:: wikimiki.org ::

Disability Rights Movement

Disability rights movement

The disability rights movement aims to improve the quality of life of people with disabilities. Accessibility and safety are primary issues that this movement works to reform. Access to public areas such as city streets and public buildings and restrooms are some of the more visible changes brought about in recent decades. A noticeable change in some parts of the world is the installation of elevators, transit lifts, wheelchair ramps and curb cuts, allowing people in wheelchairs and with other mobility impairments to use public sidewalks and public transit more easily and more safely. These improvements have also been appreciated by parents pushing strollers or trolleys, bicycle users, and travelers with rolling luggage. Access to education and employment have also been a major focus of this movement. Adaptive technologies, enabling people to work jobs they could not have previously, help create access to jobs and economic independence. Access in the classroom has helped improve education opportunities and independence for people with disabilities. The right to have an independent life as an adult, sometimes using paid assistant care instead of being institutionalized, is a major goal of this movement, and is the main goal of the similar Independent Living movement. These movements have allowed more people with disabilities to be active participants in mainstream society.

History

The disability rights movement began in the 1970s, encouraged by the examples of the African-American civil rights and women’s rights movements, which began in the late 1960s.

The Anti-Euthanasia Movement

Some disability rights advocates have also become active in the anti-euthanasia movement for various reasons. Some disagree with some euthanasia advocates who defend euthanasia on the utilitarian ground that it conserves public resources which would otherwise be used to care for disabled people. Others are concerned about society's double standard with respect to suicide: non-disabled people who are suicidal are strongly discouraged from taking their own lives, while disabled suicidal people are encouraged or even helped to do so. They point out that non-disabled or newly disabled people are apt to underestimate the quality of life that is possible for people with disabilities. Not Dead Yet is a disability rights organization that is well-known for orchestrating protests at public appearances of euthanasia advocates.

Sex

The question of whether severely mentally disabled persons should be allowed to have sex is a controversial one. In Germany, this topic is brought to the fore by Nina de Vries who offers paid sexual services to these persons.

Personalities

John Tyler, born in the twentieth century, was an advocate for the rights of the disabled. He parked his wheelchair in front of Metro buses in Seattle, WA in the late 1970s and performed other actions to make sure that the proper wheelchair lifts, not the "folding camel" lifts, would be put onto the public transit buses. The original lifts, which could potentially dump people in wheelchairs and which also broke down more easily, were put onto the buses. Being that he had severe polio, he was quite fortunate in being able to do so. He was in all probability named after President Tyler. That may have given him some of his own strength and ability to confront such serious issues as "disabled" lifts put onto the buses and his own fading battle with polio. He died from suicide on December 24th of 1984, after having lead a lonely life -- but a good one. And he is remembered to this day at Center Park in Seattle, Washington, the very first apartment building ever built in the United States, specifically for people in wheelchairs.

External links

- [http://www.notdeadyet.org Not Dead Yet]
- [http://www.utilitarian.net/singer/about/20030216.htm Unspeakable Conversations] An article written by a disabled disability lawyer about her debates with controversial philosopher Peter Singer Category:Rights of the disabled Category:Social movements Category:Political movements Category:Cultural movements

Quality of life

The well-being or quality of life of a population is an important concern in economics and political science. There are many components to well-being. A large part is standard of living, the amount of money and access to goods and services that a person has; these numbers are fairly easily measured. Others like freedom, happiness, art, environmental health, and innovation are far harder to measure. This has created an inevitable imbalance as programs and policies are created to fit the easily available economic numbers while ignoring the other measures, that are very difficult to plan for or assess. Debate over what best maximizes quality of life is millennia old, with Aristotle giving it much thought and eventually settling on the notion of eudaimonia (happiness) as central. Understanding quality of life is today particularly important in health care, where monetary measures do not readily apply. Decisions on what research or treatments to invest the most in are closely related to their effect of a patient's quality of life. Quality of Life also refers to the first White House regulatory review program started in the Nixon Adminstration. See quality of life in (5)"See Also" below.

