:: wikimiki.org ::

Desktop Environment

Desktop environment

In graphical computing, a desktop environment (DE) offers a complete graphical user interface (GUI) solution to operate a computer. The name is derived from the desktop metaphor used by most of these interfaces. A DE provides icons, toolbars, applications, applets, and abilities like drag and drop. As a whole, the particularities of design and function of a desktop environment endow it with a distinctive look and feel. The desktop environments for the popular operating systems Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X are, in their intended use, relatively static. This assures a consistent user experience. However, there are alternative themes and third-party software that can completely change both the appearance of common interface elements such as windows, buttons and icons and the interface model itself (in Windows this is accomplished by replacing the default Explorer shell). On systems running the X Window System (typically Unix systems), the desktop environment is much more flexible. In this context, a DE typically consists of a window manager, a set of themes, and programs and libraries for managing the desktop. All of these individual modules can be exchanged and individually configured to achieve a unique combination, but most desktop environments provide a default configuration that requires minimal user input. Not all of the program code that is part of a DE has effects which are directly visible to the user. Some of it may be low-level code. KDE, for example, provides so-called io slaves which give the user access to a wide range of virtual devices. These io slaves are not available outside the KDE environment.

Examples of desktop environments

Well-known desktop environments examples (specially for Unixes), include GNOME, KDE, Xfce, LG3D and CDE. However, a number of other desktop environments also exist, including (but are not limited to): EDE, UDE, Mezzo, ROX Desktop, GEM, PerlTop, XPde, Xito, IRIX Interactive Desktop and arm0nia. Some window managers also include elements reminiscent of those found in desktop environments, most prominently Enlightenment. Category:Graphical user interface simple:Desktop environment

Graphical user interface

A graphical user interface (or GUI, sometimes pronounced "gooey") is a method of interacting with a computer through a metaphor of direct manipulation of graphical images and widgets in addition to text. GUIs display visual elements such as icons, windows, and other gadgets. The precursor to GUIs was invented by researchers at the Stanford Research Institute (led by Doug Engelbart) with the development and use of text-based hyperlinks manipulated with a mouse for the On-Line System. The concept of hyperlinks was further refined and extended to graphics by researchers at Xerox PARC, who went beyond text-based hyperlinks and used GUIs as the primary interface for the Xerox Alto computer. Most modern general-purpose GUIs are derived from this system. For this reason some people call this class of interface a PARC User Interface (PUI) (note that PUI is also an acronym for perceptual user interface). The PUI consists of graphical widgets (often provided by widget toolkit libraries) such as windows, menus, radio buttons, check boxes, and icons, and employs a pointing device (such as a mouse, trackball, or touchscreen) in addition to a keyboard. Those aspects of PUIs can be emphasized by using the alternative acronym WIMP, which stands for Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointing device. The GUI familiar to most of us today in either the Mac or the Windows operating systems and their applications originated at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Laboratory in the late 1970s. Apple used it in their first Macintosh computers. Later, Microsoft copied Apple's ideas in their first version of the Windows operating system for IBM-compatible PCs. Examples of systems that support GUIs are Mac OS, Microsoft Windows, NEXTSTEP and the X Window System. The latter is extended with toolkits such as Motif (CDE), Qt (KDE) and GTK+ (GNOME). GNOME] GNOME GNOME

Types of GUIs

GUIs that are not PUIs are most notably found in computer games, and advanced GUIs based on virtual reality are now frequently found in research. Many research groups in North America and Europe are currently working on the Zooming User Interface or ZUI, which is a logical advancement on the GUI, blending some 3D movement with 2D or "2 and a half D" vectorial objects. Some GUIs are designed for the rigorous requirements of vertical markets. These are known as "application specific GUIs." One example of such an application specific GUI is the now familiar touchscreen point of sale software found in restaurants worldwide and being introduced into self-service retail checkouts. First pioneered by Gene Mosher on the Atari ST computer in 1986, the application specific touchscreen GUI has spearheaded a worldwide revolution in the use of computers throughout the food & beverage industry and in general retail. Other examples of application specific touchscreen GUIs include the most recent automatic teller machines, airline self-ticketing, information kiosks and the monitor/control screens in embedded industrial applications which employ a real time operating system (RTOS). The latest cell phones and handheld game systems also employ application specific touchscreen GUI.

GUI vs. CLI

GUIs were introduced in reaction to the steep learning curve of Command Line Interfaces (CLI), text-based user interfaces requiring commands to be typed on the keyboard. Since the command words in CLIs are usually numerous and composable, very complicated operations can be invoked using a relatively short sequence of words and symbols. This leads to high levels of efficiency once the many commands are learned, but reaching this level can take a while because the command words aren't easily discoverable. WIMPs, on the other hand, present the user with numerous widgets that represent and can trigger some of the system's available commands. Most modern operating systems provide both a GUI and a CLI, although the GUIs usually receive more attention. The GUI is usually WIMP based, although occasionally other metaphors surface, such as Microsoft Bob, 3dwm or (partially) FSV. Applications may also provide both interfaces, and when they do the GUI is usually a WIMP wrapper around the CLI version. The latter used to be implemented first because it allowed the developers to focus exclusively on their product's functionality without bothering about interface details such as designing icons and placing buttons. Nowadays, the GUI is no longer an optional part of a successful application because users have grown acustomed to the ease of use provided by their familiar GUIs.

Outlook

Research has brought back evidence that users who use application software for scripting and editing find it easier and more effective to make good use of GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces) rather than Command Lines. Also, academic and research institutions often work on prototypes of future user interfaces that place an equal or greater emphasis on the tactile elements of the interface. The "direct manipulation interface" term is usually not presented as an acronym.

External links

- [http://www.guidebookgallery.org/ Marcin Wichary’s GUIdebook], Graphical User Interface gallery: over 5500 screenshots of UI, application, and icon history
- [http://www.sitepoint.com/article/real-history-gui The Real History of the GUI], a very interesting article by Mike Tuck
- [http://arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/gui.ars A History of the GUI], by Jeremy Reimer of Ars Technica
- [http://linux.oneandoneis2.org/LNW.htm Linux is Not Windows] points out the important design differences which lead to WIMP and CLI (but lacks impartiality) Category:Human-computer interaction Category:Software architecture ko:GUI ja:グラフィカルユーザインターフェース

Desktop metaphor

The desktop metaphor is a set of unifying concepts currently used in a number of GUI-based operating systems. In this metaphor, the monitor of a computer represents the user's desktop, upon which documents and folders of documents can be placed. A document can be opened into a window, which represents a paper copy of the document placed on the desktop. Small applications called desk accessories are also available, such as a desk calculator, etc. The desktop metaphor itself has been extended and stretched with various implementations, since access to features and usability of the computer are usually more important than maintaining the "purity" of the metaphor. Hence we find trash cans on the desktop, as well as disks and network volumes (which can be thought of as filing cabinets – not something normally found on a desktop). Other features such as menu bars, task bars, or docks have no counterpart on a real-world desktop. In recent times the filing cabinet and desktop metaphor has become less important, especially since the advent of very large storage media, which can make the easy navigation of files and folders problematic. A more user-oriented approach is gaining favour, where the user can organise documents in a manner that facilitates his or her particular needs, rather than being forced to use a file-system view of the system. The addition of "smart folders" and the like leads to a method of locating files that is based on search criteria important to the user, rather than its physical arrangement on disk, which ultimately is of no importance to the user. The first computer to popularise the desktop metaphor over the earlier command line interface was the Apple Macintosh in 1984.

