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Dentist

Dentist

:This article is about the dental profession. For tooth care, see oral hygiene. oral hygiene Dentistry is the practical application of knowledge of dental science (the science of placement, arrangement, function of teeth and their supporting bones and soft tissues) to human beings. A dentist is a professional practitioner of dentistry. In most countries, several years of training in a university (usually 4-8) and some practical experience working with actual patients' dentition are required to become a qualified dentist. The patron saint of dentists is Saint Apollonia, martyred in Alexandria by having all her teeth violently extracted, not, one would have thought, such a very desirable exemplar.
Specialties
There are nine [httda.o/definitions.asp dental specialties] recognized by the American Dental Association and require 2-6 years of further formal university training after dental school. The specialties are Dental Public Health (study of dental epidemiology and social health policies), Endodontics (root canal therapy), Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology (study, diagnosis, and often the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases), Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology (study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases), Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (extractions and facial surgery), Orthodontics (straightening of teeth), Pedodontics (pediatric dentistry; i.e. dentistry for children), Periodontics (treatment of gum disease), Prosthodontics (replacement of missing facial anatomy by prostheses such as dentures, bridges and implants). Specialists in these fields are designated registrable (U.S. "Board Eligible") and warrant exclusive titles such as orthodontist, oral surgeon, pedodontist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local (U.S. "Board Certified") registry requirements. Two other post-graduate formal advanced education programs: General Practice Residency (advanced clinical and didactic training with intense hospital experience) and Advanced Education in General Dentistry (advanced training in clinical dentistry) recognized by the [http://www.ada.org ADA] do not lead to specialization. Other dental education exists where no post-graduate formal university training is required: cosmetic dentistry, dental implant, temporo-mandibular joint therapy. These usually require the attendance of one or more continuing education courses that typically last for one to several days. There are restrictions on allowing these dentists to call themselves specialists in these fields. The specialist titles are registrable titles and controlled by the local dental licensing bodies. Forensic odontology consists of the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity. Geriatric dentistry or gerodontics is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals.
History
Geriatric dentistry In 2001 archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, made the discovery that the people of Indus Valley Civilization, even from the early Harappan periods (c. 3300 BC), had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist that carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men (see History of medicine). Some information contained in the Edwin Smith Papyrus dates as early as 3000 BC and includes the treatment of several dental ailments ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8.htm] & [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032043]). The Ebers papyrus also discusses similar treatments ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm]). Examining the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveal early attempts at dental prosthetics and surgery ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm]). Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the middle ages and through the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession into itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth, which not only resulted in the alleviation of pain, but often cured a variety of ailments linked with chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac invented the dental pelican (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used through the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 20th century. For more information on the ancient history of dentistry refer to the [http://www.idakerala.org/dentistryhome.asp Indian Dental Association's History of Dentistry].
Dentistry throughout the world

Dentistry in Australia
In Australia, graduating dentists earn either a B.D.S. (Bachelor of Dental Surgery) or B.D.Sc (Bachelor of Dental Science) degree. The B.D.Sc offered by the University of Queensland (UQ) is unique to Australia as it involves a 1-3-1 program, whereby undergraduates undertake one year of preliminary generalist science courses, followed by three years of theoretical and clinical-based theory at the dental school, followed by one year of extra-mural studies in regional placements. After completion of an interview, acceptable applicants graduate, taking a total of five years to complete.
Dentistry in Canada
Canadian dentistry is overseen by the Canadian Dental Association, while specialization is overseen by the Royal College of Dentists. Today, Canada has about 16,000 dentists. Canadian dentistry is not publicly run (see Medicare (Canada)); only children and the elderly can have free dental care. Other Canadians are mostly covered by workplace dental plans, but many have to pay out of pocket. For most of the early colonial period dentistry was a rare and unusual practice in Canada. In severe situations, barbers or blacksmiths would pull a tooth, but for many years Canada lagged behind European advances. The first dentists in Canada were United Empire Loyalists who fled the American Revolution. The first recorded dentist in Canada was a Mr. Hume who advertised in a Halifax newspaper in 1814. During the first half of the 19th century, dentistry expanded rapidly. In 1867 the Ontario Dental Association was formed and in 1868 they founded Canada's first dental school in Toronto, the Royal College of Dental Surgeons of Ontario. The University of Toronto agreed to be affiliated with the dental school. As time passed, other Canadian universities also created dentistry programmes. Visit [http://www.jobfutures.ca Job Futures.ca] for info on dentistry & similar careers. Predental students should visit [http://www.dentalschooladmission.com Dental School Admission Guide] for information on successfully applying to dental school.
Canadian dentistry schools

- University of Toronto (1868)
- McGill University (1905)
- Université de Montréal (1905)
- Dalhousie University (1908)
- University of Alberta (1923)
- University of Manitoba (1958)
- University of British Columbia (1964)
- University of Western Ontario (1966)
- University of Saskatchewan (1968)
- Laval University (1971) Dentistry in Hong Kong The longest record for such ongoing and routine training and qualifying requirement for dental specialties in the world exists in Hong Kong where 5 years of pre-specialty, formal training and supervised practice are prescribed. It is accepted that only after 5 years of such training would the trainees achieve a superior level of professional competence.
Dentistry in India
Modern Indian dentists must earn the Bachelor of Dental Surgery degree (B.D.S.), which requires four years of study and one year of internship. This degree is overseen by the Dental Council of India. In most states, one has to appear for an entrance test conducted by the Directorate of Medical Education, whereas some autonomous universities conduct their own entrance tests.
Dentistry in Pakistan
At present there are upwards of 20 dental schools (public & private) throughout Pakistan, according to the [http://www.pmdc.org.pk/ Pakistan Medical & Dental Council] the state regulatory body has upwards of 6200 registered dentists. The four year training culminates in achieveing a Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) degree, which also requires a one year compulsary interneship to be a registered dentist in Pakistan.
Dentistry in Slovakia
In Slovakia, dentists complete 6 years of undergraduate study to earn a MUDr (lat. Medicinae Universae Doctor) degree. Junior graduates work under a skilled doctor for at least 3 years to receive their license from The Slovak Chamber of Dentists.
Dentistry in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, dentists complete 5 years of undergraduate study to earn a B.D.S. degree. After graduating most dentists will enter a V.T. (vocational training) scheme, of either 1 or 2 years length, to receive their full National Health Service registration. Dentists must register with the G.D.C. ([http://www.gdc-uk.org General Dental Council]), and meet their requirements as the governing body of the profession, before being allowed to practice.
Dentistry in the United States
In the United States, dentists earn either a D.D.S. (Doctor of Dental Surgery) or D.M.D.(Doctor of Dental Medicine) degree. There are 54 Accredited Dental schools in the United States requiring 4 years of post graduate study (except for one unique 3 year program at the University of the Pacific). Most applicants to dental school have attained at least a B.S. or B.A. degree, however, a small percentage are admitted after only fulfilling specific prerequisite courses. So unlike many other countries, it can take more then 8 years to become a dentist. ( List of U.S. dental schools) The degrees D.D.S. and D.M.D. require equivalent education and are identical in every way. The difference relates to the history involved in the division of medicine and surgery in medical practice. There has been a recent movement to include a 5th year of education that focuses on purely practical training in the clinical setting. In at least one state, a state dental license can be received without taking the licensing exam (State Board Exam) upon completing this additional year of training. Dentists are licensed and regulated by the state in which the they practice. The license is only valid in the issuing state and is non-transferable. There are many cooperative agreements between states that allow recognition of another state's license so as to procure a license either via "licensure by credentials" or "licensure by reciprocity." A dentist may go on for further training in a dental specialty which require an additional 1 to 7 years of post-doctoral training. There are 9 recognized dental specialties. They are Endodontics(root canal treatment), Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, Pediatric Dentistry, Periodontics(gums), Prosthodontics(complicated dental reconstruction), Orthodontics(braces), Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery(tooth removal and surgery of the oral and related structures), and Dental Public Health. There is no specialty in esthetic dentistry or implantology, and no additional training is required for a dentist to make the claim of being an esthetic or cosmetic dentist. Any general dentist may perform those procedures designated within the enumerated specialties if they deem themselves competent. Many general dentists train in certain aspects of the above specialties such as the placement and restoration of dental implants, advanced prosthodontics and endodontics, and have limited or heavily focused their practices to these areas. When a general dentist performs any procedure that falls within the realm of a specialty, they are expected to perform with the same level of expertise as a certified specialist and are legally held to such standards with respect to any issues of malpractice.
Related dental topics
List of U.S. dental schools
- bruxism
- calculus
- ceramics
- crown
- dental amalgam
- dental brace
- dental cavities
- dental extraction
- dental restoration
- floss
- fluoridation
- gingivitis
- halitosis
- dental implants
- laboratory technology
- mouthwash
- Novocain, a local anesthetic
- occlusion
- Patron Saint of dentistry (Saint Apollonia)
- periodontitis
- plaque
- plaque remover
- regenerative dentistry
- teledentistry
- temporomandibular joint disease
- tooth
- toothbrush
- toothpaste
- waterpik
- xerostomia
Organizations

