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Diadoch

Diadoch

In general Diadochi (in Greek Διάδοχοι, transcripted Diadochoi) means "successors", such that the neoplatonic refounders of Plato's Academy in Late Antiquity referred to themselves as diadochi (of Plato). Specifically, in hellenistic history, the Diadochi were the rival successors to Alexander the Great, and their Wars of the Diadochi followed Alexander's death. This was the beginning of the so-called Hellenistic period of Greek history, the time when many people who were not Greek themselves adopted Greek philosophy and styles, Greek city life and aspects of Greek religion.

Death of Alexander, 323 BC

When Alexander the Great died (June 10, 323 BC), he left behind a huge empire which was composed of many essentially independent territories. Alexander's empire stretched from his homeland of Macedon itself, along with the Greek city-states that his father had subdued, to Bactria and some parts of India in the east, including Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia. Upon Alexander's death, there was almost immediately a dispute among his generals as to who his successor should be. Meleager and the infantry supported the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, Arrhidaeus, while Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander's unborn child by Roxana. A compromise was arranged - Arrhidaeus (as Philip III) should become King, and should rule jointly with Roxana's child, assuming that it was a boy (as it was, becoming Alexander IV). Perdiccas himself would become Regent of the entire Empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered, and assumed full control. The other cavalry generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded by becoming satraps of the various parts of the Empire. Ptolemy received Egypt; Laomedon received Syria and Phoenicia; Philotas took Cilicia; Peithon took Media; Antigonus received Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia; Asander received Caria; Menander received Lydia; Lysimachus received Thrace; Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia; and Neoptolemus had Armenia. Macedon and Greece were to be under the joint rule of Antipater, who had governed them for Alexander, and Craterus, Alexander's most able lieutenant, while Alexander's old secretary, Eumenes of Cardia, was to receive Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. In the east, Perdiccas largely left Alexander's arrangements intact - Taxiles and Porus ruled over their kingdoms in India; Alexander's father-in-law Oxyartes ruled Gandara; Sibyrtius ruled Arachosia and Gedrosia; Stasanor ruled Aria and Drangiana; Philip ruled Bactria and Sogdiana; Phrataphernes ruled Parthia and Hyrcania; Peucestas governed Persis; Tlepolemus had charge over Carmania; Atropates governed northern Media; Archon got Babylonia; and Arcesilas ruled northern Mesopotamia.

Revolt in Greece, 323-322 BC

Meanwhile, the news of Alexander's death had inspired a revolt in Greece, later known as the Lamian War. Athens and other cities joined together, ultimately besieging Antipater in the fortress of Lamia. Antipater was relieved by a force sent by Leonnatus, who was killed in action, but the war did not come to an end until Craterus's arrival with a fleet to defeat the Athenians at the Battle of Crannon on September 5, 322 BC. This, for the moment, brought an end to Greek resistance to Macedonian domination. Meanwhile, Peithon suppressed a revolt of Greek settlers in the eastern parts of the Empire, and Perdiccas and Eumenes subdued Cappadocia.

Wars of the Diadochi (322-301 BC)

First War of the Diadochi, 322-320 BC

Soon, however, conflict broke out. Perdiccas's marriage to Alexander's sister Cleopatra led Antipater, Craterus, Antigonus, and Ptolemy to join together in rebellion. The actual outbreak of war was triggered by Ptolemy's theft of Alexander's body, and diversion of it to Egypt. Although Eumenes defeated the rebels in Asia Minor, in a battle at which Craterus was killed, it was all for nought, as Perdiccas himself was murdered by his own generals Peithon, Seleucus, and Antigenes while preparing an invasion of Egypt. Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas's murderers, making Peithon and Arrhidaeus Regents in his place, but soon these came to a new agreement with Antipater at the Treaty of Triparadisus. Antipater was made regent of the Empire, and the two kings were moved to Macedon. Antigonus remained in charge of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia, to which was added Lycaonia. Ptolemy retained Egypt, Lysimachus retained Thrace, while the three murderers of Perdiccas, Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes, were given the provinces of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former Regent, received Hellespontine Phrygia. Antigonus was charged with the task of rooting out Perdiccas's former supporter, Eumenes. In effect, Antipater retained for himself control of Europe, while Antigonus, as leader of the largest army east of the Hellespont, held a similar position in Asia.

Second War of the Diadochi, 319-315 BC

War soon broke out again, however, following the death of Antipater in 319 BC. Passing over his own son, Cassander, Antipater declared Polyperchon his successor as Regent. A civil war soon broke out in Macedon and Greece between Polyperchon and Cassander, with the latter supported by Antigonus and Ptolemy. Polyperchon allied himself to Eumenes in Asia, but was driven from Macedonia by Cassander, and fled to Epirus with the infant king Alexander IV and his mother Roxane. In Epirus he joined forces with Olympias, Alexander's mother, and together they invaded Macedon again. They were met by an army commanded by King Philip Arrhidaeus and his wife Eurydice, which immediately defected, leaving the king and Eurydice to Olympias's not so tender mercies, and they were killed (317 BC). Soon after, though, the tide turned, and Cassander was victorious, capturing and killing Olympias, and attaining control of both Macedon and the boy king and his mother. In the east, Eumenes was gradually driven back into the east by Antigonus's forces. After great battles at Paraitacene in 317 BC and at Gabiene in 316 BC, Eumenes was eventually betrayed and murdered by his own troops in 315 BC, leaving Antigonus in undisputed control of the Asian territories of the Empire.

Third War of the Diadochi, 314-311 BC

In this war, Antigonus, who had grown too powerful for the other rulers to tolerate him, faced Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. Antigonus invaded Syria, under Ptolemy's control, and besieged Tyre for more than a year. Antigonus allied himself to Polyperchon, who still controlled part of the Peloponnese, and proclaimed freedom for the Greeks to get them on his side. But although Cassander was tempted to conclude peace with Antigonus, in Asia the war turned against the one-eyed general, with Ptolemy invading Syria (and defeating Antigonus' son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, in the Battle of Gaza, 312 BC) and Seleucus securing control of Babylon, and thus, of the eastern reaches of Alexander's empire. Although Antigonus now concluded a compromise peace with Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, he continued the war with Seleucus, attempting to recover control of the eastern reaches of the Empire. Although he went so far as to besiege Babylon in 309 BC, Antigonus was ultimately defeated by Seleucus and forced to withdraw. At about the same time, Cassander had young King Alexander IV and his mother Roxane murdered, ending the Argead Dynasty which had ruled Macedon for several centuries. For the moment, all of the various generals continued to recognize the dead Alexander as King, since Cassander did not publicly announce the deaths, but it seemed clear that at some point, one or the other of them would claim the Kingship.