Toolbar

In a graphical user interface on a computer monitor a toolbar is a row, column, or block of onscreen buttons or icons that, when clicked, activate certain functions of the program. The first toolbar appeared on the Xerox Alto computer in 1973. Toolbars are seen in common applications such as Microsoft Word, and as add-ons for web browsers such as Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. Prominent web browser toolbars include the Google Toolbar, MSN Toolbar, Yahoo! Toolbar and the Dictionary.com toolbar.

Toolbars for Wikipedia

- Image:Toolbar.png The MediaWiki Edition Toolbar
- A WikiSearch Toolbar is available, allowing direct Wikipedia searches from Internet Explorer.
- The Suckingfish Toolbar also allows direct Wikipedia searches from Internet Explorer, and one click login to Wikipedia. It can be downloaded from http://www.suckingfish.com/jpaging.do?name=toolbar here
- A Wikipedia toolbar for easy access to commonly used MediaWiki markup including easy table creation is available as an extension for Mozilla browsers. It can be downloaded from [http://wikipedia.mozdev.org here]. Wikipedia toolbar for Mozilla browsers Category:Graphical user interface

Applet

An applet is a software component that runs in the context of another progam, for example a web browser. The applet must run in a container, which is provided by a host program, or through a plugin, or a variety of other applications including mobile devices that support the applet programming model. Unlike a program, an applet cannot run independently, features display and often interaction with the human user, and is usually stateless and has restricted security privileges. An applet characteristically performs a very narrow function that has no independent use. Hence, it is an application -let. Historically, the term was introduced in AppleScript in 1993. Applets usually have some form of user interface or perform a particular piece of the overall user interface in a web page. This distinguishes them from a program written in a scripting programming language (such as JavaScript) that also runs in the context of a larger, client program, but which would not be considered an applet. Applets generally have the capability of interacting with and/or influencing their host program, through the restricted security privileges, although they are generally not required to do so. Common examples of applets are Java applets and Flash movies. Another example is the Windows Media Player applet that is used to display embeded video files in Internet Explorer (and other browsers that support the plugin). Some plugins also allow for displaying various 3D model formats in a web browser, via an applet that allow the view of the model to be roated and zoomed. ja:アプレット

Look and feel

Look and feel refers to design aspects of a graphical user interface – in terms of both colours, shapes, layout, typefaces, etc (the "look"), and the behaviour of dynamic elements such as buttons, boxes, and menus (the "feel"). It is used in reference to both software and websites. Look and feel applies to other products as well as software GUIs. In documentation, it refers to the graphical layout (document size, color, font, etc.) and writing style of the material. In equipment, it means that the controls and displays are similar across a product line. Look and feel serves two general purposes. First, it provides branding, helping to identify a set of products from one company. Second, it increases ease of use since users will become familiar with how one product functions (looks, reads, etc.) and can translate the experience to other products with the same look and feel. Some companies try to copyright their look and feel. Apple Computer was notable for the use of the term in reference to their Mac OS operating system, trying, with some success, to block other software developers from creating software which had a similar "look and feel" to theirs. They argued that they had a copyright claim on the look and feel of their software, and even went so far as to take Microsoft to court, alleging that their Windows operating system was illegally copying their look and feel. Despite arousing a large angry reaction from the software community, and causing Richard Stallman to form the League for Programming Freedom, the expected landmark ruling never happened, as most of the issues were resolved based on a license Apple had granted Microsoft for Windows 1.0. See: Apple v. Microsoft The new version of Microsoft Windows, namely Windows Vista, uses transparency in ways similar to Apple's Mac OS X GUI, and contains features with almost identical icons, such as Spotlight and the magnifying glass icon. This has led to speculation that Apple may once again take Microsoft to court. Category:Human-computer interaction

Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows refers to a series of operating environments and operating systems created by Microsoft for use on personal computers and servers.

Background

Microsoft first introducted an operating environment named Windows in 1985, as an add-on to MS-DOS. This was in response to Apple Computer's then-new computer system, the Apple Macintosh, which used a graphical user interface (GUI). Microsoft Windows eventually came to dominate the world personal computer market with market analysts like IDC estimating that Windows has around 90% of the client operating system market. [http://www.linuxworld.com.au/index.php/id;940707233;fp;2;fpid;1] All recent versions of Windows are fully-fledged operating systems. Windows is proprietary closed source software: Microsoft Corporation owns the software's copyright and controls its distribution. Windows was developed for IBM PC-compatible computers (these were based on Intel x86 architecture), and today, almost all versions of Windows are made for this hardware-platform (although Windows NT was written as a cross-platform system for Intel and MIPS processors, and later appeared on the PowerPC and DEC Alpha architectures). The popularity of Windows made Intel CPUs more popular and vice versa. In fact, the term Wintel became used to describe PC-compatible computers running a version of Windows.

Microsoft Windows versions

The term Windows is used as a collective term for several generations of operating system products which can be classified into the following categories: ; 16-bit operating environments : The early versions of Windows were just graphical user interfaces or desktops, mostly because they used the underlying MS-DOS for file system services and all operating processes. Soon, 16-bit Windows versions would have their own executable file format and provide their own device drivers (graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound). Unlike DOS, the Windows environment allowed all users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time (cooperative multitasking). Finally, they implemented a software segment-based virtual memory scheme which allowed the GUI to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources are swapped in and thrown away when useless or memory becomes scarce and data segments move in memory when a given application has relinquished processor control. Examples include Windows 1.0 (1985) and Windows 2.0 (1987) and its close relative Windows/286. ; Hybrid 16/32-bit operating environments : Windows/386 introduced a 32-bit protected mode kernel and virtual machine monitor. For the duration of a Windows session, it provided a device virtualization for the disk controller, video card, keyboard, mouse, timer and interrupt controller. The user-visible consequence was that it became possible to preemptively multitask multiple MS-DOS environments in separate windows (graphical applications required switching the window to full screen mode). Windows applications were still multi-tasked cooperatively inside a real-mode environment. Windows 3.0 (1990) and Windows 3.1 (1992) perfected the design, notably thanks to virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) which allowed them to share arbitrary devices between multitasked DOS windows. Most important, Windows applications could now run in 16-bit protected mode (when Windows was running in Standard or 386 Enhanced Mode), which gave them access to several megabytes of memory and removed the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme. They still ran inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provided a degree of protection, and multi-tasked cooperatively. For Windows 3.0 Microsoft also rewrote critical operations from C into assembly, making this release faster and less memory-hungry than its predecessors. ; Hybrid 16/32-bit operating system : With the introduction of 32-Bit File Access in Windows for Workgroups 3.11, Windows could finally stop relying on DOS for file management. Leveraging this, Windows 95 introduced Long File Names, reducing the 8.3 DOS to the role of a boot loader. MS-DOS was now bundled with Windows; this notably made it (partially) aware of long file names when its utilities were run from within Windows, but angered the competition. The most important novelty was the possibility of running 32-bit multi-threaded preemptively multitasked graphical programs. There were three releases of Windows 95 (the first in 1995, then subsequent bug-fix versions in 1996 and 1997, only released to OEMs, which added extra features such as FAT32 support). Microsoft's next OS was Windows 98; there were two versions of this (the first in 1998 and the second, named "Windows 98 Second Edition", in 1999). In 2000, Microsoft released Windows Me (Me standing for Millennium Edition), which used the same core as Windows 98 but adopted the visual appearance of Windows 2000, as well as a new feature called System Restore, allowing the user to set the computer's settings back to an earlier date. It was not a very well received implementation, and many user problems occurred. ME was considered a stopgap to the day both product lines would be seamlessly merged. Microsoft left little time for Windows Me to become popular before announcing their next version of Windows which would be called XP. ; 32-bit operating systems : Originally designed and marketed for higher-reliability business use with no DOS heritage. The first release was Windows NT 3.1 (1993, numbered "3.1" to match the Windows version and to one-up OS/2 2.1, IBM's flagship OS codeveloped by Microsoft and Windows NT's main competitor at the time), which was followed by NT 3.5 (1994), NT 3.51 (1995), and NT 4.0 (1996); the latter implemented the Windows 95 user interface. Microsoft then moved to combine their consumer and business operating systems. Their first attempt, Windows 2000, failed to meet their goals, and was released as a business system. The home consumer edition of Windows 2000, codenamed "Windows Neptune", ceased development and Microsoft released Windows Me in its place. Eventually "Neptune" was merged into their new project, Whistler, which later became Windows XP. Since then, a new business system, Windows Server 2003, has expanded the top end of the range, and the forthcoming Windows Vista will complete it. Windows CE, Microsoft's offering in the mobile and embedded markets, is also a true 32-bit operating system. ; 64-bit operating systems : The newest category, are designed for AMD's AMD64 CPU architecture, Intel's Intel Architecture 64-bit, and EM64T. The 64-bit Windows family comprises Windows XP Itanium edition, Professional x64 Edition, and Windows Server 2003; Windows XP Professional and Server 2003 x64 editions were released on April 25, 2005. Itanium editions already came out in 2002. Early indications are that Windows Vista, the projected successor to Windows XP, will be released in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. See also: List of Microsoft Windows versions.

