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Differential Diagnosis

Differential diagnosis

Differential diagnosis is the process by which a physician utiltizes the scientific method and the skills acquired in medical school, internship, and residency to take a history, examine the patient, and do the appropriate testing to determine the nature and extent of a disease process in a patient. The physician uses the plastic model of observation, hypothesis, and testing. The observations the physician uses for his hypothesis are pertinent facts about the patient such as symptoms, and personal and family history. The physician then proposes possible diseases, which serve as his hypothesis. Utilizing his knowledge of the disease, he does testing in order to differentiate the diseases. Differential diagnosis is a dynamic process used to determine the diseases suggested by the symptoms the patient is presenting, listing the most likely causes, and using appropriate testing to include or exclude some of the possible causes. The new information gained from directed testing is used to narrow the possibile afflictions, and as a guide for more testing. Once a physician is satisfied with a cause of the disease, he prescribes a therapy. A lack of improvement during prescribed therapy for the working diagnosis necessitates reassessment, especially when this therapy has been empirical (i.e. without incontrovertible proof). The method of differential diagnosis was first suggested for use in the diagnosis of mental disorders by Emil Kraepelin. It is more systematic than the old-fashioned method of diagnosis by gestalt (impression).

Example

The patient presents with symptoms A and B. The physician creates a list of diseases that include symptoms A and B. There are three diseases that feature both symptoms:
- Disease 1: A, B, C
- Disease 2: A, B, C, D
- Disease 3: A, B, E The physician can test for the presence of symptom C. This would either support 1 and 2 or support 3. If the client tested positive for C, a test for D could be used to differentiate between disease 1 and 2. If the client tested negative for C, a test for E would confirm the diagnosis of disease 3. In modern medicine, physicians typically decide to perform tests based on weighing the likelihood of a positive result against the severity of the disease if it were to remain undiagnosed. For example, if an 18 year old with no personal or family history of heart disease complains of chest pain, the physician is much less likely to be concerned that a heart attack occurred than he/she would be if the patient were 65 years old. Category:Medical terms

Physician

A physician is a person who practices medicine. See that article for more information on what physicians do in their practices; this article focuses on physician training and regulation. In the United States, the term physician is traditional and commonly used. In Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Africa, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe, the term doctor is more common as physician refers to specialists in internal medicine. Because of the extensive training requirements, physicians are traditionally considered to be members of a learned profession.

Training

:See also: medical school and medical residency.

United Kingdom

Medicine in the UK is an undergraduate subject. Students can begin training after leaving the school at 18 years of age. Medical school training lasts either five or six years, depending on the institution, and combines academic and practical training. Junior doctors then enter a vocational training phase. In the UK a doctor's training normally follows this path: #Degree level preclinical - Doctors must study medicine in university or medical school for two to three years "preclinical" (meaning little patient contact). However following recommendations by the British Medical Association (BMA) many universities are following a "Problem-based learning" approach, which stresses basing the studies around actual patient cases. #Clinical - This time is spent in a teaching hospital and typically lasts two or three years. After this is completed the student doctor is awarded a Bachelor of Medicine (BM or MB) and Bachelor of Surgery (BCh or BS). An honorary prefix of "Dr" is now entitled to be used, although it is not recognised in the academic sense of the word (see Doctorate). Doctors who graduated overseas have to pass the Professional and Linguistic Assessment Board test (PLAB) to be eligible for further postgraduate training and jobs in UK. #The Foundation Programme - Due to recent changes in the training of junior doctors, newly qualified doctors enter a two year Foundation Programme, where they train in a variety of different specialities. These must include training in General Medicine and General Surgery but can also include other fields such as Paediatrics or General Practice. Following completion of the Foundation Programme a doctor can choose to specialise in one field. All routes involve further assessment and examinations. The majority in the UK work in the community as General practitioners (GPs), who are the first port of call for patients. They diagnose illness and refer patients for further examination by specialists if necessary. The majority of patients are managed by their GP without the need for further referral. Hospital doctors are promoted after sitting relevant postgraduate exams within their chosen specialty (e.g. Member of the Royal College of Physicians MRCP, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons MRCS) and a competitive interview selection process from SHO to Specialist Registrar and eventually Consultant on completion of the CCST (Certificate of Completion of Specialist Training), which is the highest level in a specialty team (with the exception of university-linked professors). The competition is great for those who wish to attain consultant level and many now complete higher degrees in research such as a Doctorate of Medicine (MD) which is a thesis-based award based on at least two years full-time research or PhD which involves at least three years of full-time research. The time taken to get from graduation from medical school to becoming a Consultant varies from speciality to speciality but can be anything from 7 to 10 years, or longer in some specialities.