Fourth War of the Diadochi, 308-301 BC

War soon broke out again. Ptolemy had been expanding his power into the Aegean and to Cyprus, while Seleucus went on a tour of the east to consolidate his control of the vast eastern territories of Alexander's Empire. Antigonus resumed the war, sending his son Demetrius to regain control of Greece. In 307 he took Athens, expelling Demetrius of Phaleron, Cassander's governor, and proclaiming the city free again. Demetrius now turned his attention to Ptolemy, invading Cyprus and defeating Ptolemy's fleet at the battle of Salamis. In the aftermath of this victory, Antigonus and Demetrius both assumed the crown, and they were shortly followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and eventually Cassander. battle of Salamis In 306, Antigonus attempted to invade Egypt, but storms prevented Demetrius's fleet from supplying him, and he was forced to return home. Now, with Cassander and Ptolemy both weakened, and Seleucus still occupied in the East, Antigonus and Demetrius turned their attention to Rhodes, which was besieged by Demetrius's forces in 305 BC (see siege of Rhodes). The island was reinforced by troops from Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. Ultimately, the Rhodians reached a compromise with Demetrius - they would support Antigonus and Demetrius against all enemies, save their great ally Ptolemy. Ptolemy took the title of Soter ("Savior") for his role in preventing the fall of Rhodes, but the victory was ultimately Demetrius's, as it left him with a free hand to attack Cassander in Greece. Demetrius returned to Greece, defeated Cassander, and formed a new Hellenic League, with himself as General, to defend the Greek cities against all enemies (and particularly Cassander). In the face of these catastrophes, Cassander sued for peace, but Antigonus rejected the claims, and Demetrius invaded Thessaly, where he and Cassander faced off against each other in inconclusive engagements. But now Cassander called in aid from his allies, and Anatolia was invaded by Lysimachus, forcing Demetrius to leave Thessaly and send his armies to Asia Minor to assist his father. With assistance from Cassander, Lysimachus overran much of western Anatolia, but was soon (301 BC) isolated by Antigonus and Demetrius near Ipsus. Here came the decisive intervention from Seleucus, who arrived in time to save Lysimachus from disaster and utterly crush Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus. Antigonus was killed in the fight, and Demetrius fled back to Greece to attempt to preserve the remnants of his rule there. Lysimachus and Seleucus divided up Antigonus's Asian territories between them, with Lysimachus receiving western Asia Minor and Seleucus the rest, except Cilicia and Lycia, which went to Cassander's brother Pleistarchus.

The Struggle over Macedon, 298-285 BC

The events of the next decade and a half were centered around various intrigues for control of Macedon itself. Cassander died in 298 BC, and his sons, Antipater and Alexander, proved weaklings. After quarreling with his older brother, Alexander V called in Demetrius, who had retained control of Cyprus, the Peloponnese, and many of the Aegean islands, and had quickly seized control of Cilicia and Lycia from Cassander's brother, as well as Pyrrhus, the King of Epirus. After Pyrrhus had intervened to seize the border region of Ambracia, Demetrius invaded, killed Alexander, and seized control of Macedon for himself (294 BC). While Demetrius consolidated his control of mainland Greece, his outlying territories were invaded and captured by Lysimachus (who recovered western Anatolia), Seleucus (who took most of Cilicia), and Ptolemy (who recovered Cyprus, eastern Cilicia, and Lycia). Soon, Demetrius was forced from Macedon by a rebellion supported by the alliance of Lysimachus and Pyrrhus, who divided the Kingdom between them, and, leaving Greece to the control of his son, Antigonus Gonatas, Demetrius launched an invasion of the east in 287 BC. Although initially successful, Demetrius was ultimately captured by Seleucus (286 BC), drinking himself to death two years later.

The Struggle of Lysimachus and Seleucus, 285-281 BC

Although Lysimachus and Pyrrhus had cooperated in driving Antigonus Gonatas from Thessaly and Athens, in the wake of Demetrius's capture they soon fell out, with Lysimachus driving Pyrrhus from his share of Macedon. Dynastic struggles also rent Egypt, where Ptolemy decided to make his younger son Ptolemy Philadelphus his heir rather than the elder, Ptolemy Ceraunus. Ceraunus fled to Seleucus. The eldest Ptolemy died peacefully in his bed in 282 BC, and Philadelphus succeeded him. Soon Lysimachus made the fatal mistake of having his son Agathocles murdered at the say-so of his second wife, Arsinoe (282 BC). Agathocles's widow, Lysandra, fled to Seleucus, who now made war upon Lysimachus. Seleucus, after appointing his son Antiochus ruler of his Asian territories, defeated and killed Lysimachus at the battle of Corupedium in Lydia in 281 BC, but Seleucus did not live to enjoy his triumph for long - he was almost immediately murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, for reasons that remain unclear.

The Gallic Invasions and Consolidation, 280 - 275

Ptolemy Ceraunus was also not to enjoy the rule of Macedon for very long. The death of Lysimachus had left the Danube border of the Macedonian kingdom open to barbarian invasions, and soon tribes of Gauls were rampaging through Macedon and Greece, and invading Asia Minor. Ptolemy Ceraunus was killed by the invaders, and after several years of chaos, none other than Antigonus Gonatas emerged as ruler of Macedon. In Asia, Seleucus's son, Antiochus I, also managed to defeat the Celtic invaders, who settled down in central Anatolia in the part of eastern Phrygia that would henceforward be known as Galatia after them. Now, at long last, almost fifty years after Alexander's death, some sort of order was restored. Ptolemy ruled over Egypt, southern Syria (known as Coele-Syria), and various territories on the southern coast of Asia Minor. Antiochus ruled the vast Asian territories of the Empire, while Macedon and Greece (with the exception of the Aetolian League), fell to Antigonus. This division was to last for a century, before the Antigonid Kingdom finally fell to Rome, and the Seleucids were harried from Persia by the Parthians. A rump Seleucid kingdom limped on in Syria until finally put to rest by Pompey in 64 BC. The Ptolemies lasted longer in Alexandria: Egypt finally fell to Rome in 30 BC.

Other historical uses as a title

Aulic rank title

Ironically in the formal 'court' titulature of the hellenistic empires ruled by dynasties we know as Diadochs, the title was not customary for the Monarch, but has actually been proven to be the lowest in a system of official rank titles, known as Aulic titulature, conferred -ex officio or nominatim- to actual courtiers and as an honorary rank (for protocol) to various military and civilian officials. Notably in Lagid Egypt, it was reported as the lowest aulic rank, under Philos, during the reign of Ptolemy V Epiphanes.

Modern revival

In the modern Kingdom of the Hellenes, established in 1832 after Greece attained independence from the Ottoman empire (1830), under a Bavarian dynasty, the title of Diadochos was 'revived' as particular princely style for the heir to the constitutional royal throne, as unique as dauphin in France (but not linked to any territory).