Microsoft Windows history

The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released in 1985, lacked a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity. Windows 1.0 did not provide a complete operating system; rather, it extended MS-DOS. Microsoft Windows version 2.0 was released in 1987 and was slightly more popular than its predecessor. Microsoft Windows version 3.0, released in 1990, was the first version to achieve broad commercial success. It featured improvements to the user interface and to multitasking capabilities. In 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, which made further changes to the user interface. In 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, a version that used the kernel from Microsoft Windows NT. With Windows XP, Microsoft merged the consumer-oriented Windows 3.1 line with the more commercially-oriented Windows NT line of products.

Interface

kernel The most obvious feature of the more recent Windows versions (since Windows 95 and NT 4.0) besides the window, is the desktop, which holds various icons, or graphical objects that the user can double-click to open. Windows has produced a significant change in the way people interact with computers; it is possible to perform most common tasks, some quite complex, with very little computer knowledge. Another quite significant feature of Windows since Windows 95 is the Start Button and Start Menu, which gives users access to installed programs and many of the other features of the operating system. It is attached to the taskbar (blue in the picture on the right). Windows XP introduced a new visual style dubbed "Luna", which updated the classic Windows style (a plain grey box look) with a more graphical appearance. The new style features bold colors and a larger titlebar and start button, which some people have labelled immature or childish. Users can still elect to use the old Windows 9x/2000 visual style. There is a view that modern operating systems need to cater to the vastly increased user base with a lower average computer skill level and the increased power and complexity of modern computer systems. However, some users accuse the Windows interface of isolating the user from too much of the inner workings of the computer, making it more difficult to control, configure and troubleshoot some system features. Windows also comes with features to help the disabled through its accessibility options. Under Windows XP, these features include the Narrator, Magnifier and contrast display mode. However, these are not suitable for everyone. Other customized builds of other operating systems may provide the needed features.

Popularity

Microsoft Windows is installed on the majority of personal computers. A July 2005 poll of Network Computing magazine readers found that 87% of their organisations used Microsoft's desktop operating systems. [http://www.networkcomputing.com/showitem.jhtml?articleID=165701950&pgno=8#2] It achieved enormous market penetration due to the domination of MS-DOS in the early days of PC compatible computers (IBM-PC clones). It is also the primary platform for Microsoft Office and many computer games. Microsoft's operating system has also benefited from not being tied to the success of one hardware manufacturer, and from Microsoft's willingness to license the operating system to manufacturers. For example, this is in contrast with Apple Computer, which does not license Mac OS X to other manufacturers, as well as Sun, which did not license Solaris before it was made free and open-source. In the past, companies who wanted to be in the computer business had to create their own operating system (such as the Amiga) or choose another OS; even an exclusive license with one vendor was significantly cheaper than developing and supporting a new operating system and software base. Due to Microsoft's exclusive licensing agreements with many computer vendors, Windows today comes pre-installed on most computers as a bundled OEM version, making it the default or only choice for much of the market. Most consumers do not delete Windows and install another operating system. For some consumers, Windows is the only valid option as their computing environment or is mandated by their workplace; additionally, the unfamiliarity with most other operating systems limits the desire to switch to other operating systems. Further, a growing part of the computer market lacks the technical knowledge needed to install an operating system. Finally, the large software base of programs available for the Windows family of operating systems has become the single largest self-perpetuating reason for the popularity of Windows. In recent years, many companies have started up with the sole intention of releasing Windows software; the fact that there is already a large customer base in place is reason enough for such companies to only spend resources on Windows software development. In turn, the fact that many companies are supporting Windows exclusively is reason for many customers to choose Windows.

Security

OEM Security has been a major weakness of Windows for many years. Due to the widespread usage of Windows on desktops, many crackers (also known as Black Hat hackers) have targeted Windows rather than the lesser used operating systems such as Linux, Unix, Mac OS X, and FreeBSD. Additionally most modern operating systems were designed for security in a multi-user and/or networked environment and have a relatively small number of security issues. Windows was originally designed for ease-of-use on a single-user PC without a network connection, and did not have security features built in from the outset. Combined with occasionally flawed code (such as buffer overflows), Windows is a continous target of worms and virus writers. In June 2005, Bruce Schneier's Counterpane Internet Security reported that it had seen over 1,000 new viruses and worms in the previous six months. Microsoft publicly admitted their ongoing security problems shortly after the turn of the century and now claims to regard security as their number one priority. As a result, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP greatly increases the security. Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows Update service approximately once a month, although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals. In Windows 2000 and Windows XP, updates can be automatically downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so. A study conducted by Kevin Mitnick and marketing communications firm, Avantgarde, found that an unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system lasted only 4 minutes on the Internet before it was compromised. [http://www.avantgarde.com/ttln113004.html] The AOL/National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study of October 2004 determined that 80% of Windows users were infected by at least one spyware/adware product. [http://www.staysafeonline.info/pdf/safety_study_v04.pdf] Much documentation is available describing how to increase the security of Microsoft Windows products. Typical suggestions include deploying Microsoft Windows behind a hardware or software firewall, running anti-virus and anti-spyware software, and installing patches as they become available through Windows Update.

Windows emulation software

Emulation allows the use of some Windows applications without using Microsoft Windows. These include:
- WINE – an almost complete free software / open source software implementation of the Windows API, allowing one to run some Windows applications on x86 Unix-based platforms, including Linux.
- Cedega (formerly known as WineX) – TransGaming Technologies' proprietary fork of WINE, which is designed specifically for running games written for Microsoft Windows under Linux.
- ReactOS – open source operating system, aimed to be compatible with Windows NT apps and drivers.
- Freedows and Alliance OS – a very ambitious project, and a subsequent spinoff, that tried to clone Windows but withered away.
- Project David – ambitious and controversial project to fully emulate Windows programs to run on other OSs.
- CrossOver Office – another WINE spin-off that allows Windows programs to run on other OSs.
- Captive NTFS – a software "wrapper" for fuller, more-compatible open-source implementations of the Windows NTFS file system.
- ndiswrapper – a driver wrapper designed to let Linux/IA32 use Windows drivers for wireless networking hardware.
- E/OS – a virtual machine emulation system that strives for making it possible to run any program designed for any operating system without the need to actually install any other operating system.

