A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise. As an extension, Donella Meadows later defined eco-evolution as a prerequisite to the intelligent extension of a system - a theme carried to its limits by Deep Ecology.

External link

- [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-59 Dictionary of the History of ideas:] Conservation of Natural Resources

References

- Conservation: Replacing Quantity With Quality As a Goal for Global Management by Carl F. Jordan-John Wiley & Sons - ISBN 0471595152 - (January 1995)
- Conservation Biology : an evolutionary ecological perspective (Soulé et Wilcox, 1980)
- Conservation and evolution (Frankel et Soulé, 1981)
- Glacken, C.J. (1967) Traces on the Rhodian Shore. University of California Press. Berkeley
- Grove, R.H. (1992) 'Origins of Western Environmentalism', Scientific American 267(1): 22-27.
- Leopold, A. (1966) A Sand County Almanac. Oxford University Press. New York. Category:Conservation Category:Ethics ko:자연환경보호

Ecosystem

In ecology, the word ecosystem is an abbreviation of the term, ecological system. Some consider this the basic unit in ecology. Ecosystems are not to be confused with biomes because they are smaller than biomes. They can be as big as the sahara desert, but as small as a pond. In general terms an ecological system can be thought of as an assemblage of organisms (plant, animal and other living organisms—also referred to as a biotic community or biocoenosis) living together with their environment (or biotope), functioning as a loose unit. That is, a dynamic and complex whole, interacting as an "ecological unit". Early conceptions of this unit were as a structured functional unit in equilibrium. This equilibrium was characterized by energy and matter flows between its constituent elements. Others considered this vision limited, and preferred to understand an ecosystem in terms of cybernetics. From this view an ecological system is not a structured functional unit in equilibrium, but a functional organisation at dynamic equilibrium, or what was also called steady state. This branch of ecology that gave rise to this view has become known as Systems Ecology. Steady state is understood as the phase of an ecological systems evolution when the organisms are "balanced" with each other and their environment. This balance is achieved through various types of symbiosis, such as predation, parasitism, mutualism, commensalism, competition, and amensalism. Introduction of new elements, whether abiotic or biotic, into an ecosystem tend to have a disruptive effect. In some cases, this can lead to ecological collapse and the death of many native species. The abstract notion of ecological health attempts to measure the robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem. That is, how far the ecosystem is away from steady state. The size and scale of an ecosystem can vary widely. It may be a whole forest, as well as a small pond, or even the geobiosphere itself. Different ecosystems are often separated by geographical barriers, like deserts, mountains or oceans, or are isolated otherwise, like lakes or rivers. As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other. As a result, the whole earth can be seen as a single ecosystem, or a lake can be divided into several ecosystems, depending on the scale used.

History

The term ecosystem first appeared in a 1935 publication by the British ecologist Arthur Tansley (Tansley, 1935). However, the term had been coined already in 1930 by Tansley's colleague Roy Clapham, who was asked if he could think of a suitable word to denote the physical and biological components of an environment considered in relation to each other as a unit. Tansley expanded on the term in his later work, adding the ecotope concept to define the spatial context of ecosystems (Tansley, 1939). Modern usage of the term derives from the work of Raymond Lindeman in his classic study of a Minnesota lake (Lindeman, 1942). Lindeman's central concepts were that of functional organisation and ecological energy efficiency ratios. This approach is connected to ecological energetics and might also be thought of as environmental rationalism. It was subsequently applied by H.T.Odum, sometimes called the 'father' of ecosystems ecology, in founding the transdiscipline known as Systems Ecology. Category:Ecology Category:Symbiosis

External link

- [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/ecosystems.htm Teaching about Ecosystems]
- [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx Millennium Ecosystem Assessment] (2005)
- [http://www.greenfacts.org/ecosystems/index.htm A popularized version of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment] by GreenFacts.

References

- Lindeman, R. L. 1942. The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology. Ecology 23: 399-418.
- Tansley, A. G. 1935. The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms. Ecology 16: 284-307.
- Tansley, A.G. 1939. The British Islands and their Vegetation. Volume 1 of 2. University Press, Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 484 pg. Category:Ecology ko:생태계 ja:生態系

Conservationist

Conservationists are proponents or advocates of conservation, especially those who advocate the conservation of all the species in an ecosystem. Conservation is a part of the wider environmental movement.

Conservation movement

The Conservation movement seeks to protect plant and animal species from harmful human influences. The contemporary environmental movement and the Conservation movement have grown together in modern times, as the Sierra Club and Audubon Society have come to reflect the broader ethics of a more diverse society. It continues to admire and use nature, and assign it varying ethical significance. Today it is more correct to say that there is no clear distinction between the conservation movement and environmental movement but rather a distinction between these and the ecology movement which gave rise to such strongly political groups as Greenpeace and the Green Parties.