Measuring quality of life

The measures often used in the study of health care are 'quality-adjusted life years' (QALYs) and the related 'disability-adjusted life years' (DALYs); both equal 1 for each year of full-health life, and less than 1 for various degrees of illness or disability. Thus the cost-effectiveness of a treatment can be assessed by the cost per QALY or DALY it produces; for example, a cancer treatment which costs $10,000 and on average gives the patient 2 extra years of full health costs $5000 per QALY. Assessing treatments in this way avoids the much greater problems associated with putting a monetary value on life, as required in other areas of economics; saying that a treatment costs $5000 per QALY (i.e. per year of life) does not say or assume anything about the monetary value of a year of life. Another method of measuring quality of life is by subtracting the "standard of living", according to the technical definition of the term. For example, people in rural areas and small towns are generally reluctant to move to cities, even if it would mean a substantial increase in their standard of living. One can thus see that the quality of life of living in a rural area is of enough value to offset a higher standard of living. Similarly people must be paid more to accept jobs that will lower their quality of life, night jobs, ones with extensive travel all pay more and the difference in salaries can also give a measure of the value of quality of life. A number of groups and agencies around the world have tried to develop ways of assessing quality of life:
- The Economist: [http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf Quality-of-life index]
- Vanderford-Riley well being schedule
- Physical quality-of-life index
- UN Human Development Index
- Genuine Progress Indicator
- Gross National Happiness

Application in politics

New Zealand

The Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand uses Quality of life as a slogan.

North America

The term has often been used, since the 1980s, in connection with the presence or absence of so-called victimless crimes, its users in this sense citing the incidence of these to gauge the inherent level of disorder in a society at a particular time. Users of the term in this application — who tend to be political and/or social conservatives — often refer to victimless crimes by the alternate name of "quality-of-life crimes." In conjunction with this, American sociologist James Q. Wilson has articulated what he calls the Broken Window Theory, which asserts that relatively minor problems left unattended (such as public urination by homeless individuals) send a subliminal message that disorder in general is being tolerated, and as a result, more serious crimes as well end up being committed (the analogy being that a broken window left unrepaired exudes an image of generalized dilapidation). Wilson's theories have been expounded by many prominent American mayors, most notably Rudolph Giuliani in New York City and Gavin Newsom in San Francisco. Their cities have instituted so-called zero tolerance policies, i.e. that do not tolerate even minor crimes. One attempt to take quality of life more into account in government decisions is the notion of a seventh generation standard, which argues that the effect of any decision today should be judged by its effect in six generations. These measures are often associated in the United States with the proposed Seventh Generation Amendment proposal to the U.S. Constitution, and in Canada with the Canada Well-Being Measurement Act co-authored by Mike Nickerson of the Green Party of Ontario and Joe Jordan, a Liberal Party of Canada Member of Parliament. This strategy still would be very difficult to implement as predicting the future is never easy. Decision makers seven generations ago in the early mid-nineteenth century would have great difficulty comprehending today's realities. Several First Nations in both Canada and U.S. seem to have independently originated this standard, prior to European contact, which seems to represent the age ratio between the longest-lived elders and newborns expressed in terms of generations, i.e. humans live at most 100-115 years, and reproduce in most tribal cultures at about 15-17 years old, a ratio of about seven to one. So, according to the standard, any child born as a decision was being made would be able to assess its impact over their entire life as an elder. Although laws to require standards for measuring well-being have not yet been adopted, they are growing in popularity in the labor movement, forced attention to these matters to the NAFTA level and have begun to challenge assumptions of economics regarding inflation and money supply. Early negotiations on NAFTA adopting the U.S. dollar (i.e. in both Canada and Mexico) have been drastically complicated by proposals to agree, as a prerequisite, on measuring well-being, which is still a very new subject. In part to stall or block currency union, the Canadian Labour Congress, Green Party of the United States, Green Party of Ontario and Green Party of Canada have all backed well-being measures very strongly. However, there is broad agreement among green economists that a common standard for measuring well-being, and possibly also Bioregional Democracy measures, would be required in order to ensure biosecurity after a currency union.

External links

- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/well-being/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Well-being]
- [http://gsociology.icaap.org/report/cqual.html Brief review of world quality of life] From the Global Social Change Research Project Category:Socioeconomics Category:Environment ja:クオリティ・オブ・ライフ

Disability

The term "disability", as it is applied to humans, refers to any condition that impedes the completion of daily tasks using traditional methods. National governments and global humanitarian agencies have narrowed this definition for their own purposes.