- [http://ada.org American Dental Association]
- [http://www.aacd.com/ American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry]
- [http://www.agd.org/ Academy of General Dentistry]
- [http://www.aaoms.org/ American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons]
- American Association of Orthodontists
- [http://www.prosthodontics.org/ American College of Prosthodonists]
- British Dental Association [http://www.bda-dentistry.org.uk]
- [http://www.dentalhealth.org.uk/ British Dental Health Foundation]
- [http://www.bspd.co.uk/ The British Society of Paediatric Dentistry]
- Canadian Dental Association [http://www.cda-adc.ca]
- Royal College of Dentists of Canada
- [http://www.avdc.org/ American Veterinary Dental College]
- [http://www.evdc.info/ European Veterinary Dental College]
External links

- [http://www.dentalschooladmission.com Dental School Admission Guide] The Ultimate Dental School Admission Guide for predental students.
- [http://www.ada.org American Dental Association] The national organization of dentists in the United States
- [http://www.foreigntraineddentists.com Foreign Trained Dentists Admission Guide to US and Canadian Dental Schools] The most commprehensive source of information for international dentists who aspire to practice dentistry in North America.
- [http://www.agd.org Academy of General Dentistry] Organization promoting continuing education for general practitioners
- [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/gdp-uk/ GDP-UK mailing list - the best and largest discussion group for UK dentists about their profession.]
- [http://www.doctorspiller.com/ Ask Dr Spiller - Dental technical information for the public]
- [http://www.dentaltwins.com/dentalchat/ DentalTwins Bulletin Board] Forum for exchange of dental information
- [http://www.allexperts.com/getExpert.asp?Category=966 AllExperts.com] Ask the dental experts
- [http://dmoz.org/Health/Dentistry/ Dentistry Directory]
- [http://www.101dentist.com/ Dentistry news and forums]
- [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=15404 Everything2 article on history of Dentistry]
- [http://www.askthedentist.info/ Ask the Dentist] Free dental advice and common problems
- [http://www.dentalfearcentral.com/ Dental Phobia Self-Help]
- [http://www.dental-site.itgo.com/ancientpeople.htm Shayne's Dental Site] Several on-line chapters cover history of dentistry from prehistory to late 19th century.
- [http://www.dentalcom.net/ Dental Discussion Forum]
- [http://www.dentaltown.com/ DentalTown - Forum for dental professionals]
- [http://www.dentalfearcentral.org/cgi-bin/yabb2/YaBB.pl Dental phobia message board]
- [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos072.htm Dentists] from the Bureau of Labor Statistics's [http://www.bls.gov/oco/home.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook]
- [http://www.denticon.com/ Denticon - Internet Based Dental Practice Management Solution] Category:Dentistry
- [http://www.dentistandholiday.hu/ Dentist and Holiday in Hungary] Dental services for foreigners. Service details, prices, and contact information. Dentist zh-min-nan:Gê-i-ha̍k ko:치과 ja:歯科学

Oral hygiene
Oral hygiene is keeping the mouth clean. Oral hygiene is considered to be the best means of prevention of cavities (dental caries), gingivitis, periodontitis, and other dental disorders. It also helps to prevent bad breath (halitosis). Oral hygiene is necessary for all persons to maintain the health of their teeth and mouth. Healthy teeth have fewer cavities. They are clean and have minimal or no plaque deposits. Healthy gums are pink and firm. Oral hygiene consists of both personal and professional care. Dental X-rays may be performed as part of routine professional examinations.
Personal care
Careful and frequent toothbrushing and flossing help to prevent build-up of plaque and calculus (tartar), which can lead to cavities. Cavities can be costly, in terms of the monetary cost to drill out the cavities and insert dental fillings, and in terms of the tissue already damaged. The teeth should be brushed at least twice daily, preferably after every meal and at bedtime, and flossed at least once per day. For some people, flossing might be recommended after every meal. A dentist or dental hygienist can instruct and demonstrate proper brushing and flossing techniques. Special appliances or tools may be recommended to supplement (but not to replace) toothbrushing and flossing. These include special toothpicks, water irrigation, or other devices. Initially electric toothbrushes were only recommended for persons who have problems with strength or dexterity of their hands, but many dentists are now recommending them to many other patients in order to improve their home dental care. Fluoride-containing, or anti-plaque (tartar control) toothpastes or mouthwashes may be recommended by the dentist or dental hygienist. Dentures, retainers, and other appliances must be kept extremely clean. This includes regular brushing and may include soaking them in a cleansing solution.
Professional care
Regular tooth cleaning by the dentist or dental hygienist is important to remove plaque that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing, especially in areas that are difficult for a patient to reach on his own at home. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling and tooth polishing and Debridement if too much tartar has accumulated. This involves the use of various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from the teeth. Many dentists recommend having the teeth professionally cleaned every six months. More frequent cleaning and examination may be necessary during the treatment of many of the dental/oral disorders. Routine examination of the teeth is recommended at least every year. This may include yearly, select dental X-rays. See also dental plaque identification procedure and removal.
Outcome
Good oral hygiene prevents, and is vital to the treatment of, many of the dental and oral disorders. Good oral hygiene results in healthy teeth and mouth.
Complications
Usually there are no complications; however, overly vigorous or improperly performed brushing and flossing may result in injury to the gingiva (gums). Call the dentist or dental hygienist if instructions or demonstration of proper brushing or flossing techniques is needed, or to schedule routine dental cleaning and examination.
External link

- [http://www.healthteeth.com 5 basic rules for healthy teeth]
- [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001957.htm NIH site on Oral Hygiene] Category:Dentistry Category:Hygiene
- [http://www.adha.org American Dental Hygienists' Association] zh-min-nan:Chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng

University

A university is an institution of higher education and of research, which grants academic degrees. A university provides both tertiary and quaternary education. University is derived from the Latin universitas, meaning corporation (since the first medieval European universities were simply groups of scholars). medieval European universities]