United States

In the United States and countries following the U.S. method, the path to a medical degree is somewhat different. #Admissions: Admission into medical school requires either three years of undergraduate study or a four-year post-secondary bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university, depending on medical institution. Most require that the applicant have attained a bachelor's degree prior to matriculation. Admissions criteria include overall performance in the undergraduate years and performance in a group of courses specifically required by U.S. medical schools, the score on the Medical College Admissions Test (a national standardized test), application essays, letters of recommendation (number varies, but at least 1 from science faculty and 1 from non-science faculty), and interview(s). The list of courses required are as follows: #
- biology (1 year) #
- general chemistry (1 year) #
- organic chemistry (1 year) #
- physics (1 year) #
- calculus or sometimes statistics (1 year) #
- English composition (1 year) #
- sometimes behavior science and/or biochemistry (1 semester)
Note:These subjects are studied part time, so several can be completed in one year.

#Medical School: Once admitted to medical school, it takes four years to earn a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine "Osteopathy" (D.O.) degree. The course of study is divided into two roughly equal parts. Preclinical study generally comprises the first two years and consists of classroom and laboratory instruction in core subjects such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, microbiology, pathology, and neurosciences. Once the student successfully completes preclinical training, he or she moves on to the clinical portion. This usually occupies the final two years of medical school and takes place almost exclusively on the wards of a teaching hospital or, occasionally, with community physicians. The students observe and take part in the care of actual patients under the supervision of residents and attending physicians. Rotations on clinical services such as internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics/gynecology, and psychiatry are the foundation of this curriculum, but many specialty electives may be chosen as well. Upon completion of medical school, the student earns the title of doctor, but cannot practice independently until completing further training. Also, several universities across the U.S. admit high school students to both their undergraduate colleges and the medical schools simultaneously; students attend a single six-year to eight-year integrated program consisting of two to four years of an undergraduate curriculum and four years of medical school curriculum, culminating in both a bachelor's and M.D. degree.
#Internship: During the last year of medical school, students apply for postgraduate residencies in their chosen field of specialization. These are more or less competitive depending upon the desirability of the specialty, prestige of the program, and the number of applicants relative to the number of available positions. All but a few positions are granted via a national computer match which pairs an applicant's preference with the programs' preference for applicants. The first year of any residency is known as "internship". Completion of this year is the minimum training requirement for obtaining a license to practice medicine in the U.S.
#Residency: Each of the specialties in medicine has established its own curriculum, which defines the length and content of residency training necessary to practice in that specialty. Programs range from three years after medical school for internal medicine to five years for surgery to eight or nine for neurosurgery. This does not include research years that may last from 1 year up to a completion of a Ph.D. Each specialty incorporates an internship year to satisfy the requirements of licensure. All specialties hold a board exam (either written or written and oral) at the completion of training in order to confer "Board Certification" in that specialty.
#Fellowship: Certain highly specialized fields require formal training beyond residency. Examples of these are cardiology, endocrinology, oncology after internal medicine; cardiothoracic surgery, pediatric surgery, surgical oncology after general surgery to name just a few. There are many others for each field of study. The training programs for these fields are known as fellowships and their participants are "Fellows" to denote that they already have completed a residency and are "Board Eligible" or "Board Certified" in their basic specialty. Fellowships range in length from one to three years and are granted by application to the individual program or sub-specialty organizing board.
#Attending physicians and Consultants: The physician or surgeon who has completed his or her residency and possibly fellowship training and is in the practice of their specialty is known as an Attending or Consultant. These are the physicians who may independently care for patients and are the final arbiters of care. They are responsible for all care decisions and may bill for their services. However, medicine is an extremely diverse profession with many options available. Some doctors work in pharmaceutical research, occupational medicine (within a company), public health medicine (working for the general health of a population in an area), or join the armed forces.