Demographics of disability

Many books on disability and disability rights point out that the disabled community is one of very few groups of people that one doesn't have to be born into, as disability can develop later in life as well. Some disability rights activists use an acronym, TAB, humorously to point this out: TAB stands for "temporarily able-bodied" as a reminder that many become disabled as they join the ranks of the elderly. In most areas of the world, but especially in developed countries, the number of people with disabilities is growing and becoming a more significant percentage of the population because medicine is allowing more people to live who might have otherwise died in less advanced times.

Types of disability

"Disability" can be broken down into a number of broad sub-categories, which can include the following:
- Physical impairments affecting movement, such as muscular dystrophy, post-polio syndrome, spina bifida and cerebral palsy.
- Sensory impairments, such as visual or hearing impairments.
- Neurological impairments, such as epilepsy or dysautonomia.
- Cognitive impairments such as Autism or Down Syndrome.
- Psychiatric conditions such as depression and Schizophrenia. Some disabilities are not obvious to outside observers; these are termed invisible disabilities. A person may be impaired either by a correctable condition such as myopia, or by an unchangeable one such as cerebral palsy. For those with mild conditions, related impairments can improve or disappear with the application of corrective devices. More serious impairments call for adaptive equipment. A list of disabilities can never be complete or finalized because individuals, organizations, and governments define disabilities differently.

The evolution of a movement

Historically, disabilities have often been cast in a negative light. An individual thus affected was seen as being a “patient” subject either to cure or to ongoing medical care. His condition is seen as disabling; the social reactions to it are justified, and the barriers unavoidable. This position is known as the medical model of disability. Over the past 20 years, a competing view known as the social model of disability has come to the fore. In this model, disability is seen more as a social construction than a medical reality. Disabled activists, such as Tom Shakespeare (2002), argue that although their impairments may cause them pain or discomfort, what really dis-ables people as members of society is a socio-cultural system which does not recognise their right to genuine equality. Both the medical and social models agree, to a point, that facilities and opportunities should be made as accessible as possible to individuals who require adaptations. Dismantling physical barriers, or setting up adaptations such as wheelchair ramps, is known as "fostering accessibility". A human rights based approach has been adopted by many organizations of and for people with disabilities. In 2000, for example, the United Nations Assembly decided to start working on a comprehensive convention for the rights of people with disabilities. Since 2002 the "UN Ad-Hoc meeting" gathers every six months to discuss the content of this UN convention. These meetings are open for Non-Government-Organisations and Disabled Peoples' Organisations. An approach that has led to tangible improvements in the lives of people with disabilities in many countries has been the Independent Living Movement. The term "Independent Living" was taken from 1959 California legislation that enabled people disabled by polio to leave hospital wards and move back into the community with the help of cash benefits for the purchase of personal assistance with the activities of daily living. With its origins in the US civil rights and consumer movements of the late 1960s, the movement and its philosophy have since spread to other continents influencing disabled people's self-perception, their ways of organizing themselves and their countries' social policy. The disability rights movement began in the 1970s and is largely responsible for the shift toward independent living and accessibility.

The language and terminology of disability

Many people use the term disability to replace the designation handicapped. While these two designations are often used interchangeably, proponents of the social model of disability use the latter term to describe the social and economic consequences of the former; i.e., an individual with a physical or intellectual disability is said to be "handicapped" by the bias of society towards ability (e.g., a building without an elevator handicaps a person who uses a wheelchair). Similarly, in the United Kingdom, people within the disability rights movement commonly use the term "disabled" to denote someone who is "disabled by society's inability to accommodate all of its inhabitants." The Person First Movement has added another layer to this discourse by asking that people with disabilities be identified first as individuals. For example, within this movement the term “woman who is blind” is preferred over "blind woman." Some people with disabilities support the Person First Movement, while others do not. People who are Deaf in particular may see themselves as members of a specific community, properly called the Deaf culture, and so will reject efforts designed to distance them from the central fact of their identity. This is a view that is becoming increasingly prevalent within other disabled communities, that are becoming self-aware and self defining by seeing their impairments as a central part of their upbringing, education, personality & Lifestyle. The American Psychological Association style guide devotes a large section to the discussion of individuals with disabilities, and states that in professional writing following this style, the person should come first, and nominal forms describing the disability should be used so that the disability is being described, but is not modifying the person. For instance, "people with autism," "man with schizophrenia," "girl with paraplegia." Similarly, a person's adaptive equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a person, not as something that limits a person. "A woman who uses a wheelchair" -- she is not "in" it or "confined" to it, and she leaves it at the very least for sleeping and bathing. "A communication aid user." "A girl who uses a ventilator." "A man who takes antipsychotic medications to optimize his daily functioning." Many people with disabilities especially dislike "disabled person" or "the disabled," as this implies that one's overall "personness" is defective, while "person with a disability" acknowledges the disability without implying anything about the overall person. However, according to the "social model", as it is society that disables a person, the reality of being a "person with a disability" is not really possible because it is impossible for an individual to "have" a society, therefore the term "disabled person" does not signify the lack of one's own "person-ness" but points an accusing finger at society for excluding those with impairments. See also List of disability-related terms with negative connotations