External links

Official

- [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/default.mspx Microsoft's Official Windows Website]
- [http://www.windows.com Official Promotional Website (Windows.com)]
- [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryProGraphic.mspx Windows history time line from Microsoft]

Tips and documentation

- [http://www.pcnineoneone.com/howto/multiboot1.html How to run multiple versions of Windows on one PC]
- [http://www.tech-recipes.com/windows.html Tech-Recipes Windows Guide] - Listing of almost 500 Windows Tutorials
- [http://wiki.havenite.net/index.php?title=The_Windows_Documentation_Project The Windows Documentation Project (wiki)]
- [http://www.aeroxp.net "AeroXperience"] – Windows Vista Information and Customization
- [http://www.dwheeler.com/essays/securing-windows.html Securing Microsoft Windows (for Home and Small Business Users)]
- [http://wiki.dehumanizer.com/index.php/Windows_tips Windows tips] (security, stability, etc.) (wiki)
- [http://www.sarc.com/ Symantec Anti-Virus Research Center] – excellent informational security resource, and Symantec are makers of Norton Anti-Virus (3rd party software sold separately)
- [http://www.dotwhat.net/ dotwhat? - File Extension Listing] – a huge listing of file extensions and the programs that use them
- [http://www.bredel.homepage.t-online.de/Windows/Windows-English/windows-english.html Windows] – tips and tricks for Windows 98, ME, NT, 2000 and XP
- [http://markhobley.yi.org/windows/supportscript/index.html Windows Support Script]
- [http://markhobley.yi.org:8000/WinHome The Windows Wiki]

Reviews and evaluation

- [http://www.winsupersite.com/default.asp Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows] – an exhaustive evaluation of Microsoft's products and technologies
- [http://www.avantgarde.com/xxxxttln.pdf "Time to Live on the Network"] – a security study by Kevin Mitnick and AvantGarde (PDF)
- [http://www.actsofvolition.com/archives/2001/december/windowsxprough Windows XP: rough around the edges] – an UI review of Windows XP
- [http://www.frankmahler.de/mshame/ Frank Mahler's Interface Hall Of Shame]
- [http://www.staysafeonline.info/pdf/safety_study_v04.pdf AOL/National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study (October 2004)] (PDF)
- [http://www.pixelcentric.net/x-shame/ Interface Hall of Shame] – an analysis of user interfaces with a focus on Windows

Other

- [http://www.levenez.com/windows/ Windows history] – a Windows history time line graph by Éric Lévénez
- [http://www.aci.com.pl/mwichary/guidebook/interfaces/windows GUIdebook: Windows Gallery] – a website dedicated to preserving and showcasing graphical user interfaces
- [http://www.download.com/ Download.com] – application programs for download, for Windows operating systems
- [http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1895,1868435,00.asp Windows 20th Birthday] Category:Operating systems Category:Windowing systems Category:Microsoft Windows zh-min-nan:Microsoft Windows ko:마이크로소프트 윈도우즈 ms:Microsoft Windows ja:Microsoft Windows simple:Microsoft Windows th:ไมโครซอฟท์วินโดวส์

Mac OS X

Mac OS X is the operating system which is included with all shipping Apple Macintosh computers in the consumer and professional markets. Apple Computer also distributes the system as a separate software package for Apple-branded workstation-level computers. Mac OS X Server, although architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart, is designed to run on Apple's line of Macintosh servers. It includes workgroup management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a mail server, a Samba server, a directory server, and a domain name server.

History

Main article: Mac OS X history Despite its branding as simply "version 10" of the Mac OS, it has a history largely independent of the earlier Mac OS releases. It is based on the Mach kernel and the BSD implementation of Unix, which were incorporated into NEXTSTEP, the object-oriented operating system developed by Steve Jobs's NeXT company after he was forced from Apple in 1985. Meanwhile, Apple attempted to create a "next generation" operating system of its own (see Taligent and Copland), but with little success. Eventually, NeXT's OS—by then called OPENSTEP—was selected to form the basis for Apple's next OS, and the company purchased NeXT outright. Jobs was rehired, and later returned to the leadership of the company, shepherding the transformation of the programmer-friendly OPENSTEP into a system that would be welcomed by Apple's primary market of home users and creative professionals, as a project known as Rhapsody. After some missteps which threatened the loyalty of independent developers to Mac OS, and changes of strategy to ease the transition from Mac OS 9 to the new system, Rhapsody evolved into Mac OS X.

Description

Rhapsody Mac OS X is a radical departure from previous Macintosh operating systems, as its underlying code base is completely different from previous versions. Although the most significant architectural changes were under the surface, the Aqua graphical user interface was the most striking and visible new feature. The use of soft edges, translucent colors, and pinstripes (similar to the hardware of the first iMacs), brought more color and texture to the windows and controls on the Desktop than OS 9's "Platinum" appearance offered. Initially, this raised a great deal of controversy among users. Many older Macintosh users decried the interface as "toy-like" and lacking in professional polish, while others hailed the new interface as another revolutionary Apple innovation. The look was instantly recognizable, and even before the first version of Mac OS X was released, third-party developers started producing skins for customizable applications like Winamp that were designed to look similar to the Aqua interface. Apple has threatened legal action against people who make or distribute software which provides an interface which they claim is derived from their copyrighted design. The core of Mac OS X is an open source Unix-like operating system, built around the XNU kernel with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Shortly before the release of Mac OS X, Apple released this core as Darwin. On top of this core, Apple designed and developed a number of proprietary closed source components including the Aqua user interface, and the Finder (the file management system). The combination of the user-friendly Aqua interface and the power of their open-source Darwin/BSD core have made Mac OS X the best-selling Unix-like environment to date by number of systems shipped.

Compatibility

Mac OS X retains compatibility with older Mac OS applications by providing an emulation environment called Classic, which allows users to run Mac OS 9 as a process within Mac OS X, so that most older applications run as they would under the older operating system. In addition, the Carbon APIs for Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X were created to permit code to be written to run natively on both systems. The OpenStep APIs are still available, but Apple now calls the technology Cocoa. (This heritage is visible in the Cocoa APIs, in which the class names mostly begin with "NS" for NEXTSTEP.) A fourth option for developers is to write applications in the Java platform, which Mac OS X has supported as a "first class citizen" — in practice this means that Java applications fit as neatly into the operating system as possible while still being "cross-platform", and that GUIs, while being written in Swing, look almost exactly like native Cocoa interfaces. Traditionally, Cocoa programs have been mostly written in Objective C, with Java as an alternative. However, on July 11, 2005, Apple announced that "features added to Cocoa in Mac OS X versions later than 10.4 will not be added to the Cocoa-Java programming interface."[http://developer.apple.com/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/LanguageIntegration/index.html] Mac OS X can run many BSD or Linux software packages, as long as they have been compiled for the platform. Compiled binaries are normally distributed as Mac OS X packages, but some may require command-line configuration or compilation. Projects such as Fink and DarwinPorts provide precompiled or preformatted packages for many standard packages. Since version 10.3, Mac OS X has included X11.app, the company's version of the X11 graphical interface for Unix applications, as an optional component during installation. Apple's implementation is based on XFree86 4.3 and X11R6.6, with a window manager which mimics the Mac OS X look, closer integration with Mac OS X, and extensions to use the native Quartz rendering system and to accelerate OpenGL. Earlier versions of Mac OS X can run X11 applications using XDarwin. For the early releases of Mac OS X, the standard hardware platform supported was the line of Macintosh computers (laptop, desktop, or server) based on PowerPC G3, G4, and G5 processors. Later versions of Mac OS X discontinued support for some older hardware; for example, Panther does not support "beige" G3s, and Tiger does not support systems that pre-date Apple's introduction of FireWire ports. However, free tools such as XPostFacto have enabled installation of Mac OS X on certain older systems not officially supported by Apple, including some pre-G3 systems. The operating system offers the same functionality on all supported hardware, with the exception of fundamental hardware limitations (e.g. CD-ROM drives cannot write to CDs) and performance enhancements possible only with more advanced equipment (e.g. graphics acceleration). On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs announced in his keynote address at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference that Apple will be transitioning from PowerPC to Intel processors over the following two years, and that Mac OS X will support both platforms during this transition. [http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/jun/06intel.html] Support for the PowerPC platform will remain in version 10.5, though it is unclear how long this dual-architecture support will be continued. Mac OS support for the original Motorola 68k architecture continued for about four years after the introduction of PowerPC systems. A new version of Xcode supports building "universal binaries" that will run on either architecture. PowerPC binaries will be supported on Intel-based Macs using an emulator called Rosetta. Jobs also confirmed rumors that Apple has had versions of Mac OS X running on Intel processors for most of its developmental life. Such crossplatform capability already existed in OS X's lineage — the predecessor of OS X, OPENSTEP, had been ported to many architectures, including Intel's x86, and a port to x86 of the core operating system of OS X, Darwin, has been available as a free download since OS X was first released. However, Apple has stated that OS X for x86 platforms will not support the Classic environment. Also note that Apple stated that MacOS would only run on Apple x86 systems, not PCs, but several people have been using a development version of the OS on x86 PCs (See links below).