History

The nascent conservation movement slowly developed in the 19th century, starting first in the scientific forestry methods pioneered by the Germans and the French in the 17th and 18th centuries. While continental Europe created the scientific methods later used in conservationist efforts, British India and the United States are credited with starting the conservation movement. Foresters in India, often German, managed forests using early climate change theories (in America, see also, George Perkins Marsh) that Alexander Von Humboldt developed in the mid 19th century, applied fire protection, and tried to keep the "house-hold" of nature, an early ecological idea, in order so as not to disturb the growth of delicate teak trees. The same German foresters who headed the Forest Service of India, such as Dietrich Brandis and Berthold Ribbentrop, traveled back to Europe and established themselves at forestry schools in England (Cooper's Hill, later moved to Oxford), and in Germany. These men brought with them the legislative and scientific knowledge of conservationism in British India back to Europe where they distributed it to men such as Gifford Pinchot and Bernard Fernow America had its own conservation movement in the 19th century, most often characterized by George Perkins Marsh, author of Man and Nature. The Forestry Department in the U.S., however, was distinctly foreign. America did not have a forestry school unitl 1898 when Biltmore, on the Vanderbilt University estate, and Cornell University founded the first two forestry schools, both were run by Germans. Bernard Fernow, founder of the forestry schools at Cornell University and the University of Toronto, was originally from Prussia (Germany), and he honed his knowledge from Germans who pioneered forestry in India. He introduced Gifford Pinchot, the "father of American forestry," to Brandis and Ribbentrop in Europe. From these men, Pinchot learned the skills and legislative patterns he would later apply to America. Pinchot in his memoir history Breaking New Ground credited Brandis especially, with helping to form America's conservation laws. The Conservation movement in America was supported by two main groups: conservationists, like Pinchot, who were utilitarian foresters and natural rights advocates who wanted to protect forests "for the greater good for the greatest length," and preservationists, such as John Muir, the founder of the Sierra Club. Whereas conservationists wanted regulated use of forest lands for both public activities and commercial endeavors, preservationists believed this could lead to commercial overuse, and ruin unspoiled wilderness.

Religious influence

Conservation as such has historically been associated with religion - Zoroaster, Tao, and Islam (hima) in particular - but only in the 19th century became explicitly associated with Christian morality, which was formed in part in opposition to Pagan nature worship. For some, conservation during the 19th century invoked Christian reverence for the Creation to protect natural habitats from man. They lobbied consistently for parks and human exclusion from "the wild". They saw humans as apart from nature, in line with Judeo-Christian ethics of the time, and believed that an awe of biodiversity (as we call it today), would inspire religious piety.

Sources

Gregory A. Barton, Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism, Cambridge University Press, 2001) Brett Bennett, "Early Conservation Histories in Bengal and Colonial India, 1875-1922," The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Dec. 2004

Conservation ecology

The term Conservation ecology covers a very wide range of subjects, basically, any part of ecology that has a bearing on conservation. The terms Ecology and Conservation are frequently used interchangeably, but, although ecologists are frequently also conservationists, this does not necessarily have to be the case. Much of conservation ecology deals with the problems associated with the small population sizes of rare species.

Conservation law

In physics, a conservation law states that a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves.

Exact laws

The following is a partial listing of conservation laws that have never been shown to be inexact.
- Conservation of mass
- Conservation of energy
- Conservation of momentum
- Conservation of angular momentum
- Conservation of electric charge
- conservation of color charge
- CPT symmetry

Approximate conservation laws

There are also approximate conservation laws. These are approximately true in particular situations, such as low speeds, short time scales, or certain interactions.
- Conservation of baryon number (See chiral anomaly)
- Conservation of flavor (violated by the weak interaction)
- Conservation of mass (only in nonrelativistic theories)
- Conservation of parity
- CP symmetry.

Philosophy of conservation laws

Noether's theorem expresses the equivalence which exists between conservation laws and the invariance of physical laws with respect to certain transformations (typically called "symmetries") for systems which obey the Principle of least action and hence having a Lagrangian and a Hamiltonian (See Classical mechanics, Hamiltonian mechanics for details). For instance, time invariance implies that energy is conserved, translation invariance implies that momentum is conserved, and rotation invariance implies that angular momentum is conserved.
- Things that remain unchanged, in the midst of change The idea that some things remain unchanging throughout the evolution of the universe has been motivating philosophers and scientists alike for a long time. In fact, quantities that are conserved, the invariants, seem to preserve what some would like to call some kind of a 'physical reality' and seem to have a more meaningful existence than many other physical quantities. These laws bring a great deal of simplicity into the structure of a physical theory. They are the ultimate basis for most solutions of the equations of physics.