History

Because of the above definition, the oldest universities in the world were all European, as the awarding of academic degrees was not a custom of older institutions of learning in Asia and Africa. However, institutions of higher learning considerably older than the most ancient European universities existed in countries such as China, Egypt and India. The Academy, founded in 387 BC by the Greek philosopher Plato in the grove of Academos near Athens, taught its students philosophy, mathematics, and gymnastics, and is sometimes considered a forerunner of modern European universities. Other Greek cities with notable educational institutions include Kos (the home of Hippocrates), which had a medical school, and Rhodes, which had philosophical schools. Another famous classical university was the Museum and Library of Alexandria. About a thousand years after Plato, institutions bearing a resemblance to the modern university existed in Persia and the Islamic world, notably the Academy of Gundishapur and later also al-Azhar University in Cairo. In Asia, there were a number of institutions of higher learning that vaguely resembled universities in the Western sense of the word. In general, these are of considerable antiquity, predating western institutions of higher learning by centuries. In China, it's recorded that the education system had been established during the Yu period (2257 BC - 2208 BC) and the imperial central academy was named Shangyang (Shang means higher and Yang means school) at the time. The higher learning institution - imperial central academy, was called Piyong in Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC - 249 BC), Taixue in Han Dynasty (202 - 220) and Guozijian in Sui dynasty. For example, Nanjing University traces its source back to the imperial central academy at Nanking founded in 258 by the Kingdom of Wu. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an imperial examination was established in the Sui Dynasty (581 -618) for evaluating and selecting officials from the general populace. The ancient cities of Nalanda, Vikramasila, Kanchipura and Takshasila were greatly reputed centres of learning in the east, with students from all over Asia. In particular, Nalanda was a famous center of Buddhist scholarship, and as such it attracted a vast number of Buddhist scholars from China, central Asia and Southeast Asia. In the Carolingian period, a famous academy was created by Charlemagne for the purpose of educating the children of aristocrats to help train the professionals needed to run an empire. It was a foreshadow of the rise of the University in the 11th century. The first European medieval university was the University of Magnaura in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey), founded in 849 by the emperor Bardas, followed by the University of Salerno (9th century)University of Bologna (1088) in Bologna, Italy, and the University of Paris (c. 1100) in Paris, France. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali. In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarly sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries. In Europe, young men proceeded to the university when they had completed the study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. (See degrees of Oxford University for the history of how the trivium and quadrivium developed in relation to degrees, especially in anglophone universities). Universities are generally established by statute or charter. In the United Kingdom, for instance, a university is instituted by Act of Parliament or Royal Charter; in either case generally with the approval of Privy Council, and only such recognized bodies can award degrees of any kind.

Universities around the world

The funding and organisation of Universities is very different in different countries around the world. In some countries Universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the University must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend University in their local town, while in other countries Universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide University accommodation for their students.

Universities and student life in different countries

- British universities
- Dutch universities
- French universities
- Irish universities
- Italian universities
- Spanish universities
- US universities
- Egyptian universities

Selective admissions

Unlike community colleges, enrollment at a university is generally not available to all. However, admission systems vary widely around the world, as discussed in the article college admissions.

Colloquial usage

Colloquially, the term university is used around the world for a phase in one's life: "when I was at university…"; in the United States, college is often used: "when I was in college…". See college, §3, for further discussion. In the United Kingdom and Australia "University" is often contracted to simply "Uni". The usual practice in the United States today is to call an institution made up of several faculties and granting a range of higher degrees a "university" while a smaller institution only granting bachelor's or associate's degrees is called a "college". (See liberal arts colleges, community college). Nevertheless, a few of America's oldest and most prestigious universities, such as Boston College, Dartmouth College and the College of William and Mary, have retained the term "college" in their names for historical reasons though they offer a wide range of higher degrees.

Related terms

: academia - academic rank - academy - admission - alumnus - aula - [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/brain_farm Brain farm ]-Bologna process - business schools - Grandes écoles - campus - college - college and university rankings - dean - degree - diploma - discipline - [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Dissertation dissertation] - faculty - fraternities and sororities - graduate student - graduation - lecturer - medieval university - medieval university (Asia) - mega university - perpetual student - professor - provost - rector - research - scholar - senioritis - student - tenure - tuition - undergraduate - universal access - university administration

References

- Walter Ruegg (ed), A History of the University in Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (3 vols) ISBN 0521361079 (vol 3 reviewed by Laurence Brockliss in the Times Literary Supplement, no 5332, 10 June 2005, pages 3-4). Category:Educational stages ko:대학교 ms:Universiti ja:大学 simple:University th:มหาวิทยาลัย

Saint Apollonia

Saint Apollonia was one of the group of virgin martyrs who suffered in Alexandria during a local uprising against the Christians previous to the persecution of Decius. She was martyred by having all her teeth violently extracted and thus, by an uneasy logic, is the patroness of dentistry. Christian historians have claimed that in the last years of Emperor Philip the Arab (reigned 244-249), during otherwise undocumented festivities to commemorate the millennium of the founding of Rome (traditionally in 753 BC, putting the date about AD 248), the fury of the Alexandrian mob rose to a great height, and when one of their poets prophesied a calamity, they committed bloody outrages on the Christians, whom the authorities made no effort to protect. Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria (247-265), relates the sufferings of his people in a letter addressed to Fabius, Bishop of Antioch, of which long extracts have been preserved in Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiae (I:vi: 41). After describing how a Christian man and woman, Metras and Quinta, were seized and killed by the mob, and how the houses of several other Christians were pillaged, Dionysius continues: :"At that time Apollonia, parthénos presbytis (virgo presbytera, by which he very probably means not a virgin advanced in years as is generally reported, but a deaconess) was held in high esteem. These men seized her also and by repeated blows broke all her teeth. They then erected outside the city gates a pile of fagots and threatened to burn her alive if she refused to repeat after them impious words (either a blasphemy against Christ, or an invocation of the heathen gods). Given, at her own request, a little freedom, she sprang quickly into the fire and was burned to death." This brief tale was extended and moralized in Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend (c. 1260). Apollonia and a whole group of early martyrs did not await the death they were threatened with, but either to preserve their chastity or because they were confronted with the alternative of renouncing their faith or suffering death, voluntarily embraced the death prepared for them, an action that runs perilously close to suicide, some thought. Augustine of Hippo touches on this question in the first book of The City of God, apropos suicide (I:26): :"But, they say, during the time of persecution certain holy women plunged into the water with the intention of being swept away by the waves and drowned, and thus preserve their threatened chastity. Although they quitted life in this wise, nevertheless they receive high honour as martyrs in the Catholic Church and their feasts are observed with great ceremony. This is a matter on which I dare not pass judgment lightly. For I know not but that the Church was divinely authorized through trustworthy revelations to honour thus the memory of these Christians. It may be that such is the case. May it not be, too, that these acted in such a manner, not through human caprice but on the command of God, not erroneously but through obedience, as we must believe in the case of Samson? When, however, God gives a command and makes it clearly known, who would account obedience thereto a crime or condemn such pious devotion and ready service?" The narrative of Dionysius does not suggest the slightest reproach as to this act of St. Apollonia; in his eyes she was as much a martyr as the others, and as such she was revered in the Alexandrian Church. In time, her feast was also popular in the West. A later legend mistakenly duplicated Apollonia, making her a Christian virgin of Rome in the reign of Julian the Apostate, suffering the same dental fate. The Roman Catholic Church celebrates Apollonia on February 9, and she is popularly invoked against the toothache because of the torments she had to endure. She is represented in art with pincers in which a tooth is held. In a late 14th century illumination from a French manuscript, widely distributed as a poster that is considered suitable for dentists' offices in the U.S., the sacred tooth in her pincers glows from within, like a lightbulb. Saint Apollonia is one of the two patron saints of Catania. In Germany, where the fourteen saints (vierzehn heiligen) or Nothelfer are singled out as the patron saints of daily life, Apollonia, protectress against toothache, is one of them. Germany]] William S. Walsh, Curiosities of Popular Customs And of Rites, Ceremonies, Observances, and Miscellaneous Antiquities 1897, noted that, though the major part of her relics were preserved in the former church of St. Apollonia at Rome, her head at the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, her arms at the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, parts of her jaw in St. Basil's, and other relics are in the Jesuit church at Antwerp, in St. Augustine's at Brussels, in the Jesuit church at Mechlin, in St. Cross at Liege, in the treasury of the cathedral of Porto, and in several churches at Cologne. These relics consist in some cases of a tooth only or a splinter of bone. There was a church dedicated to her in Rome, near the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, but it no longer exists. Only its little square, the Piazza Sant'Apollonia remains. One of the principal train stations of Lisbon is also named for this saint. In England, there are 52 known images of her in various churches which survived the ravages of the 16th century Commissioners. These are concentrated in Devon and East Anglia. Most of these images are on the panels of rood screens or in stained glass with only one being a stone capital (Stoke-in-Teignhead, Devon). By county, some of the locations are: CORNWALL, Poundstock; DEVON, Alphington (now gone), Ashton, Combe Martin, Exeter Cathedral (tapestry in St. Gabriel's chapel), Holne, Kenn, Kenton, Kingskerswell (now faded beyond recognition), Manaton, Payhembury, South Milton, Stoke-in-Teignhead, Torbryan, Ugborough, Whimple (now gone), Widecombe-in-the-moor, Wolborugh (Newton Abbot); LINCOLNSHIRE, Long Sutton; NORFOLK, Barton Turf, Docking, Horsham St Faith, Ludham, Norwich (St. Stephen's), Norwich-over-the-water (church disused), Sandringham; SUFFOLK, Norton, Somerleyton, Westhall. Apollonia Apollonia Apollonia