Notable features

- Uses a subset of the Portable Document Format (PDF) as the basis of its Quartz imaging model.
- Full color, continuously scalable icons (up to 256x256 pixels).
- Drop shadow around window and isolated text elements to provide a sense of depth.
- Global application services - spell checker, special characters palette, color picker, font chooser and dictionary.
- Anti-aliasing of widgets, text, graphics and window elements.
- New interface elements including sheets (document modal dialogs attached to specific windows) and drawers.
- Interweaving windows of different applications (not necessarily adjacent in the visible stacking order).
- ColorSync color matching built into the core drawing engine (for print and multimedia professionals).
- OpenGL (introduced in version 10.2) composites windows onto the screen to allow hardware accelerated drawing. This technology is called Quartz Extreme.
- Exposé (introduced in version 10.3) can quickly tile open windows or reveal the desktop.
- Pervasive use of Unicode throughout the operating system.
- Straightforward architecture for localization of applications and other code, fully separating language dependencies from the core code of a program.
- FileVault (introduced in version 10.3) encrypts the user's Home folder with Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) 128-bit keys.
- Dashboard (introduced in version 10.4) supports small applications ("widgets") that can be called up and dismissed in one keystroke.
- Spotlight search technology (introduced in version 10.4) allows rapid real-time searches of data files, mail messages, photos, and other information, based on item properties and/or content.
- Automator (introduced in version 10.4) an application designed to create an automatic work-flow for different tasks.
- Smart Folders (introduced in version 10.4) allow for dynamically updated folders depending on a set criteria.

Criticisms

Smart Folders alert.]] In comparison to Microsoft Windows, some critics point to the lack of upgrade pricing on Mac OS X; users of previous versions have to pay full price for a new version. This is in part a semantic argument, depending on whether a retail Mac OS X package is considered an "upgrade" or not. On one hand, it can only be used on a Mac, all of which were sold with some version of the Mac OS, so it is arguably an upgrade. On the other hand, no price distinction is made between upgrading version 9.0 or version 10.3 to version 10.4, suggesting that consumers are buying a full license in either case, or at least receiving no credit for intervening upgrades. Furthermore, customers who purchase a Macintosh between the time a new version of Mac OS X is announced and the time it starts shipping preinstalled on new machines have typically been given upgrades at a much smaller cost ($9.95-19.95 USD). The Open Group has criticized Apple for use of the term "Unix" in advertisements for Mac OS X as Apple has not had the OS officially certified, and their use of the term could constitute a violation of trademark. Apple claims that they use the term as a genericized trademark and that the cost of certification would make the OS prohibitively expensive, although The Open Group has stated that there is a $110,000 USD upper limit on the cost of certification for one company. Though Mac OS X is "Unix-based" and features a BSD Unix compatibility layer, it is not compliant with the Single UNIX Specification. The reason for Apple not seeking "official" Unix branding may simply be that compliance is not a near- or medium-term goal for Apple instead of the potentially misleading cost claim.

Naming

The character X is a Roman numeral and is officially pronounced "ten", continuing the numbering of previous Macintosh operating systems such as Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9. However, it is a common mistake to read it as the letter X and pronounce it "ex". One possible reason for this interpretation is the tradition of giving Unix-like operating systems names that end with the letter "X" as an "ex" sound (AIX, HP-UX, IRIX, Linux, Minix, Ultrix, Xenix). Another possible reason is Apple's tendency to refer to specific versions in print (for example, "Mac OS X version 10.4"). Mac OS X versions are named after big cats. Prior to its release, version 10.0 was code named "Cheetah" internally at Apple, and version 10.1 was code named internally as "Puma". After the immense buzz surrounding Version 10.2, codenamed "Jaguar", Apple's product marketing began openly using the code name to promote the operating system. 10.3 was similarly marketed as "Panther". Version 10.4 is marketed as "Tiger". "Leopard" has been announced as the name for the next release of the operating system. Apple has also registered "Lynx" and "Cougar" as trademarks. Apple faced a lawsuit from a computer retailer named TigerDirect regarding its use of the name "Tiger". However, on 16 May 2005 the Florida Federal Court ruled that Apple's use of the name "Tiger" does not infringe upon TigerDirect's trademark.

Versions

2005 Internally, Apple uses a "build number" to identify each development version of Mac OS X. There may be many development versions each week. Under Apple's guidelines, the first development version of a product starts with build 1A1. Minor revisions to that are 1A2, 1A3, 1A4, and so on; the first major development revision becomes 1B1 (and minor revisions to that would be 1B2, 1B3, etc.), the next major revision would be 1C1, and so forth. The next major revision after the last 1_ series would be 2A, followed by 2B. The transition from one letter to the next occurs with changes in the minor release number. For instance, the first build of Panther (10.3) was 7A1. The first public release was 7B85; the last, 10.3.9, was 7W98. But the next build of OS X was 10.4, 8A1. When a build is chosen as the next public release of Mac OS X, it is given a public version number. Build 4K78 was chosen to be Mac OS X version 10.0, build 5G64 became 10.1, build 6C115 became 10.2, build 7B85 became 10.3, and build 8A428 became 10.4. The current version of Mac OS X is version 10.4.3 (released on October 31, 2005) build 8F46.

Mac OS X v10.0 (Cheetah)

On March 24, 2001, Apple released Mac OS X v10.0 (internally codenamed Cheetah). The initial version was slow, not feature complete, and had very few applications available at the time of its launch, mostly from independent developers. Many critics suggested that while the OS was not ready for mainstream adoption, they recognized the importance of its initial launch as a base for which to improve upon. Simply releasing OS X was received by the Macintosh community as a great accomplishment, for attempts to completely overhaul the Mac OS had been underway since 1996, and delayed by countless setbacks. Following a few minor bug fixes, kernel panics became much less frequent, and Mac OS X began garnering praise for its stability at an early point in its development. It was criticized for being slow, with performance not much improved over the previous September's release of Mac OS X Public Beta.