Conservation of energy

:This article is about the physics principle. For information on using energy resources sustainably, see Energy Conservation. Conservation of energy is possibly the most important, and certainly the most practically useful of several conservation laws in physics. The law states that the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. In other words, energy can be converted from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. In thermodynamics, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems. The law of conservation of energy excludes the possibility of perpetuum mobile of the first kind.

Historical development

Although ancient philosophers as far back as Thales of Miletus had inklings of the first law, it was the German Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz during 1676-1689 who first attempted a mathematical formulation. Leibniz noticed that in many mechanical systems (of several masses, m_i each with velocity v_i) the quantity: :

\sum_ m_i v_i^2

was conserved. He called this quantity the vis viva or living force of the system. The principle represents an accurate statement of the approximate conservation of kinetic energy in many situations. However, many physicists were influenced by the prestige of Sir Isaac Newton in England and of René Descartes in France, both of whom had set great store by the conservation of momentum as a guiding principle. Thus the momentum: :

\,\!\sum_ m_i v_i

was held by the rival camp to be the conserved vis viva. It was largely engineers such as John Smeaton, Peter Ewart, Karl Hotzmann, Gustave-Adolphe Hirn and Marc Séguin who objected that conservation of momentum alone was not adequate for practical calculation and who made use of Leibniz's principle. The principle was also championed by some chemists such as William Hyde Wollaston. Members of the academic establishment such as John Playfair were quick to point out that kinetic energy is clearly not conserved. This is obvious to a modern analysis based on the second law of thermodynamics but in the 18th and 19th centuries, the fate of the lost energy was still unknown. Gradually it came to be suspected that the heat inevitably generated by motion was another form of vis viva. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace reviewed the two competing theories of vis viva and caloric. Count Rumford's 1798 observations of heat generation during the boring of cannons added more weight to the view that mechanical motion could be converted into heat. Vis viva now started to be known as energy, after the term was first used in that sense by Thomas Young in 1807. The recalibration of vis visa to :

\frac  \sum_ m_i v_i^2

was largely the result of the work of Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis and Jean-Victor Poncelet over the period 1819-1839. The former called the quantity quantité de travail and the latter, travail mécanique and both championed its use in engineering calculation. In a paper Uber die Natur der Warme, published in the Zeitschrift für Physik in 1837, Karl Friedrich Mohr gave one of the earliest general statements of the doctrine of the conservation of energy in the words: "besides the 54 known chemical elements there is in the physical world one agent only, and this is called Kraft [energy]. It may appear, according to circumstances, as motion, chemical affinity, cohesion, electricity, light and magnetism; and from any one of these forms it can be transformed into any of the others." A key stage in the development of the modern conservation principle was the demonstration of the mechanical equivalent of heat. The caloric theory maintained that heat could neither be created nor destroyed but conservation of energy entails the contrary principle that heat and mechanical work are interchangeable. The mechanical equivalence principle was first stated in its modern form by the German surgeon Julius Robert von Mayer. Mayer reached his conclusion on a voyage to the Dutch East Indies, where he found that his patients' blood was a deeper red because they were consuming less oxygen, and therefore less energy, to maintain their body temperature in the hotter climate. He had discovered that heat and mechanical work were both forms of energy, and later, after improving his knowledge of physics, he calculated a quantitative relationship between them. mechanical work Meanwhile, in 1843 James Prescott Joule independently discovered the mechanical equivalent in a series of experiments. In the most famous, now called the "Joule apparatus", a descending weight attached to a string caused a paddle immersed in water to rotate. He showed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was equal to the thermal energy (heat) gained by the water by friction with the paddle. Over the period 1840-1843, similar work was carried out by engineer Ludwig A. Colding though it was little-known outside his native Denmark. Both Joule's and Mayer's work suffered from resistance and neglect but it was Joule's that, perhaps unjustly, eventually drew the wider recognition. :For the dispute between Joule and Mayer over priority, see Mechanical equivalent of heat: Priority Drawing on the earlier work of Joule, Sadi Carnot and Émile Clapeyron, in 1847, Hermann von Helmholtz postulated a relationship between mechanics, heat, light, electricity and magnetism by treating them all as manifestations of a single force (energy in modern terms). He published his theories in his book Über die Erhaltung der Kraft (On the Conservation of Force, 1847). The general modern acceptance of the principle stems from this publication. In 1877, Peter Guthrie Tait claimed that the principle originated with Sir Isaac Newton, based on a creative reading of propositions 40 and 41 of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This is now generally regarded as nothing more than an example of Whig history.