France

In France, a doctor's training is performed in public university hospital, called Centre hospitalier universitaire or CHU; it consists in:
- First cycle
- the first year is common with the dentists and the midwives; the rank at the final examination determines in which branch the student can go on; it is called "PCEM1" (premier cycle des études médicales, first cycle of medical studies) or "P1";
- the second year is called "PCEM2" and is dedicated to the fundamental sciences (or propédeutique, propaedeutics): anatomy, human physiology, biochemistry, bacteriology, statistics...
- Second cycle
- The first year is called "DCEM1" (deuxième cycle des études médicales, second cycle of medical studies), and is also dedicated to the study of propaedeutics
- The second, third and fourth years (DCEM2-4) are called externat, and are dedicated to the study of clinical medicine; they end with a classifying examination, the rank determines in which speciality (the general medicine is one of them) the student can make an internat: the first graduate can choose speciality, and at the rank n, the graduate must choose amongst the places left; the graduate also gets a Certificat de synthèse clinique et thérapeutique (certificate of clinical and therapeutical synthesis).
- The internat is two years and a half (general medicine) or four years (specialist) of initial professional experience under the responsibility of a senior; the interne can prescribe, replacements of liberal phsicians can be made, and usually the student works in an hospital. This ends with a doctorate, a research work which most of times consist in a statistical study of cases to propose a care strategy of a specific affection (in an epidemiological, diagnostical, or therapeutical point of view). A specialist also gets a DES (diplôme d'études spécialisées, diploma for specialised studies). The initial training thus consist in eight years and a half for a general practitioner, and ten years for a specialist (including a surgeon).

India

See Medical College (India) for details

Regulation

In most jurisdictions, physicians need government permission to practise. This is known as licensing in the United States, as colegiation in Spain, as ishi menkyo in Japan, as autorisasjon in Norway, as approbation in Germany, and as registration in Australia and the United Kingdom. In France, civilian physicians must be a member of the Order of physicians to practice medicine. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, the profession regulates itself, with the government affirming the regulating body's authority (in the UK the General Medical Council [GMC]). Regulating authorities will revoke permission to practice in cases of malpractice or serious misconduct. Graduates of Foreign Medical Schools, who enter USA have to pass USMLE step 1 and 2 [http://ecfmg.org/ ECFMG old name]and do a residency program to qualify for a state license. After graduating from medical school, American physicians usually take a standardized exam which enables them to obtain a certificate to practice from the appropriate state agency. All American states have an agency which is usually called the "Medical Board," although there are alternate names such as "Board of Medicine," "Board of Medical Examiners," "Board of Medical Licensure," "Board of Healing Arts," etc. Australian states usually have a "Medical Board," while Canadian provinces usually have a "College of Physicians and Surgeons." In the United States, as a result of the war on drugs, pharmaceuticals are strictly regulated at the federal level by the Food and Drug Administration and the Drug Enforcement Administration. All practicing American physicians who intend to prescribe controlled substances must obtain a number from the DEA, and that DEA number must appear on all their prescriptions. Use of the DEA number enables dispensing pharmacists or the DEA to ensure that a physician is not dispensing potentially addictive or harmful drugs, such as opiates or stimulants, in contravention to accepted standards of care.