Mac OS X v10.1 (Puma)

Later that year on September 25, 2001, Mac OS X v10.1 (internally codenamed Puma) was released, increasing the performance of the system as well as providing missing features, such as DVD playback. Because of the poor reputation of 10.0, Apple released 10.1 as a free upgrade CD for 10.0 users, in addition to the US$129 boxed version for people running only Mac OS 9. It was discovered that the upgrade CDs were actually full install CDs that could be used with Mac OS 9 systems by removing a specific file; Apple subsequently re-released the CDs in an actual stripped-down format that didn't facilitate installation on such systems.

Mac OS X v10.2 "Jaguar"

On August 24, 2002, Apple followed up with Mac OS X v10.2 "Jaguar" (the first release to publicly bear its cat name), which brought profound performance enhancements, a newer, sleeker look, and many powerful enhancements (over 150, according to Apple), among them:
- Increased support for Microsoft Windows networks
- Quartz Extreme for compositing graphics directly on the AGP-based video card
- An adaptive spam mail filter, based on latent semantic indexing
- A system-wide repository for contact information in the new Address Book
- Rendezvous networking (Apple's implementation of Zeroconf; renamed to Bonjour in 10.4)
- iChat: an Apple-branded, officially-supported third party AOL Instant Messenger client
- A revamped Finder with searching built directly into every window
- Dozens of new Apple Universal Access features
- Sherlock 3: Web services (See Watson)
- CUPS: The Common Unix Printing System allowed the use of GIMP-print drivers, hpijs drivers, etc. for "unsupported" printers. It also allowed — with some user recompilation — printing to serial printers. Mac OS X v10.2 was never officially referred to as Jaguar in the United Kingdom due to an agreement with the automobile manufacturer Jaguar, although boxes and CDs still bore the Jaguar-skin logo.

Mac OS X v10.3 "Panther"

Mac OS X v10.3 "Panther" was released on October 24, 2003. In addition to providing much improved performance, it also incorporated the most extensive update yet to the user interface. The update included as many or more new features as Jaguar the year before. On the other hand, support for some early G3 computers such as "beige" PowerMacs and "WallStreet" PowerBooks was discontinued. New features of "Panther" include:
- Updated Finder, incorporating a brushed-metal interface, customizable sidebar and fast-searching
- Exposé: a new system to manipulate and view windows
- Fast User Switching: allows a user to remain logged in while another user logs in
- iChat AV which added video-conferencing features to iChat
- Improved PDF rendering to allow for faster PDF viewing
- Built-in faxing support
- Much greater Microsoft Windows interoperability
- FileVault: on the fly encryption and decryption of a user's home folder
- Increased speed across the entire system with more support for the G5

Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger"

Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger" was released on April 29, 2005. Apple stated that Tiger contains more than 200 new features, but as with the release of Panther, certain older machines have been dropped from the list of supported hardware; Tiger requires a Mac with built-in FireWire ports. Among the new features of "Tiger":
- Spotlight: A fast content and metadata-based file search tool, which quickly finds items containing the key words you search for.
- Dashboard: Widgets for common tasks available on a desktop overlay just a click away.
- Smart Folders: A virtual folder that uses Spotlight to populate the file listing instead of showing a true folder on the filesystem.
- Updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, allowing virtual mailboxes defined by Spotlight searches.
- iChat: A new version supports the H.264/MPEG-4 AVC video codec for conferencing and allows for multi-party audio and video chats.
- QuickTime 7: the new version includes H.264 support and a completely re-written interface.
- Safari 2: this new version of the system's default web browser includes the ability to view RSS feeds directly in the browser, among other new features.
- Automator: automates repetitive tasks without programming.
- VoiceOver: A built-in screen reader for those with vision disabilities.
- Core Image and Core Video: allows additional effects in video and image editing to be performed in real time.
- 64-bit memory support for the new G5, using the LP64 system. Apple claims that "Tiger's" new 64-bit memory addressing speeds up tasks on older 32-bit processors as well.
- Updated Unix utilities, such as cp and rsync, that can preserve HFS Plus metadata and resource forks.
- An extended permissions system using access control lists. An Intel x86 version of Mac OS X Tiger was previewed by Apple, and subsequently leaked to the Internet, following Apple's announcement to switch to the Intel platform. It was revealed by Apple at the June 2005 Worldwide Developers Conference that Intel versions of all previous versions of OS X had been compiled internally, keeping feature parity between the Intel and PowerPC versions, "just in case." Developers were provided the chance to buy an Intel-based developer transition system loaded with 10.4.1 in June 2005, and 10.4.2 and 10.4.3 were released to developers in September and November 2005 respectively.

Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard"

Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard" was announced at the Worldwide Developers Conference on June 6, 2005, due to be released at the end of 2006 or early 2007, roughly around the same time Microsoft would release Windows Vista (formerly known by the code-name "Longhorn"). Apple has said it will support both PowerPC- and Intel x86-based Macintosh computers. No information on what features Leopard will add to the Mac OS have been announced, though it is said that its GUI will be fully resolution independent.

External links

- [http://www.apple.com/macosx/ Apple: Mac OS X] — The official page for Mac OS X.
- [http://www.kernelthread.com/mac/osx/ What is OS X? (kernelthread.com)] — An overview of the Mac OS X operating system
- [http://arstechnica.com/reviews/os/macosx-10.4.ars/2 Mac OS X (arstechnica.com)] — Comprehensive reviews of Mac OS X (all versions)
- [http://www.freesoftwaremagazine.com/free_issues/issue_01/osx_jungle Mac OS X: Welcome to the jungle] — A look inside the Mac OS X software ecology (Free Software Magazine, March 2005)
- [http://wiki.osx86project.org/ OSX on x86 Wiki] — a Wiki of OS X on x86
- [http://www.xplodenet.com/ Running OSX x86 edition on a native x86] Category:Apple software
- Category:Mach Category:Operating systems Category:Windowing systems Category:BSD ko:맥 오에스 텐 ja:Mac OS X simple:Mac OS X th:แมคโอเอสเท็น

Windows Explorer

Windows Explorer is an application that is part of modern versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system that provides a graphical user interface for accessing the file systems. In brief, this is the component of the operating system that is displayed on the monitor and enables the user to control the computer. It is sometimes referred to as the Windows shell because it is the component that is visible to the user and allows the manipulation of functions that are ultimately executed by the kernel of the operating system. Windows Explorer, which originally was completely distinct from the Internet Explorer web browser, debuted in Windows 95 as a replacement to the older Windows file manager. In addition to file management, Windows Explorer deals with functions tied to the Windows "Start" menu (Run, Settings, Documents, Programs). Windows Explorer also controls the Windows searching function and File Type associations (based on filename extensions). With the release of Windows 98, Windows Explorer became based on Internet Explorer technology, most notably with the addition of navigation arrows (back and forward) for moving between recently visited directories. Many see this as another example of Microsoft's anti-competitive tactics of tying their software applications into the operating system. Still, it has proven to be a useful feature that has been emulated by other file browsing systems. An interesting Explorer feature that was based on Internet Explorer technology was customized folders. Such folders contained a hidden web page that control the way the Windows Explorer displayed the contents of the folder. This feature proved to have security vulnerabilities due to its reliance on ActiveX objects and scripting, and was later removed. In Windows XP, Windows Explorer is significantly different than in previous Windows versions; by default, the Luna interface is used but can be turned off if desired. Windows Explorer has the option to provide thumbshots of graphic files, and of the rendering of HTML-files including graphic files and other HTML-files referred to. This can be done:
- one-by-one, in a detail panel showing details about a selected file; in Windows 98 a HTML-file can be edited to customize the detail panel, e.g. the size of the thumbshot
- of all files in a folder, with the view-miniatures setting
- within a folder pictogram, of up to four files in that folder Windows Explorer of Windows 95 supported two modes of folder browsing, opening a new folder in a new window or opening a new folder in the same window. They can be set in the Folder Options dialog box. With the former setting, folder sizes and views are automatically set according to the contents of the newly opened folder. For example, a folder with two files is opened with a smaller window than that of a folder with ten files. In addition, when there are hundreds of files in a folder, the folder would automatically be displayed in "List" view. More over, when Windows Explorer is started in Tree View mode, all files are displayed in "List" view. With the releases of new Windows operating systems, the original behavior of Windows Explorer seems to be lost. In Windows 2000, folder browsing windows still automatically resize, but they are usually a little bit too small when the status bar is visible. "List" view is not automatically applied to file-plenty folders. In Windows XP, Windows Explorer doesn't resize the window as did previous Windows OS's.