Modern physics

With the discovery of special relativity by Albert Einstein, it was found that the energy is one component of an energy-momentum 4-vector. The energy component is not conserved, nor is the 3-vector momentum conserved, but rather the energy-momentum 4-vector is conserved. Only for situations in which velocities are significantly less than the speed of light do the energy and momentum 3-vector components closely approximate what would be expected if each was conserved separately. In addition, the relativistic energy of a massive particle contains a rest mass in addition to its kinetic energy of motion. This rest mass can sometimes be converted into kinetic energy via the famous equation

E=mc^2

so that the rule of conservation of energy was shown to be a special case of a more general rule, the conservation of mass and energy, which is now usually just referred to as conservation of energy. Conservation of energy can be shown through Noether's theorem to be the result of the time-invariance of the laws of physics (=time has no effect on any physical process). Within the realm of quantum mechanics, conservation of energy is not applicable when energy can not be defined (say, for time scales shorter than the uncertainty principle defines).

The first law of thermodynamics

For a thermodynamic system with a fixed number of particles, the first law of thermodynamics may be stated as: :

\delta Q = dU + \delta W\,

where

\delta Q

is the amount of energy added to the system by a heating process,

\delta W

is the amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings and

dU

is the increase in the internal energy of the system. The δ's before the heat and work terms are used to indicate that they describe an increment of energy which is to be interpreted somewhat differently than the dU increment of internal energy. Work and heat are processes which add or subtract energy, while the internal energy U is a particular form of energy associated with the system. Thus the term "heat energy" for

\delta Q

means "that amount of energy added as the result of heating" rather than referring to a particular form of energy. Likewise, the term "work energy" for

\delta w

means "that amount of energy lost as the result of work". The most significant result of this distinction is the fact that one can clearly state the amount of internal energy posessed by a thermodynamic system, but one cannot tell how much energy has flowed into or out of the system as a result of its being heated or cooled, nor as the result of work being performed on or by the system. The first law can be written exclusively in terms of system variables. The work done by the system may be written :

\delta w = P\,dV

where P is the pressure and dV is a small change in the volume of the system, each of which are system variables. The heat energy may be written :

\delta q = T\,dS

where T is the temperature and dS is a small change in the entropy of the system. Temperature and entropy are also system variables.

Notes

# Lavoisier, A.L. & Laplace, P.S. (1780) "Memoir on Heat", Académie Royal des Sciences pp4-355 # von Mayer, J.R. (1842) "Remarks on the forces of inorganic nature" in Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 43, 233

References

Modern accounts

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History of ideas

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- Kuhn, T.S. (1957) “Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous discovery”, in M. Clagett (ed.) Critical Problems in the History of Science pp.321–56
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Classic accounts

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- , Chapter 8, "Energy and Thermo-dynamics"
External links

- [http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m158.pdf MISN-0-158 The First Law of Thermodynamics] (PDF file) by Jerzy Borysowicz for [http://www.physnet.org Project PHYSNET].
- [http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/1st-Law-Variations.html 20+ Variations of the 1st Law] Category:Energy Category:Laws of thermodynamics Category:Conservation laws Category:HVAC ko:에너지 보존 ja:エネルギー保存の法則

Conservation (genetics)

Conservation is a high degree of similarity in the primary or higher structure of homologous proteins amongst various phyla. This is seen as an indication of its importance in cellular function or survival: any mutation in a highly conserved region would automatically lead to a non-viable form, which would be eliminated through natural selection. Category:Population genetics Category:Molecular genetics

Conservation (botany)

In botany, conservation is a nomenclatural procedure governed by Art 14 of the ICBN. Its purpose is "to avoid disadvantageous nomenclatural changes entailed by the strict application of the rules, and especially of the principle of priority [...]" (Art 14.1). It is possible only for names at the rank of family, genus or species. The procedure starts by submitting a proposal to the journal Taxon (published by the IAPT). This proposal should present the case both for and against conservation of a name. Any decision concerning conservation is tentative until ratification by an International Botanical Congress, after which the name will be included in an Appendix of the ICBN. Besides conservation of a name (Art 14) the ICBN also offers the option of rejection of a name (Art 56). Rejection is possible for a name at any rank. Conservation may be restricted to the spelling of a name: Euonymus (not Evonymus), Guaiacum (not Guajacum), Hieronyma (not Hyeronima or Hieronima), etc. Zoological nomenclature, as governed by the ICZN, has a procedure with a similar purpose.