References


- Wissowa, Georg (editor); Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, (1890–1980) (in German, on all concerning Antiquity)

External links


- [http://www.livius.org/di-dn/diadochi/diadochi.htm Alexander's successors: the Diadochi] from Livius.org (Jona Lendering)
- [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Category:Successors Wiki Classical Dictionary: "Successors" category] and [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Diadochi Diadochi entry]
- Pauly-Wissowa (in German, on all concerning Antiquity)
- [http://www.asor.org/pubs/jcs/52/boiy.pdf T. Boiy, "Dating Methods During the Early Hellenistic Period", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 52, 2000] PDF format. A recent study of primary sources for the chronology of eastern rulers during the period of the Diodochi. Category:Ancient Greek titles Category:Alexander the Great Category:Monarchy Category:Wars of Ancient Greece ja:ディアドコイ

Greek language

Greek (Greek Ελληνικά, IPA – "Hellenic") is an Indo-European language with a documented history of 3,500 years. Today, it is spoken by 15 million people in Greece, Cyprus, the former Yugoslavia, particularly The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania and Turkey. There are also many Greek emigrant communities around the world, such as those in Melbourne, Australia which is the third-largest Greek-populated city in the world, after Athens and Thessaloniki. Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet, the first true alphabet, since the 9th century B.C. and before that, in Linear B and the Cypriot syllabaries. Greek literature has a long and rich tradition.

History

This article does not cover the reconstructed history of Greek prior to the use of writing. For more information, see main article on Proto-Greek language. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula since the 2nd millennium BC. The earliest evidence of this is found in the Linear B tablets dating from 1500 BC. The later Greek alphabet (q.v.) is unrelated to Linear B, and was derived from the Phoenician alphabet (abjad); with minor modifications, it is still used today. Greek is conventionally divided into the following periods:
- Mycenean Greek: the language of the Mycenean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 16th century BC onwards.
- Classical Greek (also known as Ancient Greek): In its various dialects was the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman empire. Classical Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained known in the Byzantine world, and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to Italy.
- Hellenistic Greek (also known as Koine Greek): The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with Attic (the dialect of Athens) resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which gradually turned into one of the world's first international languages. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great, but after the Hellenistic colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. Through Koine Greek it is also traced the origin of Christianity, as the Apostles used it to preach in Greece and the Greek-speaking world. It is also known as the Alexandrian dialect, Post-Classical Greek or even New Testament Greek (after its most famous work of literature).
- Medieval Greek: The continuation of Hellenistic Greek during medieval Greek history as the official and vernacular (if not the literary nor the ecclesiastic) language of the Byzantine Empire, and continued to be used until, and after the fall of that Empire in the 15th century. Also known as Byzantine Greek.
- Modern Greek: Stemming independently from Koine Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the late Byzantine period (as early as 11th century). Two main forms of the language have been in use since the end of the medieval Greek period: Dhimotikí (Δημοτική), the Demotic (vernacular) language, and Katharévousa (Καθαρεύουσα), an imitation of classical Greek, which was used for literary, juridic, and scientific purposes during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Demotic Greek is now the official language of the modern Greek state, and the most widely spoken by Greeks today. It has been claimed that an "educated" speaker of the modern language can understand an ancient text, but this is surely as much a function of education as of the similarity of the languages. Still, Koinē , the version of Greek used to write the New Testament and the Septuagint, is relatively easy to understand for modern speakers. Greek words have been widely borrowed into the European languages: astronomy, democracy, philosophy, thespian, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, isomer, biomechanics etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary. See English words of Greek origin, and List of Greek words with English derivatives.

Classification

Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient languages which were probably most closely related to it, Ancient Macedonian language (which may be regarded as a dialect of Greek) and Phrygian, are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Among living languages, Armenian seems to be the most closely related to it.

Geographic distribution

Modern Greek is spoken by about 15 million people mainly in Greece and Cyprus. There are also Greek-speaking populations in Georgia, Ukraine, Egypt, Turkey, Albania, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Southern Italy. The language is spoken also in many other countries where Greeks have settled, including Armenia, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States.

Official status

Greek is the official language of Greece where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also, alongside Turkish, the official language of Cyprus. Due to the membership of Greece and Cyprus, Greek is one of the 20 official languages of the European Union.

Phonology

This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language. :All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the International Phonetic Alphabet

Vowel sounds

Greek has 5 vowel sounds, all phonemic:

Academy

An academy is an institution for the study of higher learning. The name Academy rose from Plato's Athenian school of philosophy, founded in approximately 385 BC. The term is also used for various other institutions in modern times (see below).

The original Academy

Before the Akademeia was a school, however, even before Cimon enclosed its precincts with a wall (Plutarch Life of Cimon xiii:7), it contained a sacred grove of olive trees outside the city walls of ancient Athens (Thucydides ii:34). The archaic name for the site was Hekademeia, which by classical times evolved into Akademeia and was explained, at least as early as the beginning of the 6th century BC, by linking it to an eponymous Athenian hero, a legendary "Akademos". The site of the Academy was sacred to Athena and other immortals; it had sheltered a religious cult since the Bronze Age, a cult that was perhaps associated with the hero-gods the Dioskouroi (Castor and Polydeukes), for the hero Akademos associated with the site was credited with revealing to the Divine Twins where Theseus had hidden Helen. Out of respect for its association with the Dioskouri, the Spartans would not ravage these original "groves of Academe" when they invaded Attica (Plutarch, Life of Theseus xxxii), a piety not shared by the Roman Sulla, who axed the sacred olive trees in 86 BC to build siege engines. Among the religious observations that took place at the Akademeia was a torchlit night race from altars within the city to the Promemeikos altar in the Akademeia. Funeral games also took place in the area as well as a Dionysiac procession from Athens to the Hekademeia and then back to the polis (Paus. i 29.2, 30.2; Plut. Vit. Sol. i 7). The road to Akademeia was lined with the gravestones of Athenians. The Platonic Academy is usually contrasted with Aristotle's own creation, the Peripatetics. Famous philosophers entrusted with running the Academy include Arcesilaus, Speusippus, Xenocrates and Proclus.

The revived neoplatonic Academy of Late Antiquity

After a lapse during the early Roman occupation, the Academy was refounded (Cameron 1965) as a new institution of some outstanding Platonists of late antiquity who called themselves "successors" (diadochoi, but of Plato) and presented themselves as an uninterrupted tradition reaching back to Plato. There cannot really have been any geographical, institutional, economic or personal continuity with the original Academy in the new organizational entity (Bechtle). The last "Greek" philosophers of the revived Academy in the 6th century were drawn from variouis parts of the Hellenistic cultural world and suggest the broad syncretism of the common culture (see koine): Five of the seven Academy philosophers mentioned by Agathias were Syriac in their cultural origin: Hermias and Diogenes (both from Phoenicia), Isidorus of Gaza, Damascius of Syria, Iamblichus of Coele-Syria and perhaps even Simplicius of Cilicia himself (Thiele). The emperor Justinian closed the school in AD 529, a date that is often cited for the end of Antiquity. According to the sole witness, the historian Agathias, its remaining members looked for protection under the rule of Sassanid king Khosrau I in his capital at Ctesiphon, carrying with them precious scrolls of literature and philosophy, and to a lesser degree of science. After a peace treaty between the Persian and the Byzantine empire in 532 guaranteed their personal security (an early document in the history of freedom of religion), some members found sanctuary in the pagan stronghold of Harran, near Edessa. One of the last leading figures of this group was Simplicius, a pupil of Damascius, the last head of the Athenian school. The students of the Academy-in-exile, an authentic and important Neoplatonic school surviving at least until the 10th century, contributed to the Islamic preservation of Greek science and medicine, when Islamic forces took the area in the 7th century (Thiele). One of the earliest academies established in the east was the 7th century Academy of Gundishapur in Sassanid Persia. Sassanid Persia Raphael painted a famous fresco depicting "The School of Athens" in the 16th century. The site of the Academy was rediscovered in the 20th century; considerable excavation has been accomplished. The Church of St. Triton on Kolokynthou Street, Athens, occupies the southern corner of the Academy, confirmed in 1966 by the discovery of a boundary stone dated to 500 BC.