Endodontics

Endodontics is a sub-specialty of dentistry, that deals with the tooth pulp or dentine complex. The most common procedure done in endodontics is root-canal therapy. The pulp (containing nerves, blood and lymph vessels) can become diseased or injured and thus is unable to repair itself. The pulp then dies and Endodontic treatment is required. Endodontic treatment is the removal of diseased pulp tissue. The body's defence system can then repair the damage created by disease. Usually, this will require 2-3 visits to your dentist. The dentist will use a local anaesthetic to make the procedure pain-free. A rubber dam isolates the tooth and provides a clean environment. An opening is made in the top of the tooth then the pulp chamber and root canals are cleaned and shaped for filling and sealing. Between visits, the opening is temporarily filled and removed during the next visit for the next step in the treatment. The tooth will need to be restored, usually by a new crown. If required, a support will be added. Dentists specializing in this field are called endodontists and complete an additional 2-3 years of training following dental school. In the image shown below, if the tooth is treated at stage #1 only a small filling will be required. If decay reaches stage #3, root canal therapy will be required. The aim of treatment is to remove infection (e.g. bacteria) from inside the tooth. If left, the infection would leak out of the tooth's root ends and make the surrounding bone ill and painful. anaesthetic

External links

- [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/iej International Endodontic Journal]
- [http://www.aae.org/certboard/ American Board of Endodontics] Category:Dentistry Dentist ja:%E6%AD%AF%E5%86%85%E7%99%82%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6

Oral and maxillofacial pathology

Oral pathology, also known in the United States of America as oral and maxillofacial pathology is the specialty of dentistry and pathology which deals with the nature, identification, and management of diseases affecting the oral and maxillofacial regions. It is a science that investigates the causes, processes and effects of these diseases. The practice of oral and maxillofacial pathology includes research, diagnosis of diseases using clinical, radiographic, microscopic, biochemical or other examinations, and in many instances the management of patients. Category:Dentistry Category:Pathology

Oral and maxillofacial surgery

Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a specialty of dentistry concerned with the diagnosis and surgical treatment of congenital or acquired diseases, dysfunction, defects or injuries of the mouth, jaws, face, neck and associated regions. Maxilla refers to the jaws - lower maxilla or lower jaw is currently called the mandible and the term maxilla refers to the upper jaw.

Training

To specialize in oral and maxillofacial surgery in the United States, a dental school graduate [DDS or DMD] must complete either a four-year or a six-year residency program. The four-year programs grant a certificate of specialty training in oral and maxillofacial surgery. The six-year programs grant the specialty certificate in addition to a medical degree (MD).

Scope

Oral and maxillofacial surgery deals with :
- Dentoalveolar surgery: surgical removal of impacted teeth, difficult extractions, removal of teeth on medically compromised patients, exposure of teeth for orthodontic reasons.
- Diagnosis and treatment of non-cancerous cysts, tumors and growth, cancerous conditions of the oral and facial region, of skin lesions (skin cancers) in the region, facial pain, temporomandibular joint (TMJ, or jaw joint) disorders
- Facial bony trauma: fractures of the lower and upper jaw, cheek bones, noses, eye sockets, frontal bone, etc.
- Facial soft tissue trauma: repair of facial and oral lacerations
- Osseointegrated (bone anchored) implants: dental and craniofacial implants
- Adjunctive measures in the treatment of sleep apnea (Mandibular advancement splints and jaw advancement surgery etc)
- Orthognathic Surgery (jaw realignment surgery) to maximise facial function and aesthetics
- Reconstructive surgery
- Nerve surgery
- Facial aesthetic surgery
- Salivary glands surgery Category:Dentistry

Orthodontics

Orthodontics or orthodontia is the specialty of dentistry that is concerned with the study and treatment of malocclusions, which may be a result of tooth irregularity, disproportionate jaw relationships, or both. Orthodontic treatment can be carried out for purely aesthetic reasons - improving the general appearance of patients' teeth for cosmetic reasons- but treatment is often prescribed for practical reasons, providing the patient with a functionally improved bite (occlusion).

Treatments

Treatment includes fixed appliances, most commonly dental braces, which can be made from stainless steel or a more esthetic ceramic material; removable appliances, or "plates"; headgear; elastic bands; and other appliances, including expansion appliances, and functional appliances. dental braces After a course of active orthodontic treatment, patients will often wear retainers, which will maintain the teeth in their improved position whilst the surrounding bone reforms around them. The retainers are generally worn full-time for a short period, perhaps 6 months to a year, and then worn periodically (typically nightly during sleep) for as long as the patient desires. It is possible for the teeth to stay aligned without regular retainer wear. However, there are many reasons teeth will crowd as a person ages and thus, there is no guarantee that teeth, orthodontically treated or otherwise, will stay aligned without retention.

Orthodontists

An orthodontist is a dentist who specializes in diagnosing and treating malocclusions, which are mis-alignments of the teeth, jaws, or both. Following dental school, an orthodontist completes 2-3 years of additional training resulting in a specialty certificate in orthodontics. In many orthodontic training programs, students can also earn one of three master's degree (Master of Science - MS; Master of Dental Science - MDS, or Master of Science in Dentistry - MSD) in addition to a specialty certificate. The orthodontist will align teeth with respect to the surrounding soft tissues, with or without movement of the underlying bones (which can be moved either through orthopaedic or orthognathic movements). Orthopaedic movements are attained through the judicious use of (mainly) acrylic appliances (functional appliances), that influence the position of the jaws relative to one other and the face, and will be carried out on growing children. The correct application of orthopaedic appliances can influence the development of an adolescent's jawline, giving a much improved aesthetic and functional result. Orthognathic movement is achieved by surgically repositioning the jaw(s), in patients that have completed their growth. Such surgical treatment is carried out by maxillofacial surgeons who work closely with the orthodontic team. One of the most common situations leading to orthodontic treatment is crowding of the teeth. In this situation, there is insufficient room for the normal complement of adult teeth, which can sometimes result in teeth being extracted. Crowding of teeth is recognised as an affliction that stems in part from our modern, western lifestyle. We do not know for sure whether it is due to the consistency of our diets; a result of mouthbreathing; or the result of an early loss of deciduous (milk, baby) teeth due to decay. It is also possible that Homo sapiens have evolved smaller jaws without a reduction in the number of teeth they will house happening at the same time. Much has been made in the media of links between tooth extraction and temporo-mandibular joint dysfunction (problems, including clicking and jamming, of the jaw joint). No research has shown a definitive link between extraction of teeth and jaw joint problems. Most temporo-mandibular joint problems are a result of the patient having a clenching habit - that is the patient bites the teeth together on a regular basis (e.g. when under stress).