External links

- [http://www.bgbm.org/iapt/nomenclature/code/SaintLouis/0000St.Luistitle.htm St Louis code] Category:Botanical nomenclature

Botanical nomenclature

Botanical nomenclature is the formal naming of plants, from a scientific point of view. It has a long history, going back perhaps to Theophrastos, but anyway back to the period when Latin was the scientific language thoughout Europe. The keystone event was Linnaeus adoption of binary names for plant species in his Species Plantarum (1753). This gave every plant species a name which remained the same no matter what other species were placed in the genus, and thus separated taxonomy from nomenclature. These species names of Linnaeus together with names for other ranks, notably the rank of family (not used by Linnaeus), can serve to express a great many taxonomic viewpoints. In the nineteenth century it became increasingly clear that there was a need for rules to govern scientific nomenclature and initiatives were taken to come to a body of laws. These were published in succesively more sophisticated editions. For plants the key dates are 1867 (lois de Candolle), 1906 (International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature, 'Vienna Rules') and 1952 (International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, 'Stockholm Code). Another development was insight into delimitation of the concept 'plant'. Linnaeus held a much wider view of what a plant is than is acceptable today. Gradually more and more groups of organisms are recognised as being independent of plants. Nevertheless the formal names of most of these organisms are governed by the ICBN, even today. A separate Code was adopted to govern the nomenclature of Bacteria, the ICNB. At the moment all formal botanical names are governed by the ICBN. Within the limits set by the ICBN there is a separate set of rules, the ICNCP, for those plants in cultivation that require separate recognition, so-called cultivars. Within the limits set by the ICNCP there is a separate set of rules for orchid hybrids.
Relationship to taxonomy
Botanical nomenclature is closely linked to plant taxonomy, and botanical nomenclature serves plant taxonomy, but nevertheless botanical nomenclature is separate from plant taxonomy. Botanical nomenclature is merely the body of rules prescribing which name applies to that taxon (see correct name) and if a new name may (or must) be coined. Plant taxonomy is an empirical science, a science that determines what constitutes a particular taxon (taxonomic grouping, plural: taxa): e.g. "What plants belong to this species?" and "What species belong to this family?"). Where taxonomists differ in opinion more than one name may be used for one and the same plant. Within any taxonomic viewpoint only one name can be correct, but somebody holding a different taxonomic viewpoint may be using a different name, although for him too there is only one correct name (in his taxonomic viewpoint). This means that in case of confusion:
- If confusion is nomenclatural (for example an older name is discovered which has priority and threatens to displace a well-known name), the Code offers means to set things right (at least sometimes): see conservation.
- If confusion is taxonomic (taxonomists differ in opinion on the circumscription or the relationships of taxa), then only more scientific research can settle this.
See also

- Nomenclature Codes
- ICBN
- ICNCP Category:Botanical nomenclature

Conservation (psychology)

An ability in logical thinking according to the psychologist, Piaget who developed four stages in cognitive development. By the third stage, the Concrete operational stage, the child of age 7-11 has mastered this ability, to logically determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size.

Psychology

Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = "soul" or "mind", logos/-ology = "study of") is an academic and applied field involving the study of mind and behavior. "Psychology" also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. Psychology differs from sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science in part because it involves studying the mental processes and behavior of individuals (alone or in groups) rather than the behavior of the groups or aggregates themselves. Psychology differs from biology and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves. Although psychological questions were asked in antiquity (see Aristotle's De Memoria et Reminiscentia or "On Memory and Recollection"), psychology emerged as a separate discipline only recently. The first person to call himself a "psychologist", Wilhelm Wundt, opened the first psychological laboratory in 1879.

History

Main article: History of psychology History of psychology The late 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study, because in that year German scientist Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in studies on memory), the Russian Ivan Pavlov (who discovered the learning process of classical conditioning), and the Austrian Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in (scientific) psychology. Freud's basic theories postulated the existence in humans of various unconscious and instinctive "drives", and that the "self" existed as a perpetual battle between the desires and demands of the internal id, ego, and superego. The mid century saw a rejection of Freud's theories among many psychologists as being too unscientific, as well as a reaction against Edward Titchener's abstract approach to the mind. This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be quantified and easily measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. This new form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.

Principles of psychology

Mind and brain

Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

Schools of thought

Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. See psychological schools of thought for a comprehensive list.

Scope of psychology

Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychological topics.

Biological basis: the brain

list of psychological topics Main articles: Behavioral neuroscience, Cognitive neuroscience, Neuropsychology, Evolutionary psychology Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and Neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. The approach of cognitive neuroscience to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use brain imaging tools, such as fMRI, to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.

Information processing: the mind

fMRI Main articles: Cognitive psychology, Cognitive science The nature of thought is another core interest in psychology. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Cognitive science is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing. Both areas use computational models to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer.

Change over time: development

computational models Main articles: Developmental psychology, Educational psychology Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory of development in context (The Ecology of Human Development - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research. Educational psychology largely seeks to apply much of this knowledge to understanding how learning can best take place in educational situations. Because of this, the work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.