Operating system shell

In computing, a shell is a piece of software that essentially provides a kind of interface for end-users. Typically, the term refers to an operating system shell which provides access to the services of a kernel. However, the term is also applied very loosely to applications and may include any software that is "built around" a particular component, such as web browsers and email clients that are "shells" for HTML rendering engines. The name 'shell' originates from shells being an outer layer of interface between the user and the innards of the operating system (the kernel). Operating system shells generally fall into one of two categories: command line and graphical. Command line shells provide a command line interface (CLI) to the operating system, while graphical shells provide a graphical user interface (GUI). The relative merits of CLI- and GUI-based shells are often debated. CLI proponents claim that certain operations can be performed much faster under CLI shells than under GUI shells (such as moving files, for example). However, GUI proponents advocate the comparative usability and simplicity of GUI shells. The best choice is often determined by the way in which a computer will be used. On a server mainly used for data transfers and processing with expert administration, a CLI is likely to be the best choice. On the other hand, a GUI would probably be more appropriate for a computer to be used for secretarial work. Modern versions of Microsoft's Windows operating system utilize and only officially support Windows Explorer as their shell. Explorer provides the familiar desktop environment, start menu, and task bar, as well as the file management functions of the operating system. Older versions also include Program Manager which was the Shell for the 3.x series of Microsoft Windows. Many individuals and developers dissatisfied with the interface of Windows Explorer have developed software that either alters the functioning and appearance of the shell or replaces it entirely. WindowBlinds by StarDock is a good example of the former sort of application. LiteStep, GeoShell and BB4Win are good examples of the latter.

List of shells

Graphical (GUI) shells

- Microsoft Windows environments:
- Windows Explorer
- Litestep
- Geoshell
- BB4Win
- Emerge Desktop
- Macintosh Finder
- X Window System-based environments (primarily for Unix):
- KDE
- GNOME
- Blackbox
- CDE
- DOSSHELL
- AmigaOS environments.
- Workbench (GUI-Shell capabilities added since AmigaOS 2.0)
- Ambient (for MorphOS)
- Directory Opus
- ScalOS
- Zune (for AROS)

Text (CLI) shells

- Unix shells:
- Bourne shell (sh)
- Almquist shell (ash)
- Bourne-Again shell (bash)
- C shell (csh)
- TENEX C shell (tcsh)
- Es shell (es)
- Korn shell (ksh)
- rc shell (rc) - shell for Plan 9 and Unix
- scsh (Scheme Shell)
- Z shell (zsh)
- Non-Unix shells:
- command.com - shell for DOS
- cmd.exe - shell for OS/2 in text mode and for Windows NT
- 4DOS, 4OS2, 4NT - shells for DOS, OS/2, and Windows NT written and sold by JP Software
- Shells for Programming languages:
- The Python programming language's standard interpreter can be invoked in a shell mode
- Various authors have contributed to a free JavaScript shell [http://www.squarefree.com/shell/]

X Window System

In computing, the X Window System (commonly X11 or X) is a windowing system for bitmap displays. It provides the standard toolkit and protocol to build graphical user interfaces on Unix, Unix-like operating systems, and OpenVMS; and almost all modern operating systems support it. X provides the basic framework for a GUI environment: drawing and moving windows on the screen and interacting with a mouse and keyboard. X does not mandate the user interface — individual client programs handle this. As such, the visual styling of X-based environments varies greatly; different programs may present radically different interfaces. X features network transparency: the machine where application programs (the client applications) run can differ from the user's local machine (the display server). X's usage of the terms "client" and "server" is the reverse of what people often expect, in that the "server" is the user's local display ("display server") rather than the remote machine. X originated at MIT in 1984. The current protocol version, X11, was released in September 1987. The X.Org Foundation leads the X project; the current reference implementation is version 11 release 6.8.2 , available as free software under the MIT License and similar permissive licenses [http://www.x.org/X11R6.8.2/doc/LICENSE1.html#1].

The X client-server model and network transparency

X uses a client-server model: an X server communicates with various client programs. The server accepts requests for graphical output (windows) and sends back user input (from keyboard, mouse, or touchscreen). The server may function as any one of:
- an application displaying to a window of another display system
- a system program controlling the video output of a PC
- a dedicated piece of hardware. This client-server terminology — the user's terminal as the "server", the remote applications as the "clients" — often confuses new X users, because the terms appear reversed. But X takes the perspective of the program, rather than the end-user or the hardware: the local X display provides display services to programs, so it is acting as a server; the remote program uses these services, thus it acts as a client. PC run on the user's workstation, and a system updater runs on a remote server but is controlled from the user's machine. Note that the remote application runs just as it would locally.]] The communication protocol between server and client operates network-transparently: the client and server may run on the same machine or on different ones, possibly with different architectures and operating systems, but they run the same in either case. A client and server can even communicate securely over the Internet by tunneling the connection over an encrypted connection. To start a remote client program displaying to a local server, the user will typically open a terminal window and telnet or ssh to the remote machine, tell it to display to the user's machine (e.g. export DISPLAY=[user's machine]:0 on a remote machine running bash), then start the client. The client will then connect to the local server and the remote application will display to the local screen and accept input from the local input devices. Alternately, the local machine may run a small helper program to connect to a remote machine and start the desired client application there. Practical examples of remote clients include:
- administering a remote machine graphically
- running a computationally-intensive simulation on a remote Unix machine and displaying the results on a local Windows desktop machine
- running graphical software on several machines at once, controlled by a single display, keyboard and mouse.

Design principles of X

In 1984, Bob Scheifler and Jim Gettys set out the early principles of X:
- Do not add new functionality unless an implementor cannot complete a real application without it.
- It is as important to decide what a system is not as to decide what it is. Do not serve all the world's needs; rather, make the system extensible so that additional needs can be met in an upwardly compatible fashion.
- The only thing worse than generalizing from one example is generalizing from no examples at all.
- If a problem is not completely understood, it is probably best to provide no solution at all.
- If you can get 90 percent of the desired effect for 10 percent of the work, use the simpler solution. (See also Worse is better.)
- Isolate complexity as much as possible.
- Provide mechanism rather than policy. In particular, place user interface policy in the clients' hands. The first principle was modified during the design of X11 to: "Do not add new functionality unless you know of some real application that will require it." X has largely kept to these principles since. The reference implementation is developed with a view to extension and improvement of the implementation, whilst remaining almost entirely compatible with the original 1987 protocol.