External links

- [http://www.fact-sheets.com/health/doctor_tips/ Tips for Talking to Your Doctor] Category:Healthcare occupations Category:Healthcare practitioners and technical occupations
- Physician ja:医師 ko:의사

Medical school

A medical school, or faculty of medicine, is a tertiary educational institution, or part of such an institution, which is involved in the education of future medical practitioners (medical doctors). The entry criteria, structure, teaching methodology and nature of medical programs offered at medical schools vary considerably around the world.

Examples

Australia

Various models of medical education exist in Australia. Undergraduate-entry program typically last 5-6 years, and permit entry from secondary school matriculation. Graduate medical programs typically last 4-4.5 years, and require the entrant to have attained a previous bachelor degree qualification at a certain level of achievement, in addition to aptitude tests and interviews. In early years, theoretical domains of study predominate, with increasing clinical focus during the program. However, early clinical exposure—in which students commence clinical skills from very early in the course, concurrently with theoretical study—is a component of many degrees, most notably the graduate medical programs. Depending on the program undertaken, students graduate as Bachelors of Medicine and Surgery (MB BS), or simply a Bachelor of Medicine (BMed), in addition to other degrees attained during study.

United Kingdom

See main article: Medical school (United Kingdom)

United States & Canada

In the United States and Canada, a medical school is most often a four year institution with the purpose of educating doctors in the fields of allopathic (U.S./Canada) or osteopathic medicine (U.S.). Medical students begin study after receiving a bachelor's degree in another field of study. Most commonly, the bachelor's degree is in one of the biological sciences, but not always; in 2003, nearly 40% of medical school matriculants had received bachelor's degrees in fields other than biology or specialized health sciences [http://www.aamc.org/data/facts/2003/mcatgpabymaj1.htm]. All medical school applicants must, however, complete undergraduate courses in biology, chemistry and physics; some medical schools have additional requirements. Not all medical schools in Canada necessarily require a bachelor's degree for entry. For example, McGill University's medical school accepts applicants after a two-year CEGEP diploma, which is the equivalent of other provinces' 12th grade plus one year of university studies after 12th grade. Admission offers are made by individual medical schools, generally on the basis of a personal statement, undergraduate record, scores on the Medical College Admission Test [http://www.aamc.org/students/mcat/ (MCAT)], and interviews. Francophone medical schools in Quebec do not usually require the MCAT. Medical students are referred to as MS1, MS2, MS3, and MS4, according to their year of study in a standard four-year curriculum. These years are divided generally into preclinical study in the MS1 and MS2 years and clinical study in the MS3 and MS4 years. Following satisfactory completion of medical school, most graduates are awarded either a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) or a Doctor of Osteopathy (D.O.). Many medical schools also offer joint degree programs in which some medical students may simultaneously enroll in master's or doctoral-level programs in related fields. In Canada, medical schools that educate in the field of allopathic medicine are faculties or schools within universities. Like their U.S. counterparts, these medical schools offer a four year full-time program of study leading to the M.D. degree. However, in terms of program length, the medical school at McMaster University in Canada is distinct; its program runs for three consecutive years: "The program is operated on an eleven months-a-year basis and students qualify for the degree Doctor of Medicine at the end of the third academic year.".: [http://65.39.131.180/ContentPage.aspx?name=MD%20Program%20Home] For training in osteopathic medicine in Canada, there is the Canadian College of Osteopathy [http://www.osteopathiecollege.com/], not affiliated with any university. The D.O. degree program offered by the College is a five year program of part-time study and generally requires a bachelor's degree for entry. The College has campuses in Montreal (as Le Collège d'Études Ostéopathiques), Toronto, Vancouver and Halifax. At the College's website at [http://www.osteopathiecollege.com/program_overview.htm], it is mentioned that the College's program is in Traditional Osteopathy and the following explanation is given: "In contrast to the current American model of Osteopathy, which has a strong medical component, Traditional Osteopathy is essentially European in origin and primarily has a manual basis."