Interaction with others

Main articles: Social psychology, Community psychology, Personality psychology Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., conformity or persuasion), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of attitudes or stereotypes about other people. Social cognition is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior. A related area is Community psychology, which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than only on the level of the individual. "Sense of community" has become its conceptual center (Sarason, 1986; Chavis & Pretty, 1999). Personality psychology includes theories of career development.

Study of animals in psychology

Psychology as a science is primarily concerned with humans, although the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology), or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison (including comparative psychology) or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology ( e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).

Mental health

Main articles: Clinical psychology, Health psychology Clinical psychology is the application of psychology to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of psychopathology, behavioral or mental health issues. It has traditionally been associated with counselling and psychotherapy, although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many of the same clients as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists do not prescribe psychiatric drugs. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In recent years and particularly in the United States, a major split has been developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many academic psychologists believe that these clinicians use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians believe that the academics are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement has resulted in the formation of the American Psychological Society by the research psychologists as a new body distinct from the American Psychological Association. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality of life or in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.

Applied psychology

Main articles: Applied psychology, Industrial and organizational psychology, Forensic psychology, Human factors The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome practical problems in other fields, such as business management, product design, ergonomics, nutrition, and clinical medicine. Applied psychology includes the areas of industrial/organizational psychology, human factors, forensic psychology, as well as many other areas.

Industrial and organizational

Industrial and organizational psychology focuses to varying degrees on the psychology of the workforce, customer, and consumer, including issues such as the psychology of recruitment, selecting employees from an applicant pool which overall includes training, performance appraisal, job satisfaction, work behavior, stress at work and management.

Forensic psychology

Forensic psychology is the area concerned with the application of psychological methods and principles to legal questions and issues. Most typically, this involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question. Forensic psychology refers to any application of psychological principles, methods or understanding to legal questions or issues. In addition to the applied practices, it also includes academic or empirical research on topics involving the relationship of law to human mental processes and behavior.

Human factors

Human factors is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior.

Research methods

Psychology is conducted both scientifically and non-scientifically, but is to a large extent wholly rigorous. Mainstream psychology is based largely on positivism, using quantitative studies and the scientific method to test and disprove hypotheses, often in an experimental context. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand behavior. However, not all psychological research methods strictly follow the empirical positivism philosophy. Qualitative research utilizes interpretive techniques and is descriptive in nature, enabling the gathering of rich clinical information unattainable by classical experimentation. Some psychologists, particularly adherents to humanistic psychology, may go as far as completely rejecting a scientific approach, viewing psychology more as an art rather than a rigid science. However, mainstream psychology has a bias towards the scientific method; the dominant school of cognitivism and other scientific approaches are thus the guiding theoretical framework used by most psychologists to understand thought and behavior. The testing of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. Psychometric and statistical methods predominate, including various well-known standardised tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires. Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their work. Clinical psychology, among many of the various discipline of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individual with psychological issues or use psychology to help others. Where an area of interest is considered to need specific training and specialist knowledge (especially in applied areas), psychological associations will typically set up a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well.

Controlled experiments

Main article: Experimental psychology The majority of psychological research is conducted in the laboratory under controlled conditons. This method of research relies completely on the scientific method to determine the basis of behavor. Common measurements of behavior include reaction time and various psychometric measurements. Experiments are conducted to test a particular hypothesis. As an example of a psychological experiment, one may want to test people's perception of different tones. Specifically, one could ask the following question: is it easier for people to discriminate one pair of tones from another depending upon their frequency? To answer this, one would want to disprove the hypothesis that all tones are equally discriminable, regardless of their frequency. (See hypothesis testing for an explanation of why one would disprove a hypothesis rather than attempt to prove one.) A task to test this hypothesis would have a participant seated in a room listening to a series of tones. If the participant would make one indication (by pressing a button, for example) if they thought the tones were two different sounds, and another indication if they thought they were the same sound. The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable. The result of this particular experiment would probably indicate better discrimination of certain tones based on the human threshold of hearing.

Correlational studies

A correlational study uses statistics to determine if one variable is likely to co-occur with another variable. For example, one might be interested in whether or not a person's smoking is correlated with that individual's chance of getting lung cancer. One way to answer this would simply be to take a group of people who smoke and measure the proportion of those who get lung cancer within a certain time. In this particular case, one would probably find a high correlation. (Tobacco is already known to have a deleterious effect on the lungs). Based on this correlation alone, however, we cannot know for certain that smoking is the cause of lung cancer. It could be that those more prone to cancer are also more likely to take up smoking. A third alternative is that some other variable caused both conditons. This is a major limitation of correlational studies, exemplified by the fact that correlation does not imply causation.