Training

Various countries have their own systems for training and registering specialist orthodontists; generally a period of post-graduate study is required for a qualified dentist to qualify as an orthodontist. In the United Kingdom, this training period lasts three years, after completion of a fellowship diploma from a Royal College. In Europe a similar pattern is followed. It is always worth contacting the professional body responsible for registering orthodontists to ensure that the orthodontist you wish to consult is a recognized specialist.

Pakistan

Orthodontic education in Pakistan is run under the Semi-autonomus organization [http://www.cpsp.edu.pk/ College of Physicians and Surgeons] they confer a fellowship degree after three years of training under an accredited supervisor in an approved institution.

United States

A number of schools in the United States offer Advanced Orthodontic training to dentists seeking postgraduate education. The courses range from two or three years of clinical and didactic training. Generally admission criteria is an application process followed by extensive interviewing process by the insitution to select the best candidate. Candidates usually have to contact the individual school directly for the application process, a list of orthodontic schools can be obtained from the [http://www.braces.org/ American Association of Orthodonitists].

Pedodontics

Pedodontics, or Pediatric Dentistry, is a specialized branch of dentistry for the treatment of children. Category:Dentistry

Prosthodontics

Prosthodontics is one of the nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association (ADA). A prosthodontist is a dentist who specializes in prosthodontics. Prosthodontic training requires an additional 3-4 years of training after obtaining a dental degree (D.D.S. or D.M.D.) in an ADA approved program. Prosthodontists specialize in the restoration of oral function by creating prostheses and restorations (i.e. Complete dentures, crowns, implant retained/supported restorations). Training consists of rigorous preparation in head and neck anatomy, materials science, esthetics, and occlusion (bite). Due to this extensive training, prosthodontist are frequently called upon to treat TMD related disorders, congenital disorders, and sleep disorders by planning and fabricating various prostheses and orthotic appliances. Maxillofacial prosthetics is a sub-specialty of prosthodontics requiring an additional year of training after completing an ADA approved prosthodontic training program. Maxillofacial prosthodontists treat patients who have acquired and congenital defects of the head and neck (maxillofacial) region due to surgery, trauma, and/or birth defect. Artificial eyes, ears, and maxillary obturators are commonly planned and fabricated by maxillofacial prosthodontists. Other less commonly employed prostheses include mouth devices used by amputees to aid in daily activities, and tracheostomy obturators.

External links

- [http://www.prosthodontics.org Americal College of Prosthodontics]
- [http://www.prosthodontics.org/cf-dbm/about/c-about.cfm About prosthodontics]
- [http://maxillofacialprosth.org/maxillo/maxillofacial/ American Academy of Maxillofacial Prosthetics]
- [http://www.ada.org American Dental Association] Category:Dentistry

Cosmetic dentistry

Cosmetic dentistry is a discipline within dentistry in which the primary focus is the modification of appearance of a patient's oral cavity and surrounding structures, rather than the prevention and treatment of organic, structural, or functional oral disease. Through cosmetic dentistry, the appearance of the mouth can be altered to more closely match the patient's subjective concept of what is visually pleasing.

Materials

In the past, dental fillings and other tooth restorations were made of gold, amalgam, and other metals -- some of which were veneered with porcelain. Now, dental work can be made entirely of porcelain or composite materials that closely mimic the appearance of natural tooth structure. These tooth colored materials are bonded to the underlying tooth structure with resin adhesives.

Treatments

Today's top cosmetic dental treatment options include: Whitening - Whitening is the most commonly prescribed cosmetic dental procedure. While many whitening options are now available, dentist-supervised treatments remain the recommended procedures for lightening discolored teeth. Bonding - Bonding is an option for chipped or cracked teeth. It is a process in which an enamel-like material is applied to a tooth's surface, sculpted into shape, hardened, and then polished. Implants - A replacement for dentures, implants are a stronger, more attractive option for replacing missing or lost teeth. An anchor is placed in the patient's jaw, and a life-like ceramic restoration is built around it and matched to the original tooth color. Veneers - An increasingly popular procedure, veneers are ultra-thin, custom-made laminates that are affixed directly to the teeth. They are an option for closing gaps or disguising discolored teeth that did not respond well to whitening procedures.

External links

- [http://www.aacd.com/media/kit/fact_sheet.aspx American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry]
- [http://www.ada.org/ American Dental Association] Category:Dentistry

References

[http://www.teeth-whitening.cc Teeth Whitening Reference]

Temporomandibular joint disorder

Temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJD), or TMJ syndrome, is an acute or chronic inflammation of the temporomandibular joint, which connects the lower jaw to the skull. The disorder and resultant dysfunction can result in significant pain and impairment. Because the disorder transcends the boundaries between several health-care disciplines—in particular, dentistry, neurology and psychology—there is a variety of quite different treatment approaches. Attempts in the last decade to develop surgical treatments based on MRI and CAT scans now receive less attention. These techniques are reserved for the most recalcitrant cases where other therapeutic modalities have changed. Exercise protocols, habit control, splinting, or more recently neuromuscular dentistry should be the first line of approach, leaving oral surgery as a last resort. Certainly a focus on other possible causes of facial pain and jaw immobility and dysfunction should be the initial consideration of the examining oral surgeon or health professional. It is suggested that before the attending doctor commences any plan of approach utilizing medications or surgery a thorough search for inciting para-functional jaw habits must be performed. Correction of any discrepancies from normal can then be the primary goal. An approach to eliminating para-functional habits involves the taking of a detailed history and careful physical examination. The medical history should be designed to reveal duration of illness and symptoms, previous treatment and effects, contributing medical findings, history of facial trauma and a search for habits that may have produced or enhanced symptoms. Particular attention should be directed in identifying perverse jaw habits such as clenching or teeth grinding, lip or cheek biting, or positioning of the lower jaw in an edge to edge bite. All of the above puts strain of the bilateral external pterygoid muscles and resultant jaw pain. Palpation of these muscles will cause a painful response. There are many external factors that place undue strain on the TMJ. These include but are not limited to the following: Over-opening the jaws beyond their range for the individual or unusually aggressive or repetitive sliding of the jaws sideways (laterally) or forward (protrusive). These movements may also be due to wayward habits or a malalignment of the jaws or dentition. This may be due to: # Speech habits resulting in jaw thrusting. # Excessive gum chewing or nail biting. # Excessive jaw movements associated with exercise. # Size of foods eaten. These are the symptoms of TMJ, although not everyone who has TMJ may feel any or all of the symptoms. These include, but are not limited to: # Unable to open mouth all the way # Pain when trying to close mouth or bite down # Feeling as if lower jaw muscles are tensed too tight If seeking relief from this disorder, make sure your doctor is up to date on all the current treatment options. Mandibular Repositioning Devices can be worn long or short term to help aleviate symptoms. Long term perminant treatment if the device is proven to work for your situation would be full mouth reconstruction, or building up of teeth to achieve the proper bite relation. Ask your doctor where he was trained to treat your disorder and what are the short and long term plans to help you achieve a pain-free life! It takes someone with an expertice to correctly treat this disorder. Treatments can vary in cost, but do not let the cheapest route cloud your decision.

External link

- [http://my.webmd.com/content/article/66/79637.htm WebMD] Includes some basic treatments Category:Dentistry Category:Musculoskeletal disorders ja:%E9%A1%8E%E9%96%A2%E7%AF%80%E7%97%87

Geriatric dentistry

Geriatric dentistry or gerodontics is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals. Category:Dentistry Category:Dentistry Dentist zh-min-nan:Gê-i-ha̍k ko:치과 ja:歯科学

Mehrgarh

Mehrgarh was an ancient settlement in South Asia and is one of the most important sites in archaeology for the study of the earliest neolithic settlements in that region. The remains are located in Balochistan, Pakistan on the Kachi plain near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River valley and between the present-day cities of Quetta, Kalat and Sibi, Mehrgarh is sometimes cited as the earliest known farming settlement in South Asia, based on archaeological excavations from 1974 (Jarrige et al). The earliest evidence of settlement dates from 7000 BC. It's also cited for the earliest evidence of pottery in South Asia. Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into several periods. The chalcolithic people of Mehrgarh also had contacts with northern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran and even with the southern part of central Asia (B.B. Lal 1997: 287).