Modern use of the term academy

Because of the tradition of intellectual brilliance associated with this institution, many groups have chosen to use the word "Academy" in their name. During the Florentine Renaissance, Cosimo de' Medici took a personal interest in the new Platonic Academy that he determined to re-establish in 1439, centered on the marvellous promise shown by Marsilio Ficino, scarcely more than a lad. Cosimo had been inspired by the arrival at the otherwise ineffective Council of Florence of Gemistos Plethon, who seemed like a Plato reborn to the Florentine intellectuals. In 1462 Cosimo gave Ficino a villa at Careggi for the Academy's use, situated where Cosimo could descry it from his own villa. The Renaissance drew potent intellectual and spiritual strength from the academy at Careggi. During the course of the following century many Italian cities established an Academy, of which the oldest survivor is the Accademia dei Lincei of Rome, which became a national academy for a reunited Italy. Accademia dei Lincei, 1885, in a Greek Ionic academically correct even to the polychrome sculpture]] Other national academies include the Académie Francaise; the Royal Academy of the United Kingdom; the International Academy of Science, the United States Military Academy at West Point, NY; the United States Naval Academy. In emulation of the military academies, police in the United States are trained in police academies. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presents the annual Academy awards. A fundamental feature of academic discipline in those academies that were training-schools for artists was regular practice in making accurate drawings from antiquities, or from casts of antiquities, on the one hand, and on the other, in deriving inspiration from the other fount, the human form. Students assembled in sessions drawing the draped and undraped human form, and such drawings, which survive in the tens of thousands from the 17th through the 19th century, are termed académies. In the early 19th century "academy" took the connotations that "gymnasium" was acquiring in German-speaking lands, of school that was less advanced than a college (for which it might prepare students) but considerably more than elementary. An early example are the two academies founded at Andover and Phillips Exeter Academy. Amherst Academy expanded with time to form Amherst College. Mozart organized public subscription performances of his music in Vienna in the 1780s and 1790s, he called the concerts "academies." This usage in musical terms survives in the concert orchestra Academy of St Martin in the Fields and in the Brixton Academy, a concert hall in Brixton, South London. Academies proliferated in the 20th century until even a three-week series of lectures and discussions would be termed an "academy." In addition, the generic term "the academy" is sometimes used to refer to all of academia, which is sometimes considered a global successor to the Academy of Athens. See also: national academy, list of honorary societies, academician, military academy

Honorary Academy

See the Académie Française and its many emulaters among national honorary academies of strictly limited membership..

Research Academy

In Imperial Russia and Soviet Union the term "academy", or Academy of Sciences was reserved to denote a state research establishment, see Russian Academy of Sciences. The latter one still exists in the Russian Federation, although other types of academies (study and honorary) appeared as well.

External links


- [http://php.iupui.edu/~cplaneau/plato_02.html Christopher Planeaux' history of the site of the Academy]
- [http://www.harrys-athens-greece-guide.com/ancient-plato.asp Site of the Academy rediscovered] (needs better site linked)
- [http://www.culture.gr/2/21/211/21103a/e211ca03.html Site of the Academy]
- [http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/athens/1.html The Demosion Sema along the road to the Academy]
- [http://www.filmacademy.co.uk Film Academy]
- [http://www.charlemont.org The Academy at Charlemont]

Reference


- Allen Cameron, "The last days of the Academy at Athens," in Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society vol 195 (n.s. 15), 1969, pp 7-29.
- [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2000/2000-04-19.html Gerald Bechtle, Bryn Mawr Classical Review of Rainer Thiel, Simplikios und das Ende der neuplatonischen Schule in Athen. Stuttgart, 1999] (in English).
- John Glucker, Antiochus and the Late Academy, Göttingen 1978.
  - Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny, 1981. Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Classical Sculpture, 1500-1900 (New Haven: Yale University Press) Category:Academia Category:History of ideas Category:School types Category:Science ja:アカデメイア

Hellenistic

The term Hellenistic (derived from Héllēn, the Greeks' word for themselves) was established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to refer to the shift from a culture dominated by ethnic Greeks to a culture dominated by Greek-speakers of various ethnicities, and from the political dominance of the city-state to that of larger monarchies. In this period the traditional Greek culture was changed by strong Eastern influences, especially Persian, in aspects of religion and government. Cultural centers shifted away from mainland Greece, to Pergamon, Rhodes, Antioch and Alexandria. Modern historians see the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC as the beginning of the Hellenistic period. Alexander and the Macedonians conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, and the Iranian plateau, and invaded India. Following Alexander's death, there was a struggle for the succession, known as the wars of the Diadochi (Greek for successors). These ended in 281 BC with the establishment of four large territorial states:
- The Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt based at Alexandria;
- The Seleucid dynasty in Syria and Mesopotamia based at Antioch;
- The Antigonid dynasty in Macedon and the mainland of Greece;
- The Attalid dynasty in Anatolia based at Pergamum. His successors held on to the territory west of the Tigris for some time and controlled the eastern Mediterranean until the Roman Republic took control in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Most of the east was eventually overrun by the Parthians, but Hellenistic culture held on in distant locations, like the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in Bactria, or the Indo-Greek kingdom in northern India, or the Cimmerian Bosporus. It must also be added that Hellenism made considerable inroads also in monarchies governed by kings of Persian or Thracian origin, as was the case with Bithynia, Cappadocia and Pontus. The end of the Hellenistic period is generally seen as 31 BC, when the power of Ptolemaic Egypt was smashed by the Romans at the Battle of Actium. Shortly thereafter, the independence of the Ptolemies was at an end with the suicide of Cleopatra and the annexation of Egypt by Caesar Augustus.

Related article


- History of Hellenistic Greece

Reference


- Sir William Tarn: Hellenistic civilisation. Category:Alexander the Great Category:Ancient Greece Category:Ancient Jewish Greek history Category:Civilizations ja:ヘレニズム

June 10

June 10 is the 161st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (162nd in leap years), with 204 days remaining.