Longitudinal studies

A longitudinal study is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study specific language impairment (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations.

Neuropsychological methods

Neuropsychology involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either brain injury or mental illness. Cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional dissociations') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism. In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy indviduals. These include behavioural experiments, brain-scanning or functional neuroimaging - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to investigate their importance in mental operations.

Computational modeling

Computational modeling is a tool often used in cognitive psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers are extremely fast, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualise hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human. Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural nets to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.

Criticisms of psychology

Although mainstream psychology today endeavors to be a wholly scientific endeavor, the field has a history of controversy. Some criticisms of psychology have been made on ethical and philosophical grounds. Some have argued that by subjecting the human mind to experimentation and statistical study, psychologists objectify persons; because it treats human beings as things, as objects that can be examined by experiment, psychology is sometimes portrayed as dehumanizing, ignoring or downplaying what is most essential about being human. Another common criticism of psychology concerns its fuzziness as a science. Since it relies on "soft" methods such as surveys and questionnaires, some have said, psychology is not as scientific as it claims to be, although many would argue this is an outdated criticism based on misconceptions. Many believe that the mind is not amenable to quantitative scientific research, and as support for their criticism cite the vast theoretical diversity of psychology, a discipline which agrees on very little about how the mind works. Some point out that astronomy's claim to being a science is also open to argument because its theories are largely untestable, being based in part on events that cannot be directly observed (philosophically, a scientific theory must be falsifiable: testable and open to the possibility of being proven false). One approach calling itself critical psychology takes almost an opposite approach. Rather than scientific validity being the standard against which psychology research should be judged, critical psychology uses Marxism to criticize mainstream psychology, claiming among other things that it serves as a bulwark of an unjust or unsatisfying status quo when it should, instead, use its methods and knowledge base to critique and change societal norms.

References

- Aristotle, Joe Sachs (translator). (350 BCE / 2001) On Memory and Recollection (De Memoria et Reminiscentia). Santa Fe, NM : Green Lion Press. ISBN 1888009179
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22456-6
- Chavis, D.M., and Pretty, G. (1999). Sense of community: Advances in measurement and application. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 635-642.
- Sarason, S.B. (1986). Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center. Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 405-407.

External links

Psychology Resources

- [http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb/ AmoebaWeb Psychology Resources]
- [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec99/toc.html A Century of Psychology (APA)]
- [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca Classics in the History of Psychology]
- [http://allpsych.com/dictionary/ Dictionary of Psychology]
- [http://www.psychology.org/ Encyclopedia of Psychology]
- [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/psych.html Psychology Articles]
- [http://essays.org.uk/psychology/ Psychology Essays]
- [http://www.sonoma.edu/psychology/psychart.html Pictures of famous psychologists]
- [http://www.conferencealerts.com/psychology.htm Psychology Conferences]
- [http://www.perfectionnement.info/fr/agenda.php?i_pays=0&i_date=0&keywords=congr Psychology Congresses] (mostly European)
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain.htm ScienceDaily Mind and Brain news]
- [http://www.psychcentral.com PsychCentral]
- [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~stwright/psych/index.html Psychology Resources] (including some unique material on Community Psychology and also on Cumulative Risk and Resilience)
- [http://www.fireflySun.com/book/careers_in_psychology.php Psychology Career Ladders] (criticism)

Psychology Societies

- [http://www.apa.org American Psychological Association]
- [http://www.psychologicalscience.org/ American Psychological Society]
- [http://www.psychology.org.au/ Australian Psychological Society]
- [http://www.bfp-fbp.be/ Belgian Psychological Association]
- [http://www.bps.org.uk British Psychological Society]
- [http://www.apdeba.org Buenos Aires Psychoanalytic Association]
- [http://www.cpa.ca Canadian Psychological Association]
- [http://www.psykologienkustannus.fi/sps/seurasta/index.htm Finnish Psychological Society]
- [http://www.dgps.de German Psychological Association]
- [http://www.psykologisk.no Norwegian society for Master in Psychology]
- [http://www.singaporepsychologicalsociety.org/ Singapore Psychological Society] Category:Human behavior Category:Social sciences Category:Behavioural sciences Category:Academic disciplines ko:심리학 ms:Psikologi ja:心理学 simple:Psychology th:จิตวิทยา