Mehrgarh Period I

Mehrgarh Period I 7000-5500 BC, was neolithic and aceramic (i.e., without the use of pottery). The earliest farming in the area was developed by semi-nomadic people using plants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep, goat and cattle. The settlement was established with simple mud buildings with four internal subdivisions. Numerous burials have been found, many with elaborate goods such as baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally animal sacrifices, with more goods left with burials of males. Ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sandstone and polished copper have been found, along with simple figurines of women and animals. A single ground stone axe was discovered in a burial, and several more were obtained from the surface. These ground stone axes are the earliest to come from a stratified context in the Indian subcontinent.

Mehrgarh Period II

Mehrgarh Period II 5500-4800 BC and Merhgarh Period III 4800-3500 BC were ceramic neolithic (i.e., pottery was now in use) and later chalcolithic. Much evidence of manufacturing activity has been found and more advanced techniques were used. Glazed faience beads were produced and terracotta figurines became more detailed. Figurines of females were decorated with paint and had diverse hairstyles and ornaments. Two flexed burials were found in period II with a covering of red ochre on the body. The amount of burial goods decreased over time, becoming limited to ornaments and with more goods left with burials of females. The first button seals were produced from terracotta and bone and had geometric designs. Technologies included stone and copper drills, updraft kilns, large pit kilns and copper melting crucibles. There is further evidence of long-distance trade in period II: important as an indication of this is the discovery of several beads of lapis lazuli - originally from Badakshan.

Mehrgarh Period VII

Somewhere between 2600 and 2000 BC, the city seems to have been largely abandoned, which is the time of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Common variant spellings

Mehrgarh is easily misspelled as Mehrgahr, Merhgarh or Merhgahr. Kachi plain is also spelled as Kacchi plain, Katchi plain.

References

- Lal, B.B. The Earliest Civilization of South Asia. Aryan Books.

External links

- [http://mehrgarh.webpal.info/mehrgarh/ Mehrgarh (Balochistan)]
- Balochistan Hills - http://bosei.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/~indus/english/1_1_01.html
- Early Developments of Art, Symbol and Technology in the Indus Valley Tradition - http://www.harappa.com/indus3/e1.html
- Prehistoric dentistry evidence found - http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/health/newsid_1272000/1272010.stm Category:Geography of Pakistan Category:Archaeological sites in Pakistan Category:Balochistan

Pakistan

:See 2005 Kashmir earthquake for the 8 October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. The Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان, islāmī jamhūriya i pākistān), or Pakistan (Urdu: پاکستان, pākistān) is a country located in South Asia that overlaps onto the Greater Middle East and Central Asia. The country borders India, Afghanistan, Iran (Persia), China and the Arabian Sea. The name of the country "Pakistan" in Urdu and Persian means Land of the Pure. With around 163 million inhabitants, it is the sixth most populous country with the second largest Muslim population. It is a member of the UN, Commonwealth of Nations, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

History

See main article for detailed information: History of Pakistan (Including pre-history, civilizations of the region, and modern events to date) Related articles: History of South Asia, History of Iran, History of India, History of Afghanistan History of Afghanistan, was center of Indus Valley Civilization, 2600 BCE – 1800 BCE]] Pakistan is the birthplace of some of the most ancient civilizations and a strategic center of historic trade routes, including the Silk Road. It exists in a region whose history has overlapped that of many empires (e.g Mughals) and also of countries including India, Afghanistan and Persia (Iran). As one of the cradles of human civilization, the Pakistani region has long been at the crossroads of history. Pakistan was the site of the Indus Valley civilization and was subsequently conquered by many groups, including Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, White Huns, and Scythians. This period saw the country advance in trade and culture to a level where the Gandhara region and the great city of Taxila (Takshashila) became a great center of learning and development.

Ancient History

Nearly all of ancient Pakistan was ruled by the Persian Achaemenid dynasty for over two hundred years beginning in 540 BCE. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great defeated the Punjabi king Porus (Paurava) at the Hydaspes near Jhelum. After Alexander's death and brief Seleucid control, Chandragupta Maurya gained control of the territory. His grandson Ashoka is known as to have been one of the major proselytizers of Buddhism which spread in the region. After the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was overthrown in 185 BCE, 185 BCE-171 BCE), founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom]] Demetrius of Bactria conquered Gandhara and Punjab in 184 BCE, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that lasted nearly two centuries, until around 10 BCE. To the south, this kingdom captured Sindh and extended to the coast of the Arabian Sea. One of the prominent Greco-Bactrian kings was Menander, who ruled from 155 to 130 BCE and is believed to have been a convert to Buddhism. His territories covered the eastern dominions of the divided Greek empire of Bactria (from the areas of the Panjshir and Kapisa, now in Afghanistan) and extended to the Pakistani province of Punjab with diffuse tributaries to the south and east, possibly even as far as Mathura in modern India. Sagala (modern Sialkot) became his capital and propered greatly under Menander's rule. The last Greek king to rule independently was probably Strato II, whose reign ended about 10 CE. Various Greek kings ruled into the beginning of the 1st century CE, as petty rulers (such as Theodamas) and as administrators, after the area was conquered by various Central Asian groups, most notably the Tocharian Kushans. The Kushan kingdom stretched from modern-day Uzbekistan to northwestern India. The kingdom was founded by King Heraios, and greatly expanded by his successor, Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises' son Vima Takto conquered territory now in India, but lost much of the western parts of the kingdom, including Gandhara, to the Parthian king Gondophares. Later invaders included the Scythians, and White Huns. While the Punjab remained under the Huns and Scythians, the Sassanian Persian Empire then came to control most of western Pakistan and parts of Sind came under the rule of Hindu rajas.

Arrival of Islam

In the eighth century CE, the arrival of the Arab Muslims to the provinces of Sindh and Punjab set the stage for the geographic boundaries of the modern state of Pakistan and formed the foundation for Islamic rule which quickly spread across much of South Asia. Following the rule of various Islamic empires, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate, the region was controlled by the Mughals from 1526 until 1739. From 1739 until the early 19th century the entire area was ruled briefly by Nadir Shah and then by the Afghans and then later the Baluchis and Sikhs came to control Sind and the Punjab.

British rule

To the east, the British had arrived and formed the British East India Company which would eventually spearhead a colonial dominion over South Asia. The Mughal Empire was then at a decline and the eventual collapse of the anti-British struggle by the Muslim leader Tipu Sultan from 1749 to 1799 left the remnants of the Mughal Empire vulnerable. The British did not gain strong footholds in the Pakistani region until the early 19th century and annexed the entire area during the Great Game rivalry with the Russian empire. The Indian War of Independence in 1857 was the last South Asian armed struggle against the British, while the Anglo-Afghan wars continued into the 20th century. After crushing the struggle the British dubbed the event the "Sepoy Mutiny". Even though the War of Independence was a joint Muslim-Hindu struggle to oust the British, the brunt of British retaliation was directed at the Muslim population of the empire employing the infamous "Divide and rule" policy. This suppression and subjugation helped set the stage for the creation of Pakistan - an Islamic state for the Muslims of British India. The greatest proponent of this became Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who later earned the title of Quaid-e-Azam (Urdu: قائد اعظم) meaning "great leader" and founder of Pakistan.