Events


- 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Saleph River while leading an army to Jerusalem.
- 1619 - Battle of Záblatí, a turning point in the Bohemian Revolt of the Thirty Years' War
- 1692 - Salem witch trials: Bridget Bishop is hanged at Gallows Hill near Salem, Massachusetts, for "certaine Detestable Arts called Witchcraft & Sorceries".
- 1719 - Battle of Glen Shiel
- 1793 - The Jardin des Plantes museum opens in Paris (becoming, a year later, the first public zoo).
- 1793 - French Revolution: Following arrests of Girondin leaders the Jacobins gain control of the Committee of Public Safety installing the revolutionary dictatorship.
- 1801 - Tripoli declares war on the United States for refusing tribute.
- 1829 - First Boat Race between Oxford and Cambridge.
- 1846 - Mexican-American War: The California Republic declares independence from Mexico.
- 1854 - The first class of United States Naval Academy students graduate.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Brice's Crossroads – Confederate troops under Nathan Bedford Forrest defeat a much larger Union force led by General Samuel D. Sturgis in Mississippi.
- 1886 - Eruption of Mount Tarawera in New Zealand, killing 153 people and destroying the famous Pink and White Terraces.
- 1898 - US Marines land on the island of Cuba during the Spanish-American War.
- 1924 - Fascists kidnap and kill Italian socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti in Rome.
- 1925 - Inagural service for the United Church of Canada, a union of Presbyterian, Methodist, and Congregationalist churches held in Toronto arena
- 1935 - Alcoholics Anonymous is founded in Akron, Ohio, United States, by Bill Wilson and Dr. Robert Smith.
- 1940 - World War II: Italy declares war on France and the United Kingdom.
- 1940 - World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt denounces Italy's actions with [ftp://webstorage2.mcpa.virginia.edu/library/nara/fdr/audiovisual/speeches/fdr_1940_0610.mp3 "Stab in the Back"] speech from the graduation ceremonies of the University of Virginia.
- 1940 - World War II: German forces, under General Erwin Rommel, reach the English Channel.
- 1940 - World War II: Canada declares war on Italy.
- 1940 - World War II: Norway Surrenders to German forces.
- 1942 - World War II: Nazis burn the Czech village of Lidice as reprisal for the killing of Reinhard Heydrich.
- 1944 - World War II: 642 men, women and children are killed in the Oradour-sur-Glane Massacre in France.
- 1944 - In baseball, 15-year old Joe Nuxhall of the Cincinnati Reds becomes the youngest player ever in a major-league game.
- 1947 - Saab produces its first automobile.
- 1965 - Vietnam War: Battle of Dong Xoai begins.
- 1967 - Six-Day War ends: Israel and Syria agree to a cease-fire.
- 1967 - Argentina becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty.
- 1973 - Paul Getty III, grandson of billionaire J. Paul Getty, is kidnapped in Rome, Italy.
- 1977 - James Earl Ray escapes from Brushy Mountain State Prison in Petros, Tennessee, but is recaptured on June 13.
- 1977 - Apple Computer ships its first Apple II personal computer.
- 1978 - Costa Rica becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty.
- 1980 - The African National Congress in South Africa publishes a call to fight from their imprisoned leader Nelson Mandela.
- 1980 - Percy Wood, president of United Airlines, is injured by an exploding package sent by the Unabomber.
- 1991 - In what was dubbed "The Mother of All Parades," New York City hosts a parade welcoming back troops from Operation Desert Storm.
- 1996 - Peace talks begin in Northern Ireland without Sinn Féin.
- 1997 - Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot orders the killing of his defense chief Son Sen and 11 of Sen's family members before Pol Pot flees his northern stronghold.
- 1999 - Kosovo War: NATO suspends its air strikes after Slobodan Milošević agrees to withdraw Serbian forces from Kosovo.
- 2003 - The Spirit Rover is launched, beginning NASA's Mars Exploration Rover mission.
- 2001 - Pope John Paul II canonized Saint Rafqa

Births


- 1213 - Fakhruddin 'Iraqi, Persian philosopher and Sufi mystic
- 1632 - Esprit Fléchier, French writer and bishop (d. 1710)
- 1637 - Jacques Marquette, French Jesuit missionary and explorer (d. 1675)
- 1657 - James Cragg the Elder, British politician (d. 1721)
- 1688 - James Francis Edward Stuart, "The Old Pretender" (d. 1766)
- 1706 - John Dollond, English optician (d. 1761)
- 1710 - James Short, Scottish mathematician and optician (d. 1768)
- 1803 - Henry Darcy, French scientist (d. 1858)
- 1810 - Hermann Schlegel, German ornithologist (d. 1884)
- 1819 - Gustave Courbet, French painter (d. 1877)
- 1835 - Rebecca Latimer Felton, U.S. Senator (d. 1930)
- 1861 - Pierre Duhem, French physicist and philosopher of science (d. 1916)
- 1862 - Mrs. Leslie Carter, American actress (d. 1937)
- 1880 - André Derain, French painter and illustrator (d. 1954)
- 1895 - Hattie McDaniel, American actress (d. 1952)
- 1897 - Grand Duchess Tatiana of Russia (d. 1918)
- 1901 - Frederick Loewe, Austrian-born American composer (d. 1988)
- 1907 - Fairfield Porter, American painter (d. 1975)
- 1910 - Howlin' Wolf, American musician (d. 1976)
- 1911 - Terence Rattigan, British playwright (d. 1977)
- 1913 - Tikhon Khrennikov, Russian composer
- 1915 - Saul Bellow, Canadian-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2005)
- 1921 - Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
- 1922 - Judy Garland, American actress,singer, and poet (d. 1969)
- 1923 - Robert Maxwell, Czech-born newspaperman (d. 1991)
- 1926 - Lionel Jeffries British actor
- 1927 - Lin Yang-kang, Chinese politician
- 1927 - Ladislao Kubala, Hungarian-Spanish footballer (d. 2002)
- 1928 - Maurice Sendak, American writer, producer, and illustrator
- 1929 - Harald Juhnke, German actor and comedian (d. 2005)
- 1929 - Ian McCahon Sinclair, Australian politician
- 1931 - João Gilberto, Brazilian singer
- 1933 - F. Lee Bailey, American attorney
- 1940 - John Stevens, British drummer (d. 1994)
- 1941 - Jürgen Prochnow, German actor
- 1941 - Mickey Jones, American musician and actor
- 1941 - Shirley Owens, American singer (Shirelles)
- 1942 - Preston Manning, Canadian politician
- 1949 - Ronnie James Dio, American singer
- 1951 - Dan Fouts, American football player
- 1953 - John Edwards, U.S. Senator
- 1957 - Lindsay Hoyle, British politician
- 1957 - Hidetsugu Aneha, Japanese one class authorized architect and builder
- 1959 - Eliot Spitzer, New York Attorney General
- 1962 - Gina Gershon, American actress
- 1962 - Vincent Perez, Swiss actor
- 1963 - Jeanne Tripplehorn, American actress
- 1964 - Jimmy Chamberlin, American musician
- 1965 - Elizabeth Hurley, British actress
- 1968 - Jimmy Shea, American skeleton racer
- 1969 - Ronny Johnsen, Norwegian footballer
- 1971 - Joel Hailey, American singer
- 1971 - Bruno N'Gotty, French footballer
- 1973 - Faith Evans, American singer
- 1975 - Henrik Pedersen, Danish footballer
- 1976 - Freddy Garcia, baseball player
- 1978 - Shane West, American actor
- 1982 - Princess Madeleine of Sweden
- 1982 - Tara Lipinski, American figure skater
- 1982 - Leelee Sobieski, American actress