The Netherlands & Belgium

In the Netherlands and Belgium, medical students receive respectively 6 and 7 years of university education prior to their graduation. In the Netherlands students receive four years of the preclinical training, followed by two years of clinical training in hospitals of their own choice. After 6 years students graduate as basisarts (comparable with Doctor of Medicine), which in accordance with the Bologna process is comparable with a master's degree qualification. All medical students are permit entry from the highest level of secondary school: VWO, the entrant is not required to have a previous bachelor's degrees qualification. The Belgian medical education is much more based on theoretical knowledge, whereas in the Netherlands medical education is focused more on skill than theoretical knowledge. In Belgium the first three years of education lead up to a bachelor's degree, followed by a four-year master's program.

New Zealand

New Zealand medical programs are typically undergraduate-entry programs of six years duration. The final year (Year 6) of medical school is known as the "Trainee Intern" year where a student is known as a "Trainee Intern" (commonly, "TI"). Trainee interns receive a stipend grant from the New Zealand government. Currently this is $NZ 26,756/year (about $US 18,500). Trainee interns have responsibility under supervision for the care of about one third the patient workload of a junior doctor, however, all prescriptions and most other orders (e.g. radiology requests and charting of IV fluids) made by trainee interns must be countersigned by a registered doctor. New Zealand medical schools currently award the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBChB).

People's Republic of China

Medical education is normally a five-year Bachelor degree, plus one year internship, and work experience before the final degree is awarded. Clinical specialization usually involves a two or three-year Master degree. Acceptance is based on the national entrance examination used for all universities.

Sweden

The medical eduation in Sweden is a five and half year course after which one must practice for 18 months before a license can be granted. University starts straight after Gymnasium and one needs 100% in GPA to get in.

Hong Kong

The medical education in Hong Kong follows that of the British system. There are currently two Faculties of Medicine in Hong Kong, namely, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the University of Hong Kong. Together, these 2 universities produce 250 medical graduates a year (after a recent cut down). Medical education takes five years with an additional internship year. At the end of five years, the dual degree Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (abbreviated as MBBS at HKU and MBChB at CUHK) will be awarded. Graduates are then required to fulfill a year of internship training before registrating with the [http://www.mchk.org.hk/ Medical Council of Hong Kong]. The University of Hong Kong has adopted the new "Problem Based Learning" (PBL) curriculum in 1997. The Chinese University has started a radical reform of its curriculum in 2000 and the transition has been completed in 2005 when the last cohort of students in the old curriculum has graduated. Both Universities' curriculum emphasise early clinical contact, evidence based medicine and life-long learning ability. Students in the Chinese University of Hong Kong can embark on an optional intercalated degree in Medical Science - after two years of study. While those in the University of Hong Kong can undertake a Intercalated Master of Research degree, which also takes an additional year of study.

Germany

In Germany, admission to medical schools is organized by a central organization. The most important criterion for admission is a person's final grade on the Abitur (secondary school diploma). After 2 years of preclinical studies and 4 years of clinical studies, the students graduate as general practitioners. Writing a thesis to obtain a MD degree is optional.

India

In India, admission to medical colleges is organized both by the central government CBSE as well as the state governments entrance tests, after the students complete their 10+2 education. The undergraduate program consists of 9 semesters , followed by one-year internship (rotating housemanship). The degree granted is Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (M.B.B.S.). Further postgraduate qualifications may be obtained as Diploma or Degree (MD/MS) under the aegis of the Medical Council of India [http://www.mciindia.org/]. PG diploma may also be obtained through the National Board of Examinations [http://natboard.nic.in/]. See Medical College (India) for more details

Ireland

There are five medical schools in the Republic of Ireland. They are at University College Dublin, Trinity College Dublin, the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (also situated in Dublin), University College Cork and National University of Ireland, Galway. Training lasts five or six years, with the last two years in the teaching hospitals. Medical education is regulated by the Irish Medical Council, the statutory body which is also responsible for maintaining a register of medical practitioners. After graduation with the degrees of MB BCh BAO (Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery, Bachelor of the Arts of Obstetrics), a doctor is required to spend one year as an intern under supervision before full registration is permitted.