Independence and After Independence

After a 60 year formal and generally unarmed struggle for independence, Pakistan came into existence on 14th August 1947 from the British Empire. The British divided up the Indian empire into three parts: the central part, with a Hindu majority, became modern-day India, the western part along with parts of the Punjab became West Pakistan, while East Bengal (the Muslim majority part of Bengal) became East Pakistan. The Partition of India is believed by many to have been mishandled by the British since it resulted in the worst ever recorded communal riots in the region and perhaps one of the worst in modern history. An estimated 1 to 5 million Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus and others in former British India lost their lives as a direct consequence and millions more became refugee migrants to the newly formed Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Due to a hasty British retreat and mishandling of the independence of its former colonies, various disputes would remain between India and Pakistan involving Kashmir and the Rann of Kutch (Sir Creek) regions. Both nations have fought three all out wars due to these unsettled issues. Other inherited legacies of British rule included the Durand Line debate regarding the border with Afghanistan. In 1971, economic and political discontent in East Pakistan – geographically separated from West Pakistan by India – and violent political repression escalated into a civil war (see Bangladesh Liberation War) in East Pakistan and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, resulting in the secession of East Pakistan, which formed the independent state of Bangladesh. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 created a large influx of refugees fleeing to Pakistan from Afghanistan; the largest in the world. In one of the largest covert operations in history, Pakistan and the United States supported anti-Soviet freedom fighters in Afghanistan, and the Soviets withdrew in the late 1980s. Politically since its formation, Pakistan has oscillated between democratic and military rule, while making some impressive recent economic strides.

Origin of the name

The name was coined by Cambridge student and Muslim nationalist Choudhary Rahmat Ali. He devised the word and first published it on January 28, 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never [http://www.zyworld.com/slam33/non.htm]. He saw it as an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in South Asia. (P for Punjab, A for the Afghan areas of the region, K for Kashmir, S for Sindh and tan for Baluchistan, thus forming 'Pakstan.' An 'i' was later added to the English rendition of the name to ease pronunciation, producing Pakistan.) The word also captured in the Persian language the concepts of "Pak" meaning "Pure" and "stan" for "land" or "home" (as in the names of Central Asian countries in the region; Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, etc), thus giving it the meaning Land of the Pure. All Arabic-speaking countries refer to Pakistan as باکستان (Bakstaan), as the Arabic alphabet lacks the letter "P."

Politics

Domestic Politics

Main article: Politics of Pakistan

Form of Government

Politics of Pakistan Constitutionally a federal republic, with considerable autonomy to the four Provinces – Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab, and NWFP (North West Frontier Province) (Sarhad) and the state of [http://www.ajk.gov.pk Azad Kashmir] (Azad meaning Free in Urdu). The upper house is called the Senate, which has 100 seats equally distributed among the four provinces of Pakistan, with reserved seats for women and religious minorities, who may also contest the general seats. The lower house is called the National Assembly of Pakistan and has 342 seats including reserved seats for religious and ethnic minorities and women. National Assembly elections were held in October 2002, and Senate elections in February 2003. One notable outcome was the election of 91 women to Parliament – the largest number (and the largest percentage) of women in the parliament of any Muslim-majority country, according to data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union. [http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm] Members of the National Assembly are elected for five-year terms. The National Assembly elects the Prime Minister of Pakistan, who then appoints selected members of the National Assembly and Senate as federal ministers in the cabinet. The Electoral College of Pakistan – consisting of the Senate, National Assembly, and the provincial assemblies – elects the President of Pakistan, who is the Head of State and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. The President’s appointment and term are constitutionally independent of the Prime Minister’s term. Each province has a Provincial Assembly which is elected for five year terms through competitive multi-party elections, and which in turn elects a Chief Minister – the executive head of the province. Provinces also have governors who are appointed by the Federal Government.

Political Parties

Commander in Chief Before and during the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the secular and centrist Pakistan Muslim league supported the creation of Pakistan while the far-right religious parties such as the Shia Conference , Jamiat-e-Ulema-e-Hind and leaders such as Maulana Azad opposed the creation of Pakistan and supported a united India. The liberal, leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) emerged as a major political player during the 1970s. During 80s, a new political anti-feudal movement started by unorthodox and educated urban dwellers of Sindh, specially Karachi, now known as MQM. Currently, the largest party in Parliament is the Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q) and the second largest is the Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians (PPPP). The PML-Q obtained a plurality in the October 2002 elections. Besides these major players, there are several other political parties active in Pakistan. See also: List of political parties in Pakistan

Foreign Relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Pakistan Foreign relations of Pakistan Pakistan was an ally of the United States for much of its early history as a modern nation-state, from the 1950s and as a member of CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) and SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation). However, it all changed from 1965 when Pakistan went to war with India during the height of the Cold War. The US placed heavy military sanctions on Pakistan during the war forcing Pakistan to agree to the cease fire and pulling out of the war that was heading for a stalemate. After the 1965 war Pakistan had moved away from the US and its relations with China became stronger and soon both nations declared their alliance. Their relations have gone so far that it concerns the Western Super Powers. Despite US opposition, Pakistan dropped out of CENTO and SEATO, and established better relations with China and supported the resolution to move official recognition for the Chinese seat from the Taiwan-based Republic of China to the Beijing government. United States maintained a lukewarm relationship until the 1970s. In 1971, Pakistan was involved in a civil war which led the breaking away of East Pakistan, now Bangladesh. China supported Pakistan and did not accept the new nation of Bangladesh for over 3 years, even though in 1973 Pakistan itself had. The US also did not accept Bangladesh in favor of Pakistan until after the Shimla Accord. The Soviet involvement in the war and the Chinese influence on Pakistan prompted USA to bolster ties with a lost ally and the alliance would not be strengthened until the Afghan war. In the 1980s Pakistan was supplied by the US with necessary arms and helped in training supporting anti-Soviet militia in Afghanistan. US promised to provide Pakistan with F-16 fighter jets though only a few were eventually supplied due to the Pressler amendment. China however chose to remain out of this alliance, instead providing moral support. After the Afghan war, which ended in favor of the anti-Soviet Alliance, the relationship with the US deteriorated when sanctions were imposed on Pakistan along with India for their nuclear program. All military equipment aid was again barred. China came to Pakistan's aid and helped them establish ground force and aviation infrastructures. Prior to the US-Led coalition war in Afghanistan, China remained the main exporter and trader with Pakistan. After September 11th, 2001, and the subsequent American-led assault on Afghanistan, current Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf aligned his government again with the US and attempted to seal borders with Afghanistan and silence Islamic radicals along it (especially in the NWFP and other rural, fronteir provinces). Since this strategic re-alignment towards US policy, the economic and military aid has been flowing from the US to Pakistan in large numbers. Besides the US and China, Pakistan enjoys alliances with some Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. PAF pilots fly fighters for these two countries. Libya and Syria are the only two middle eastern countries with whom Pakistan enjoys great relations even though they were once Soviet allies. Pakistan is also an important member of the OIC, which brings it closer to every Muslim country. Besides OIC, Pakistan is a member of the South Asian union of SAARC. Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country in terms of population and its status as a declared nuclear power—the only Islamic nation—also plays into its role on the international scene.

Political History

Pakistan has been ruled by both democratic and military governments. General Ayub Khan was the president from 1958 to 1969, and General Yahya Khan from 1969 to 1971. Civilian rule continued from 1971 to 1977 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, but he was deposed by General Zia-Ul-Haq. General Zia was killed in a plane crash in 1988, after which Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan. She was the youngest woman to ever be elected the Head of Government and the first woman to be elected as the Head of Government of a Muslim country. Her government was followed by that of Nawaz Sharif, and the two leaders alternated until the military coup by General Pervez Musharraf in 1999. Since the resignation of President Rafiq Tarar in 2001, Musharraf has been the President of Pakistan. Pakistan's first decade was marred with political unrest and instability resulting in frequent collapses of civilian democratic governments. From 1947 to 1958 as many as seven Prime Ministers of Pakistan either resigned or were ousted. This political instability paved the way for Pakistan’s first military take over. On October 7th 1958 Pakistan’s civilian and first President Iskander Mirza in collaboration with General Mohammad Ayub Khan abrogated Pakistan’s constitution and declared Martial Law. Nation-wide parliamentary elections were held in October 2002, with the PML-Q winning a plurality of seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan, and Zafarullah Khan Jamali of that party emerging as Prime Minister. Jamali resigned on June 26, 2004. PML-Q leader Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain became interim PM, and was succeeded by Finance Minister and former Citibank Vice President Shaukat Aziz, who was elected Prime Minister on August 27, 2004 by a National Assembly vote of 191 to 151.