Deaths


- 323 BC - Alexander the Great (b. 356 BC)
- 1075 - Ernest of Austria (b. 1027)
- 1190 - Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor (drowned) (b. 1122)
- 1424 - Duke Ernest of Austria (b. 1377)
- 1552 - Alexander Barclay, English poet
- 1556 - Martin Agricola, German composer (b. 1486)
- 1580 - Luis de Camões, Portuguese poet
- 1607 - John Popham, English politician
- 1654 - Alessandro Algardi, Italian sculptor (b. 1598)
- 1680 - Johan Göransson Gyllenstierna, Swedish statesman (b. 1635)
- 1735 - Thomas Hearne, English antiquarian (b. 1678)
- 1776 - Leopold Widhalm, Austrian luthier (b. 1722)
- 1791 - Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte, French admiral (b. 1720)
- 1831 - Hans Karl Friedrich Anton, count von Diebitsch, Russian field marshal (b. 1785)
- 1836 - André-Marie Ampère, French physicist (b. 1775)
- 1899 - Ernest Chausson, French composer (b. 1855)
- 1901 - Robert Williams Buchanan, British poet, novelist and dramatist (b. 1841)
- 1902 - Jacint Verdaguer, Catalan poet (b. 1845)
- 1909 - Edward Everett Hale, American author (b. 1822)
- 1912 - Anton Aškerc, Slovenian poet (b. 1856)
- 1918 - Arrigo Boito, Italian poet and composer (b. 1842)
- 1923 - Pierre Loti, French sailor and writer (b. 1850)
- 1926 - Antoni Gaudí, Catalan architect (b. 1852)
- 1930 - Adolf Harnack, German theologian (b. 1851)
- 1934 - Frederick Delius, English composer (b. 1862)
- 1937 - Robert Borden, eighth Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1854)
- 1940 - Marcus Garvey, American civil rights activist (b. 1887)
- 1946 - Jack Johnson, American boxer (b. 1878)
- 1947 - Alexander Bethune, Mayor of Vancouver, British Columbia (b. 1852)
- 1949 - Sigrid Undset, Norwegian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1882)
- 1958 - Angelina Weld Grimke, American journalist and poet (b. 1880)
- 1967 - Spencer Tracy, American actor (b. 1900)
- 1971 - Michael Rennie, English actor (b. 1909)
- 1973 - William Inge, American playwright (b. 1913)
- 1974 - Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester (b. 1900)
- 1976 - Adolph Zukor, Hungarian-born producer (b. 1873)
- 1982 - Rainer Werner Fassbinder, German author and film director (b. 1945)
- 1982 - Addie "Micki" Harris, American singer (Shirelles) (b. 1940)
- 1986 - Merle Miller, American biographer (b. 1919)
- 1988 - Louis L'Amour, American author (b. 1908)
- 1993 - Les Dawson, British comedian (b. 1933 or 34)
- 1996 - George Hees, Canadian politician (b. 1910)
- 1998 - Hammond Innes, English author (b. 1914)
- 2000 - Hafez al-Assad, President of Syria (b. 1930)
- 2000 - Brian Statham, English cricketer (b. 1930)
- 2001 - Princess Leila of Iran (b. 1970)
- 2001 - Mike Mentzer, philosopher, bodybuilder, and author (b. 1951)
- 2002 - John Gotti, American gangster (b. 1940)
- 2003 - Donald Regan, Chief of Staff and U.S. Treasury Secretary (b. 1918)
- 2003 - Bernard Williams, English philosopher (b. 1929)
- 2003 - Dr Phil Williams, Welsh politician and scientist (b. 1939)
- 2004 - Ray Charles, American singer and musician (b. 1930)
- 2005 - Curtis Pitts, American aircraft designer (b. 1915)

Holidays and observances


- Roman Empire – fourth day of the Vestalia in honor of Vesta
- Portugal – National day of Portugal, Camões and the Portuguese Communities

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/10 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 9 - June 11 - May 10 - July 10 – listing of all days ko:6월 10일 ms:10 Jun ja:6月10日 simple:June 10 th:10 มิถุนายน

323 BC

Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 328 BC 327 BC 326 BC 325 BC 324 BC - 323 BC - 322 BC 321 BC 320 BC 319 BC 318 BC ----

Events


- On his way from Ecbatana to Babylon, Alexander the Great fights and crushes the Cossaeans
- June 10 - Alexander the Great dies in Babylon. After a dispute with the infantry led by Meleager, the cavalry general Perdiccas becomes Regent of the Empire. Alexander's posthumous son Alexander IV is declared King of Macedon and co-ruler with his uncle Philip III (Alexander's half-brother). He makes Ptolemy Governor of Egypt, Eumenes governor of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia, Antigonus Governor of Phrygia, Lysimachus Governor of Thrace; while Macedon itself was to be ruled by its old regent Antipater jointly with Alexander's chief lieutenant Craterus.
- At the news of Alexander's death, Athens and other Greek cities revolt against Macedonian rule in what will become known as the Lamian War, due to the long siege of the Macedonian regent Antipater in Lamia by the Athenians and their allies which is the main military action of the war.

Births


- Alexander IV of Macedon, son of Alexander the Great.

Deaths


- June 10 - Alexander the Great, king of Macedon and conqueror of Persia (b. 356 BC)
- June 10 - Diogenes of Sinope, philosopher (b. c. 412 BC)
- Meleager, general of Alexander - summarily executed Category:320s BC

Macedon

For the modern history of this area, see Macedonia (region). Macedonia (region) Macedon (or Macedonia from Greek ; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was the name of an ancient kingdom on the northern edge of ancient Greece, bordering the Greek kingdom of Epirus on the west and the non-Greek state of Thrace to the east. For a brief period it became the most powerful state in the ancient Near East after Alexander the Great conquered Persia and Greece, inaugurating the Hellenistic period of Greek history.

Early history

The first Macedonian state emerged 8th or early 7th century BC under the Argead Dynasty, when the Macedonians are said to have migrated to the region from further west. Their first king is recorded as Perdiccas I. Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon, the Macedonians started to expand into Eordaia, Bottiaea, Pieria, Mygdonia, and Almopia. Near the modern city of Edessa, Perdiccas I (or, more likely, his son, Argaeus I) built his capital, Aigai (modern Vergina). After a brief period of Persian overlordship under Darius Hystaspes, the state regained its independence under King Alexander I (495-450 BC). Prior to the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region approximately corresponding to the province of Macedonia of modern Greece. It became increasingly Hellenised during this period, though prominent Greeks appear to have regarded the Macedonians as being uncouth and somewhat barbaric. A unified Macedonian state was eventually established by King Amyntas III (c. 393-370 BC), though it still retained strong contrasts between the cattle-rich coastal plain and the fierce isolated tribal hinterland, allied to the king by marriage ties. They controlled the passes through which barbarian invasions came from Illyria to the north and northwest. Amyntas had three sons; the first two, Alexander II and Perdiccas III reigned only briefly. Perdiccas III's infant heir was deposed by Amyntas' third son, Philip II of Macedon, who made himself king and ushered in a period of Macedonian dominance of Greece.