Iceland

In Iceland, admission to medical school is awarded by passing a pre-organized test, controlled by the University of Iceland, which anyone who has a gymnasium degree can part take in. Only 48 people are granted entry each year and is the order of the people determined by who got the 48 highest scores on the test. Medical school in Iceland takes 6 years to complete and they must also complete 1 year of residency. Students are granted with an MD degree at graduation.

Medical students

A person accepted into a medical school and undertaking an educational program in medicine towards becoming a medical doctor is referred to as a medical student. Medical students are generally considered to be at the earliest stage of the medical career pathway. Medical students typically undertake both theoretical studies and practical experience during their course, with the earlier years devoted more to the former, and the later years more focused on the latter.

External links

- [http://www.academicmedicine.org/ Academic Medicine] Journal devoted to the field of medical education.
- [http://www.amsa.org/ American Medical Student Association]
- [http://www.aamc.org/ Association of American Medical Colleges]
- [http://uwpeds.seattlechildrens.org/ Pediatric Residency Training] at the University of Washington School of Medicine Category:Medical education Category:School types ja:医学部

Residency

::See also: residency (medicine) or medical residency Residency is the act of establishing or maintaining a residence in a given place. It is important in terms of politics, as candidates must maintain residency within the district in which they intend to run. Requirements vary by jurisdiction, and sometimes by the political office for which a person runs. The cutoff may be as little as a month or as much as several years. Once elected, the office-holder must remain resident in the appropriate district, or usually be forced to resign. Voting by the general public (the electorate) is also defined by residency, with most people being prohibited from doing so except at the precinct for their primary residence. There are sometimes exceptions for this, such as so that expatriates can vote in the country where they maintain their original citizenship. It is also important in terms of other law, such as requirements that vehicles and other things which must be licensed in the place which the owner resides. There is a grace period normally around 30 days for persons moving into the area. In addition to such responsibilities, certain benefits also come from residency. Discounts on tuition usually are allowed for students who are resident within the state or province (or country) for a year or more, if it is a public university or the like. Other forms of public assistance such as welfare may also have a waiting period, to prevent abuse. Residency in any given U.S. state is recognized by the U.S. Constitution as "citizenship" of that state, a somewhat unusual arrangement known as "dual citizenship" (though not in the original multi-national context). In Malta, residency has been interpreted to include not only the physical presence in the country, but includes and allows periodic absence from the country. A person who is temporarily absent from Malta because of work, study, illness or mission, must not and cannot be considered as not resident in Malta. A person who goes abroad to study or for work purposes is still 'directly and continuously concerned' with the political activity of the country of residence and therefore has the right to vote.

Patient

A patient is any person who receives medical attention, care, or treatment [http://www.answers.com/patient&r=67]. A patient is often ill or injured and is being treated by, or in need of treatment by, a physician or other medical professional. Health consumer or health care consumer is another name for patient, usually used by some governmental agencies, insurance companies, and/or patient groups. The word patient is derived from the Latin pati meaning "to suffer".

Hypothesis

A hypothesis (foundation from ancient Greek hupothesis where hupo = under and thesis = placing) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. A scientific hypothesis must be testable and based on previous observations or extensions of scientific theories.