Geography

:Main article: Geography of Pakistan Geography of Pakistan Pakistan has a total area of 803,940 square kilometers, over three times the size of the United Kingdom. It has a land area of 778,720, slightly less than the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom put together. To the south is the Arabian Sea, with 1,046 km (650 mile) of Pakistani coastline. To Pakistan's east is India, which has a 2,912 km (1,809 mile) border with Pakistan. To its west is Iran, which has a 909 km (565 mile) border with Pakistan. To Pakistan's northwest lies Afghanistan, with a shared border of 2,430 km (1,510 miles.) China is towards the northeast and has a 523 km (325 mile) border with Pakistan. The northern and western areas of Pakistan are mountainous. Pakistani administered areas of Kashmir contain some of the highest mountains in the world, including the second tallest — K2 — and has areas of preserved moist temperate forest. K2]In the southeast, Pakistan's border with India passes through a flat desert, called the Cholistan or Thar Desert. West-central Balochistan has a high desert plateau, bordered by low mountain ranges. Most areas of the Punjab, and parts of Sindh, are fertile plains where agriculture is of great importance. Pakistan is also the home of some of the world's most ancient civilizations. Places like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kot Diji, Thatta, Bhambore, Gandhara, Mehrgarh, Dir are all sites that came into existance near the dawn of civilization several thousand years ago.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Pakistan

Overview

Pakistan, a developing country, is the sixth most populous in the world and has faced a number of challenges on the political and economic fronts. Although a very poor country when it became independent in 1947, in the 1960s Harvard economists proclaimed it to be a model of economic development. In each of its first four decades, Pakistan's economic growth rate was better than the global average, but imprudent policies led to a slowdown in the late 1990s. Since then, the Pakistani government has instituted wide-ranging reforms, and economic growth has accelerated in the current century. Pakistan's economic outlook has brightened and its manufacturing and financial services sectors have experienced rapid expansion. The growth of the non-agricultural sectors has changed the structure of the economy, and agriculture now only accounts for roughly one-fifth of the GDP. There has been a great improvement in its foreign exchange position and a rapid growth in hard currency reserves in recent years. In 2004 Pakistan's GDP growth rate was 8.4% which is (after China) the second-highest among the ten most populous countries in the world.[http://aric.adb.org/default11.asp?handler=country&cid=36]

Macroeconomic Reform and Prospects

According to many sources, the Pakistani government has made substantial economic reforms since 2000, and medium-term prospects for job creation and poverty reduction are the best in nearly a decade. Government revenues have greatly improved in recent years, as a result of economic growth, tax reforms - with a broadening of the tax base, and more efficient tax collection as a result of self-assessment schemes and corruption controls in the Central Board of Revenue - and the privatisation of public utilities and telecomunications. Pakistan is aggressively cutting tariffs and assisting exports by improving ports, roads, electricity supplies and irrigation projects. Islamabad has raised development spending from about 2% of GDP in the 1990s to 4% in 2003, a necessary step towards reversing the broad underdevelopment of its social sector. Liberalisation in the international textile trade has already yielded benefits for Pakistan's exports, and the country also expects to profit from freer trade in agriculture. As a large country, Pakistan hopes to take advantage of significant economies of scale, and to replace China as the largest textile manufacturer as the latter China moves up the value-added chain. These industries play to Pakistan's relative strengths in low labour costs. A perception of stability in the nation's monetary policies has contributed to a reduction in money-market interest rates, and a great expansion in the quantity of credit, changing consumption and investment patterns in the nation. Pakistan's domestic natural gas production, and its significant use of CNG in automobiles, has cushioned the effect of the oil-price shock of 2004-2005. Pakistan is also moving away from the doctrine of import substitution which some developing countries (such as Iran and India) dogmatically pursued in the twentieth century. The Pakistani government is now pursuing a export-driven model of economic growth successfully implemented by South East Asia and now highly successful in China. In 2005, the World Bank reported that :"Pakistan was the top reformer in the region and the number 10 reformer globally — making it easier to start a business, reducing the cost to register property, increasing penalties for violating corporate governance rules, and replacing a requirement to license every shipment with two-year duration licenses for traders." [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20643510~menuPK:158937~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html] In addition, reduced tensions with India and the ongoing peace process raise new hopes for a prosperous and stable South Asia, with more intra-regional trade.
Growing Middle Class
Measured by purchasing power, Pakistan has a 30 million strong middle class enjoying per capita incomes more than $8000-$10,000, according to Dr. Ishrat Husain, Governor of the State Bank of Pakistan [http://www.pabe.org/us-chamber-press-article/PressArticlesOctober18_2004.doc]. In addition, Pakistan has a growing upper class with relatively high per capita incomes. However, Pakistan has no individuals with as much as a billion US dollars, according to Forbes magazine, and has the distinction of being the most populous nation to have no billionaires.
Economic History

First Five Decades
Economically, Pakistan was a very poor and predominantly agricultural country at the time of its independence in 1947 from British India. During its first four decades, Pakistan's economic growth rate was better than the global average. Industrial-sector growth, including manufacturing, was also above average. In the early 1960s, Pakistan was seen as a model of economic development around the world, and there was much praise for the way its economy was progressing. Many countries sought to emulate Pakistan's economic planning strategy and one of them, South Korea, copied its Second Five Year Plan, 1960-65. Not just that But World financial center in Seoul was modeled after Karachi. Later, economic mismanagement in general, and fiscally imprudent economic policies in particular, caused a large increase in the country's public debt and led to slower growth in the 1990s.
Economic Resilience
Historically, Pakistan's overall economic output (GDP) has grown every year since a 1951 recession. Despite this record of sustained growth, Pakistan's economy had, until a few years ago, been characterized as unstable and highly vulnerable to external and internal shocks. However, the economy proved to be unexpectedly resilient in the face of multiple adverse events concentrated into a four-year period —
- the Asian financial crisis;
- economic sanctions — according to Colin Powell, Pakistan was "sanctioned to the eyeballs";
- global recession;
- a severe drought — the worst in Pakistan's history, lasting four years;
- heightened perceptions of risk as a result of military tensions with India — with as many as a million troops on the border, and predictions of impending (potentially nuclear) war; and
- the post-9/11 military action in neighboring Afghanistan, with a massive influx of refugees from that country. Despite these adverse events, Pakistan's economy kept growing, and economic growth accelerated towards the end of this period. This resilience has led to a change in perceptions of the economy, with leading international institutions such as the IMF, World Bank, and the ADB praising Pakistan's performance in the face of adversity.
Recent economic history and trends
Since about the turn of the century, the Pakistani government has instituted wide-ranging reforms, and economic growth has accelerated in the current century. Pakistan's economic outlook has brightened and its manufacturing and financial services sectors have experienced rapid expansion. The growth of the non-agricultural sectors has changed the structure of the economy, and agriculture now only accounts for roughly one-fifth of the GDP. There has been a great improvement in its foreign exchange position and a rapid growth in hard currency reserves as a result of its current account surplus. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 2005, Pakistan's GDP growth rate was 8.4% which is (after China) the second-highest among the ten most populous countries in the world. Its exports grew by as much as 17% and the country also saw increasing foreign investments in the IT sector, thanks to cheap labor, a low tax rate and a large pool of English speakers.
Structure of production

Stock Market
In the first three years of the current century, Pakistan's KSE-100 stock market index (