Expansion

Under Philip II, (359-336 BC), Macedon expanded into the territory of the Paionians, Thracians, and Illyrians. This brought into its orbit the Monastir (now Bitola) and Gevgelija districts of what is now the Republic of Macedonia. Macedon became more politically involved with the south-central city-states of Ancient Greece, but it also retained more archaic features like the palace-culture, first at Aegae (modern Vergina) then at Pella, resembling Mycenaean culture more than classic Hellenic city-states, and other archaic customs, like Philip's multiple wives in addition to his Epirote queen Olympias, mother of Alexander. Another archaic remnant was the very persistence of a hereditary monarchy which wielded formidable – sometimes absolute – power, although this was at times checked by the landed aristocracy, and often disturbed by power struggles within the royal family itself. This contrasted sharply with the Greek cultures further south, where the ubiquitous city-states possessed more-or-less democratic institutions; the de facto monarchy of tyrants, in which heredity was usually more of an ambition rather than the accepted rule; and the limited, predominantly military and sacerdotal, power of the twin hereditary Spartan kings. The same might have held true of feudal institutions like serfdom, which may have persisted in Macedon well into historical times. Such institutions were abolished by city-states well before Macedon's rise (most notably by the Athenian legislator Solon's famous seisachtheia laws). seisachtheia Philip's son Alexander III (the Great) (336-323 BC) managed to briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states, but also to the Persian empire, including Egypt and lands as far east as the fringes of India. Alexander's adoption of the styles of government of the conquered territories was accompanied by the spread of Greek culture and learning through his vast empire. Although the empire fell apart shortly after his death, his conquests left a lasting legacy, not least in the new Greek-speaking cities founded across Persia's western territories, heralding the Hellenistic period. Despite the empire's collapse into feuding kingdoms ruled by Alexander's generals, Macedonia itself remained a key and fiercely contested territory. It was ruled for a while by Demetrius I (294-288 BC) but fell into civil war. Antipater and his son Cassander gained control of Macedonia but it slid into a long period of civil strife following Cassander's death in 297 BC. Demetrius' son Antigonus II (277-239 BC) successfully restored order and prosperity and repelled a Galatian invasion, though he lost control of many of the formerly subjugated Greek city-states. He established a stable monarchy and gave rise to the Antigonid dynasty. His successor Antigonus II (239-221 BC) built on these gains by re-establishing Macedonian power across the region.

Decline

Under Philip V of Macedon (221–179 BC) and his son Perseus of Macedon (179–168), the kingdom clashed with the rising power of the Roman Republic. During the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Macedon fought a series of wars with Rome. They resulted in the defeat of Macedon, the deposition of the Antigonid dynasty and the dismantling of the Macedonian kingdom. Andriscus' brief success at reestablishing the monachy in 149 BC was quickly followed by his defeat the following year and the establishment of direct Roman rule and the organization of Macedon as the Roman province of Macedonia.

Calendar

The Ancient Macedonian calendar year consisted of 12 synodic Lunar months (i.e. 354 days per year), which needed intercalary months to stay in step with the seasons. By the time the calendar was being used across the Hellenistic world, 7 total embolimoi (intercalary months) were being added in each 19-year Metonic cycle.
- Δίος (Dios, moon of October)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2311830 Απελλαίος] (Apellaios, moon of November, also a Dorian month - Apellaiōn was a Tenian month)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2317337 Αυδναίος or Αυδηναίος] (Audnaios or Audēnaios, moon of December)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2382372 Περίτιος] (Peritios, moon of January)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2329555 Δύστρος] (Dystros, moon of February)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2371432 Ξανδικός or Ξανθικός] (Xandikos or Xanthikos, moon of March)
  - Ξανδικός Εμβόλιμος (Xandikos Embolimos, intercalated 6 times over a 19-year cycle)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315602 Αρτεμίσιος or Αρταμίτιος] (Artemisios or Artamitios, moon of April, also a Spartan, Rhodian and Epidaurian month - Artemisiōn was an Ionic month)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2323255 Δαίσιος] (Daisios, moon of May)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2377238 Πάνημος or Πάναμος] (Panēmos or Panamos, moon of June, also an Epidaurian, Miletian, Samian and Corinthian month)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?layout.reflang=greek;layout.refembed=2;layout.refwordcount=1;layout.refdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057;layout.reflookup=lwi%2Fwn;layout.refcit=entry%3Da%29ga%5Eqo%2Fs;doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2364336 Λώιος] (Lōios, moon of July - Ομολώιος, Homolōios, was an Aetolian, Beotian and Thessalian month)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2322702 Γορπιαίος] (Gorpiaios, moon of August)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23107328 Υπερβερεταίος] (Hyperberetaios, moon of September - Hyperberetos was a Cretan month)
  - Υπερβερεταίος Εμβόλιμος (Hyperberetaios Embolimos, intercalated once over a 19-year cycle)

Language

See main article: Ancient Macedonian language. The language spoken by the area's inhabitants prior to the 5th century BC, and continued into the early centuries of the Common Era by the rural population, is attested in some hundred words from various glosses (mainly those of Hesychius of Alexandria, 5th century AD), as well as placenames and personal names. The majority of these words can be confidently identified as Greek, and the language was either closely related to Greek, or perhaps even a dialect of Greek. There are words, however, that are not easily identifiable as Greek, a number of which for example show voiced stops where Greek has voiceless aspirates. There was probably linguistic contact with speakers of Doric Greek (whom Herodotus considered akin to Macedonians, see also Pella katadesmos), and from the 5th century BC Macedonia was closely associated with Southern Greek cultural and political development, resulting in the adoption of the Attic dialect.

Hellenic controversy

The controversy whether or not ancient Macedonia should be considered a Hellenic state is addressed variously: based on ancient sources, and on linguistic evidence. Neither approach is conclusive, Herodotus seems to assert that the Macedonian aristocracy was of Achaean origin while Macedonian people were of Dorian stock. Linguistics seems to point inconclusively to either Macedonian as an archaic form of Greek, Macedonian as part of a Graeco-Macedonian subfamily of Indo-European, or Macedonian as an independent member of the Paleo-Balkan Sprachbund. The Macedonians were sometimes spoken of as a tribe of Thrace, the land north-east of Greece (Sir William M. Ramsay). Rather than a Greek origin, some argue that the ancient Macedonians had an Illyrian or Thracian origin. It is also possible that the ancient Macedonians were originally a distinct people, later absorbing Greek, Illyrian, and Thracian elements (cf. Borza, et al.). This controversy concerns the early kingdom before the time of Philip II exclusively. It is undisputed that Macedon was heavily Atticized from the time of Alexander the Great (see Hellenism).