User interfaces

X deliberately contains no specification as to application user interface, such as buttons, menus, window title bars and so on. Instead, user software - such as window managers, GUI widget toolkits and desktop environments, or application-specific GUIs, such as point of sale - provide/define all such details. As such, the "typical" X interface has varied tremendously over the years. A window manager controls the placement and appearance of application windows. This may have an interface akin to that of Microsoft Windows or of the Macintosh (examples include Kwin in KDE or Metacity in GNOME) or have radically different controls (for example: twm, the basic window manager supplied with X). The window manager may be bare-bones (e.g. twm) or offer functionality verging on that of a full desktop environment (e.g. Enlightenment). Most users use X with a full desktop environment, which includes a window manager, various applications and a consistent interface. GNOME and KDE occur most commonly. The Unix standard environment is the Common Desktop Environment (CDE). The freedesktop.org initiative addresses interoperability between desktops and the components needed for a competitive X desktop.

Implementations

The canonical implementation of X is the X.Org reference implementation. Due to the liberal licensing, a number of variations, both free and proprietary, have appeared. Commercial UNIX vendors have tended to take the reference implementation and adapt it for their hardware, usually customising it heavily and adding proprietary extensions. |proprietary. The screen shows GIMP running within the X window system.]] |- |GIMP. The screen shows X applications (xeyes, xclock, xterm) sharing the screen with native Windows applications (Date and Time, Calculator).]] |{{wikibookspar||Guide to X11{col-begin{col-break

Window manager

A window manager is software that controls the placement and appearance of application windows under the X Window System, a graphical user interface on Unix systems that enables a user to interact with a number of application programs simultaneously. Each one typically has its own independent window, and when a window manager is available, interaction between the X server and its clients is redirected through the window manager. Unlike the Apple Macintosh and Microsoft Windows platforms, which have historically provided a vendor-controlled, fixed set of ways to control how windows and panes display on a screen, and how the user may interact with them, window management for the X Window System was an afterthought. The user can choose between various third-party window managers, which differ from one another in several ways, including:
- customizability of appearance and functionality:
- textual menus used to start programs and/or change options
- docks and other graphical ways to start programs
- multiple desktops and virtual desktops (desktops larger than the physical monitor size), and pagers to switch between them
- consumption of memory and other system resources
- degree of integration with a desktop environment, which provides a more complete interface to the operating system, and provides a range of integrated utilities and applications. Alternative shells for Microsoft Windows have also emerged. For example, LiteStep can replace the user interface on Windows 95, 98, or NT with an Afterstep style. OS/2 ships with Presentation Manager as the default shell, but third party sources can supply alternatives.

Popular window managers for X

- AfterStep
- Blackbox
- Enlightenment
- Fluxbox
- FVWM (a virtual window manager, derived from twm)
- IceWM
- Ion tiling tabbed window manager designed with keyboard users in mind
- Kwin (originally called Kwm, default window manager for KDE)
- Metacity (default window manager for GNOME since version 2.2) [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.2/notes/rnwm.html]
- MWM (Motif Window Manager)
- Sawfish (originally called Sawmill)
- twm (Tom's Window Manager)
- Window Maker
- Xfwm, default window manager for Xfce

Other window managers for X

- 4dwm
- 5Dwm [http://www.5Dwm.org/ (X window manager derived from mwm, true SGI look&feel)]
- 9wm [http://unauthorised.org/dhog/9wm.html] (clone of the original window system of Plan 9)
- aewm [http://www.red-bean.com/~decklin/software/aewm/]
- CTWM
- evilwm [http://evilwm.sf.net]
- FVWM95
- JWM (Joe's Window Manager)
- Kahakai
- larswm [http://www.fnurt.net/larswm/]
- Luminocity
- LWM
- Matchbox
- OLWM (and OLVWM[http://home.nyc.rr.com/twopks/olvwm/] with virtual desktops, OPEN LOOK window managers)
- Openbox
- Oroborus
- PekWM
- PWM
- Qvwm (Windows 95/98 look-alike) [http://www.qvwm.org/]
- Ratpoison
- Scwm (the Scheme constrained window manager) [http://scwm.sourceforge.net/]
- TrsWM
- uwm
- Waimea
- WindowLab
- wm2
- WMI
- wmii
- XPwm (window manager of XPde)

External links

- [http://xwinman.org/ Window Managers for X] by Matt Chapman
- [http://www.gilesorr.com/papers/otherwm/book1.html The Other Window Managers] - extensive review of window managers
- [http://uebb.cs.tu-berlin.de/~magr/wm-review.en.html Window Managers] - a list of window managers with comments
- [http://www.newsforge.com/pollBooth.pl?qid=64&aid=-1 a poll for favorite window manager], [http://forums.gentoo.org/viewtopic.php?t=2676 another poll by tech geeks], [http://www.debian.org.hk/node/3514/results yet another poll], [http://www.linuxquestions.org/questions/showthread.php?threadid=39874 one more poll] Category:X Window System ja:ウィンドウマネージャ

KDE

KDE (K Desktop Environment) is a free desktop environment and development platform built with Trolltech's Qt toolkit. It runs on most Unix and Unix-like systems, such as Linux, BSD, AIX and Solaris. There are also ports to Mac OS X using its X11 layer and Microsoft Windows using Cygwin. Currently, a large portion of the primary KDE libraries and a few other applications can work natively on Microsoft Windows, thanks to the [http://wiki.kde.org/tiki-index.php?page=KDElibs+for+win32 KDElibs/win32 Project]. Ports of other KDE applications are being discussed. KDE is developed in conjunction with KDevelop, a software development suite, and KOffice, an office suite. The "K" originally stood for "Kool" (as the "C" as in "cool" was already used in the acronym for the Common Desktop Environment), but was changed soon after to stand simply for "K", which is "the first letter before 'L' (which stands for Linux) in the Latin alphabet." The project's mascot is a green dragon named Konqi. Konqi can be found in various applications, including when the user logs out and in the "About KDE" screen.

Early history

KDE was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, who was then a student at the University of Tübingen. He found a number of things wrong with the UNIX desktop at that time. Among his qualms, outlined in [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=53tkvv%24b4j%40newsserv.zdv.uni-tuebingen.de a now-famous newsgroup post], were that none of the applications looked, felt, or worked alike. He proposed the formation of not only a set of applications, but rather a desktop environment, in which users could expect things to look, feel, and work consistently. He also wanted to make this desktop easy to use. One of his complaints with desktop applications of the time was that his girlfriend could not use them. That post spurred a lot of interest, and the KDE project was born. Matthias chose to use the Qt toolkit as the toolkit of choice of the KDE project. Other programmers quickly started developing KDE/Qt applications, and by early 1997, large and complex applications were being released. In mid-1997, the GNU project had concerns about the licensing of Qt, leading to their founding the GNOME Desktop project and Harmony, a now-abandoned project to clone Qt. Qt was later relicensed to provide the GNU General Public License as an option, which has eliminated the concerns of the GNU project. There is still considerable disagreement over the use of the full GPL for a library like Qt, and the restrictions this imposes on code linking to it. In particular, in order to develop proprietary software with KDE and Qt, it is necessary to purchase a commercial license from Trolltech. To prevent the codebase from being lost should Trolltech fail commercially, ownership of the code is held in a trust to be released under a BSD license should Trolltech cease to exist or stop updating the code. Both KDE and GNOME now participate in Freedesktop.org, an effort to standardise Unix desktop interoperability, although there is still some friendly competition between them.

Organization of the KDE project

Like many open source/free software projects, KDE is primarily a volunteer effort, although various companies, such as Novell (in the form of SUSE), Trolltech, and Mandriva employ developers to work on the project. Since a large number of individuals contribute to KDE in various ways (e.g. code, translation, artwor