Architectural conservation

Architectural conservation describes the process through which the material, historical, and design integrity of immovable objects are prolonged through carefully planned interventions. The individual engaged in this pursuit is known as an architectural conservator. The field is closely allied with object or art conservation. At the core of architectural conservation is a good understanding of materials science and preservation theory. Decisions of when and how to engage in an intervention are critical to the ultimate conservation of the immovable object. Ultimately, the decision is value based: a combination of artistic, contextual, and informational values are normally considered. In some cases, a decision to not intervene may be the most appropriate choice. Architectural conservation is a subset of the field of historic preservation. In areas outside of North America, such as the U.K., architectural conservation may sometimes be synonymous with the much broader concept of historic preservation and its attendant relationship with planning, policy, and advocacy. In the United States, the [http://aic.stanford.edu/ American Institute for Conservation] is the professional body representing practitioners of architectural conservation. Category:Architecture Category:Cultural heritage

Archaeological site

An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or historic or contemporary), and which has been investigated using the discipline of archaeology. Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a 'site' can vary widely, depending on the period studied and the theoretical approach of the archaeologist. It is almost invariably difficult to delimit a site. It is sometimes taken to indicate a settlement of some sort although the archaeologist must also define the limits of human activity around the settlement. Any episode of deposition such as a hoard or burial can form a site as well. Development-led archaeology undertaken as cultural resources management has the disadvantage (or the benefit) of having its sites defined by the limits of the intended development. Even in this case however, in describing and interpreting the site, the archaeologist will have to look outside the boundaries of the building site. Traditionally, sites are distinguished by the presence of both artifacts and features. Common features include the remains of hearths and houses. Ecofacts, biological materials (such as bones, scales, and even feces) that are the result of human activity but are not deliberately modified, are also common at many archaeological sites. In the cases of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic eras, a mere scatter of flint flakes will also constitute a site worthy of study. Different archaeologists may see an ancient town, and its nearby cemetery as being two different sites, or as being part of the same wider site. The precepts of landscape archaeology attempt to see each discrete unit of human activity in the context of the wider environment, further distorting the concept of the site as a demarcated area. Furthermore, geoarchaeologists or environmental archaeologists would also consider a sequence of natural geological or organic deposition, in the absence of human activity, to constitute a site worthy of study. Archaeological sites usually form through human-related processes but can be subject to natural, post-depositional factors. Cultural remnants which have been buried by sediments are in many environments more likely to be preserved than exposed cultural remnants. Natural actions resulting in sediment being deposited include alluvial (water-related) or aeolian (wind-related) natural processes. In jungles and other areas of lush plant growth, decomposed vegetative sediment can result in layers of soil deposited over remains. Colluviation, the burial of a site by sediments moved by gravity (called hillwash) can also happen at sites on slopes. Human activities (both deliberate and incidental) also often bury sites. It is common in many cultures for newer structures to be built atop the remains of older ones. Urban archaeology has developed especially to deal with these sorts of site. Many sites are the subject of ongoing excavation or investigation. Note the difference between archaeological sites and archaeological discoveries.

Lists of sites

Lists of archeological sites around the world can be found at:
- List of archaeological sites sorted by country
- List of archaeological sites sorted by continent and age

Lech

Lech [leh] on Tonavan sivujoki, joka alkaa Itävallan Alpeilta (Vorarlbergista) ja kulkee Baijerin läpi. Se on 248 kilometriä pitkä. Joessa ei voi purjehtia. Joen varrella ovat muun muassa kaupungit Füssen, Schongau, Landsberg ja Augsburg. Luokka:Itävallan joet Luokka:Saksan joet

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Conservation

Conservation ethic

Introduction

Usage of term

History of biological conservation

Romantic-Transcendental

Resource Conservation

Evolutionary-Ecological

See also

See also

External link

References

Ecosystem

History

See also

External link

References

Conservationist

See also

Conservation movement

History

Religious influence

See also

Sources

Conservation ecology

See also

Conservation law

Exact laws

Approximate conservation laws

Philosophy of conservation laws

See also

Conservation of energy

Historical development

Modern physics

The first law of thermodynamics

Notes

See also

References

Modern accounts

History of ideas

Classic accounts

External links

Conservation (genetics)

Conservation (botany)

External links

Botanical nomenclature

Relationship to taxonomy

See also

- Nomenclature Codes - ICBN - ICNCP Category:Botanical nomenclature

Conservation (psychology)

Psychology

History

Principles of psychology

Mind and brain

Schools of thought

Scope of psychology

Biological basis: the brain

Information processing: the mind

Change over time: development

Interaction with others

Study of animals in psychology

Mental health

Applied psychology

Industrial and organizational

Forensic psychology

Human factors

Research methods

Controlled experiments

Correlational studies

Longitudinal studies

Neuropsychological methods

Computational modeling

Criticisms of psychology

References

See also

External links

Psychology Resources

Psychology Societies

Architectural conservation

Archaeological site

- Nomenclature Codes
- ICBN
- ICNCP Category:Botanical nomenclature