Usage

In early usage, a hypothesis was usually a clever idea or convenient mathematical approach that simplified cumbersome calculations; it did not necessarily have any real meaning. A famous example of the older sense is the warning which Cardinal Bellarmine issued to Galileo, that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis. In common usage at present, a hypothesis is a provisional idea whose merit is to be evaluated. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In the hypothetico-deductive method, a hypothesis should be falsifiable, meaning that it is possible that it be shown false, usually by observation. Note that, if confirmed, the hypothesis is not necessarily proven, but remains provisional. The term hypothesis was misused in the Riemann hypothesis, which should be properly called a conjecture. As an example, someone who enters a new country and observes only white sheep, might form the hypothesis that all sheep in that country are white. It can be considered a hypothesis, as it is falsifiable. It can be falsified by observing a single black sheep. Provided that the experimental uncertainties are small (for example that it is a sheep, instead of a goat) and that the experimenter has correctly interpreted the statement of the hypothesis (for example, does the meaning of "sheep" include rams?), the hypothesis is falsified.

Types of hypotheses

Propositions

Propositions follow a causal order ("A causes B")

Empirical generalizations

Empirical generalizations are based on observed regularities, but they don't stipulate what is the cause and effect themselves, only stating that 'A is related to B'.

Quotes

- "Hypotheses non fingo" : "I feign no hypotheses" -- Isaac Newton
- "... a hypothesis is a statement whose truth is temporarily assumed, whose meaning is beyond all doubt. ..." -- Albert Einstein

Notes

Isaac Newton, Principia Mathematica. A New Translation by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, translators. University of California Press 1999 ISBN 0-520-08817-4 Letter to Eduard Study from Albert Einstein, September 25,1918 Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, J.J. Stachel and Robert Schulmann, eds. Princeton University Press 1987

External links

- [http://www.nuevoweb.com/tutorial/glossary.html Research and Evaluation Glossary] Category:Scientific method th:สมมุติฐาน

Therapy

:"Therapy?" is also the name of a musical band. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a diagnosis. Some therapeutic methodologies from Western medicine, Eastern medicine (especially traditional Chinese medicine), and alternative health care include:
- acupuncture
- agoratherapy
- aromatherapy
- art therapy
- colour therapy
- crystal healing
- drug therapy
- diversional therapy
- hyperbaric oxygen therapy
- immunosuppressive therapy
- light therapy
- magnet therapy
- massage therapy
- mesotherapy
- morita
- moxibustion
- music therapy
- naikan
- occupational therapy
- phage therapy
- physical therapy / physiotherapy
- play therapy / physiotherapy
- postural integration
- psychotherapy (for example, cognitive therapy, Gestalt therapy, group therapy)
- radiation therapy
- recreational therapy
- sand tray therapy
- sex therapy
- shock therapy (for example, electroconvulsive therapy)
- Spanking therapy
- speech therapy
- surgery
- tui na See also palliative care. Category:Therapy

Incontrovertible evidence

Incontrovertible evidence is a colloquial term for evidence introduced to prove a fact, which is supposed to be so conclusive, that by no stretch of the imagination can there be any other truth as to that matter. Evidence so strong it overpowers contrary evidence. It is evidence so strong in directs a fact-finder to a certain conclusion. Examples: a fingerprint which shows someone had been present in a room, or a DNA test which scientifically proves that a person is not the parent of a child. Incontrovertible evidence

Gestalt

Gestalt is a German word meaning shape or form. The word also bears connotations to creativity (Gestaltung). In English gestalt refers to the concept where an entity's properties cannot be discovered from the total properties of its parts. The more general English equivalents are synergy, holism, emergence, and variations on the phrase "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts".
- In psychology, Gestalt can refer to:
- Gestalt psychology (Gestalt theory), and Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy
- Gestalt therapy
- The Gestalt effect
- Gestalt was also the name of an environment-query function in Mac OS.
- Gestalt is also a term used in Dungeons and Dragons to represent a warrior/arcane mage multiclass combination or character concept, although the term can be more generally used to describe when the features of two or more classes are combined to create a 'mixed' class at first level (also known as taking apprentice levels). In Dungeons and Dragons v3.5, gestalt is a variant rule from the sourcebook Unearthed Arcana which allows a character to simultaneously take two classes at once, gaining the abilities and strengths of both.
- Fans of the Transformers (and to some degree Hasbro) use the term gestalt to refer to teams of robots which can combine together to form one large robot which is "stronger than the sum of its parts".
- Author Theodore Sturgeon (February 26, 1918 - May 8, 1985) referred to the term gestalt in his book More Than Human (Farrar & Straus, 1953. International Fantasy Award) to describe a series of characters that together created "a greater being", also implying that this was the next stage in human evolution. Nonetheless the different people that formed the gestalt could be changed for another person with similar characteristics (for example, a person that performed as a "head" could be exchanged for another person as long as he was able to be a "head" and was accepted in the gestalt). Category:German loanwords