Herodotus

Herodotus considers the Macedonians a Hellenic tribe left behind during the Dorian invasion: :for during the reign of Deucalion, Phthiotis was the country in which the Hellenes dwelt, but under Dorus, the son of Hellen, they moved to the tract at the base of Ossa and Olympus, which is called Histiaeotis; forced to retire from that region by the Cadmeians, they settled, under the name of Macedonians, in the chain of Pindus. Hence they once more removed and came to Dryopis; and from Dryopis having entered the Peloponnese in this way, they became known as Dorians. (Histories, 1.53.1) On the other hand, a series of passages in book five of Herodotus' Histories (5:22) indicate to many classical scholars that the Macedonians were customarily excluded from panhellenic events such as the Olympic Games, entry to which apparently was confined to Greeks. The Macedonian aristocracy, however, clearly saw itself as Greek and Macedonian kings were permitted to participate on that basis. This was evidently somewhat controversial: when Alexander I attempted to compete at Olympia, Herodotus relates: :Now that the men of this family [of Alexander I] are Greeks, sprung from Perdiccas, as they themselves affirm, is a thing which I can declare of my own knowledge, and which I will hereafter make plainly evident. That they are so has been already adjudged by those who manage the Pan-Hellenic contest at Olympia. For when Alexander wished to contend in the games, and had come to Olympia with no other view, the Greeks who were about to run against him would have excluded him from the contest- saying that Greeks only were allowed to contend, and not barbarians. But Alexander proved himself to be an Argive, and was distinctly adjudged a Greek; after which he entered the lists for the foot-race, and was drawn to run in the first pair. Thus was this matter settled. (Histories, 5:22) In book eight, Herodotus counts the allied Macedonians as part of the Greek fleet. Some view this as proof that the Macedonians were considered Hellenes before Philip's conquests and Macedon's rise to power. Titus Livius (lived 59 BC-14 AD) in his Ab urbe condita (31.29) is quoting a Macedonian ambassador from the late 3rd century BC, implying that Macedonians had been a Greek-speaking tribe: :The Aetolians, the Acarnanians, the Macedonians, men of the same language, are united or disunited by trivial causes that arise from time to time; with aliens, with barbarians, all Greeks wage and will wage eternal war; for they are enemies by the will of nature, which is eternal, and not from reasons that change from day to day.---

Linguistics

The classification of the ancient Macedonian language is disputed, but it appears that Macedonian has not participated in at least one sound change common to every other known Greek dialect (the unvoicing of voiced aspirates, leading to
- Pherenikē as opposed to Macedonian Berenikē). Eugene Borza (1999) concludes that the Macedonians were "a unique people in antiquity who gradually became Hellenized, and who are unrelated to any modern people". On the other hand, Olivier Masson in the Oxford Classical Dictionary (1996) saw the phonological peculiarities mentioned above as "local pronunciations" due to Macedon's "marginal position" and concluded that Macedonian is "a dialect related to North-West Greek"[http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/FAQ.html]. The late Nicholas G. L. Hammond, a classicist, also suggested that Macedonian was a Greek dialect: :"What language did these `Macedones' speak? The name itself is Greek in root and in ethnic termination. It probably means `highlanders', and it is comparable to Greek tribal names such as `Orestai' and `Oreitai', mean­ing 'mountain-men'. A reputedly earlier variant, `Maketai', has the same root, which means `high', as in the Greek adjective makednos or the noun mekos... At the turn of the sixth century the Persians described the tribute-paying peoples of their province in Europe, and one of them was the `yauna takabara', which meant `Greeks wearing the hat'. There were Greeks in Greek city-states here and there in the province, but they were of various origins and not distinguished by a common hat. However, the Macedonians wore a dis­tinctive hat, the kausia. We conclude that the Persians believed the Macedonians to be speakers of Greek. Finally, in the latter part of the fifth century a Greek historian, Hellanicus, visited Macedonia and modi­fied Hesiod's genealogy by making Macedon not a cousin, but a son of Aeolus, thus bringing Macedon and his descendants firmly into the Aeolic branch of the Greek-speaking family. Hesiod, Persia, and Hellanicus had no motive for making a false statement about the language of the Macedonians, who were then an obscure and not a powerful people. Their independent testimonies should be accepted as conclusive."

See also


- Ancient Greece
- Vergina Sun
- Kings of Macedon
- Alexander the Great
- Antigonid dynasty
- Seleucid dynasty
- Ptolemaic dynasty
- Crestonia a region of Macedon
- Lynkestis a region of Macedon
- Mygdonia a region of Macedon
- Paionia (an ancient kingdom once bordering Macedon on the north)
- Pelagonia a region of Macedon
- Thrace

External links


- [http://www.macedonia.com/english/history/ History of Macedon]
- [http://vergina.eng.auth.gr/macedonia/ Macedonia, The Historical Profile]

References


- Eugene N. Borza: Before Alexander: constructing early Macedonia. Claremont, CA: Regina Books, 1999. Pp. 89. ISBN 0-941690-96-0 (pb)
  - [http://www.trentu.ca/ahc/bmcr2001enb.html Review by Konrad H. Kinzl (Trent University)]
- Robin Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, 1973.
- Nicholas G. L. Hammond, The Macedonian State, Oxford University Press, 1989, ISBN 0198148836. Pg. 12-13. Category:Ancient Greece ja:マケドニア王国

Greece

Greece, (Greek: Ελλάδα, older form: Ελλάς, Hellas), officially the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Ellinikí Dimokratía; see also List of traditional Greek place names), is a country in southern Europe on the tip of the Balkan peninsula. It has land boundaries with Bulgaria, The Republic of Macedonia, and Albania to the north and with Turkey to the east. The waters of the Aegean Sea border Greece to the east, and those of the Ionian and Mediterranean Sea to the west and south. Regarded by many as the cradle of Western civilization and the birthplace of democracy, Greece has a long and rich history during which its culture has proven especially influential in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.

Name

Main article: Names of the Greeks The historical name of Greece in Greek is Ellás . This name is also written Hellas in English, following the ancient Greek pronunciation . In modern Greek it is called more commonly Ελλάδα Elládha . The mythical ancestor of the Greeks is the eponymous Hellen. The name of Greece in European languages (English: Greece, French: Grèce, Portuguese: Grécia, Spanish and Italian: Grecia, Welsh: Groeg, German: Griechenland, Dutch: Griekenland, Russian: Греция, etc.) comes from a different root: Graikós (via Latin Graecus) which according to Aristotle was an ancient name for the Greeks. The Japanese name is ギリシャ (Girisha), lent from European languages. On the other hand, the name of Greece in some Middle Eastern and Eastern languages (Turkish: Yunanistan, Arabic: يونان, Hebrew: יוון, ancient Persian: Yaunâ, Indian Pali: Yona, Malay and Indonesian: Yunani) derives from the Greek toponym Iōnía. Norwegian, Chinese (希腊 Xila) and Vietnamese are three of the few languages apart from Greek in which the name Hellas predominates. An interesting and unique form is kept in Georgian. In ancient times, Georgians (Colchs and Iberians) called Greeks ბერძ