Zamboanga Sibugay

Zamboanga Sibugay er en filippinsk provins i regionen Zamboangahalvøya i landsdelen Mindanao. Provinssetet er i Pagadian City. Provinsen Zamboanga Sibugay deler provinsen Zamboanga del Sur i en vestlig og en østlig del. I nord ligger Zamboanga del Norte.

Politisk inndeling

Zamboanga Sibugay er delt i 16 "municipalities" (landkommuner).

Landkommuner (municipalities)

- Alicia
- Buug
- Diplahan
- Imelda
- Ipil
- Kabasalan
- Mabuhay
- Malangas

- Naga
- Olutanga
- Payao
- Roseller Lim
- Siay
- Talusan
- Titay
- Tungawan

ja:サンボアンガ・シブガイ州 Kategori:Filippinene

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Robbie Ahmat
Robert "Robbie" AhMat (born July 19, 1977), is a former Australian rules footballer. Recruited from Darwin, AhMat had silky skills as a small forward. He debuted in 1995 and it was a surprise when he was cut from Collingwood at the end of 1997. Sydney recruited him and he played on until 2001, where inconsistency was the end of him. In 1997 he was involved in an alleged racial vilification row w

Northeast Mississippi Community College
Northeast Mississippi Community College is a community college located in Booneville, Mississippi in the United States. The college was founded in 1948 as Northeast Mississippi Junior College, which changed again to its current form in 1994. It has extension centers located in

1920 in Mexico

Arts and entertainment

- Hasta después de la muerte
- El Zarco or Los Plateados

Births

- June 16 – José López Portillo, president of Mexico (1970–1976).
- July 29 – community college located in Booneville, Mississippi in the United States. The college was founded in 1948 as Northeast Mississippi Junior College, which changed again to its current form in 1994. It has extension centers located in

Spiny mice

Fossil Range: Early Pliocene - Recent
Acomys cahirinus
Acomys cilicicus
Acomys cineraseus
Acomys ignitus
Acomys kempi
Acomys louisae

Brush-furred mice

Lophuromys luteogaster
Lophuromys medicaudatus
Lophuromys woosnami
Lophuromys angolensis
Lophuromys aquilus
Lophuromys brevicaudus
plugin API developed by Apple Computer to add functionality to audio creation and recording software. The API is openly documented and its use encouraged by Apple, but the API must be implemented by developers for users to take advantage of its features. It is used primarily by Apple's flagship audio editing program, Logic Pro, its entry-level version Lo

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Category:Neighbourhoods of Shanghai
Shanghai is divided into 19 county-level divisions: 18 districts and 1 county. For these see :category:districts of Shanghai. Below this level the city is divided into more than 200 township-level divisions

Rachel Fuller
Rachel Fuller is a British musician. She has been composing music since the age of 10, and is a classically trained pianist. Rachel's orchestral works have been recorded by the London Chamber Orchestra and she has also orchestrated music for Pete Townshend's 'Lifehouse Chronicles' recording and concerts at London's Sadler's Wells Theatre. She also collaborated with Delerium, performing her own track 'Touched' on their 2003 Nettwerk release 'Chimera.' Signed to