Well-known people with disabilities

Many people with disabilities have contributed to society. These include:
- American president Franklin Roosevelt (impaired movement as the result of polio),
- classical composer Ludwig von Beethoven (deaf in later years),
- King Richard III of England (childhood sickness allowed bones to malform, resulting in severe curvature of the back and extremely uneven legs)
- musician Stevie Wonder (blind)
- jazz pianist Marcus Roberts (blind)
- musician Ray Charles (blind)
- Def Leppard drummer Rick Allen (lost left arm in a car accident),
- comedian, actor, author, and monologist Greg Walloch (cerebral palsy),
- civil rights activist Helen Keller (deaf and blind),
- Cole Porter, musical theater composer (lost legs after riding accident)
- Classical actress Sarah Bernhardt (lost leg after a nasty fall)
- Stephen Hawking (who has Motor Neurone Disease and uses a wheelchair and speech synthesizer),
- Deng Pufang - has paraplegia
- British rock and roll singer/songwriter Ian Dury
- Nicaraguan guitar player, singer and songwriter Tony Melendez (born without arms)
- Major league pitcher Jim Abbott (born without a right hand)
- Actress Marlee Matlin (deaf)
- Joseph Merrick ("the Elephant Man", severe neurofibromatosis)
- Christopher Reeve, actor famous for portraying Superman who became a quadriplegic after a horse-riding accident,
- for others see list of people with disabilities.

References

- Tom Shakespeare, Genetic Politics: from Eugenics to Genome, with Anne Kerr (New Clarion Press, 2002).

External links

- [http://www.aapd.com/ American Association of People With Disabilities]
- [http://www.wapd.org/ World Association of Persons with Disabilities]
- [http://www.disabilityhistory.org/ The Disability Social History Project]
- [http://www.independentliving.org/ Independent Living Institute]
- [http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/rights/adhoccom.htm UN Enable]
- [http://www.nad.org/ National Association of the Deaf (United States)]
- [http://www.icdri.org/ The International Center for Disability Resources on the Internet]
- [http://www.disabledcommunity.org/ DisabledCommunity.Org (United States)]
- [http://www.disabilitysecrets.com/questions.html Social Security Disability FAQ (United States)]
- [http://www.disabled-world.com/ Disabled World Disability news and articles]
- [http://www.officecentralcardiff.co.uk/index.php?action=disability_act OfficeCentral: Disability In The Workplace]
- [http://www.dlf.org.uk/ Disabled Living Foundation (UK)]
- [http://www.asksource.info/res_library/disability.htm Source - International Information Support Centre]
- [http://www.iddc.org.uk International Disability and Development Consortium]
- [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/Friends_of_Precious_People/ Friends of Precious People - Friendship and support forum for people with various disabilities, illnesses or conditions and their relatives and friends.] Category:Disability ja:障害者 th:คนพิการ

Safety

Safety is the condition of being protected against failure, damage, error, accidents, or harm. Protection involves here both causing and exposure. It can include physical protection or that of posessions. Safety is often in relation to some guarantee of a standard of insurance to the quality and unharmful function of a thing or organization. It is used to ensure that the thing or organization will do only what it is wanted to do. Safety is the state of being safe.

Elevator

:This article is about the transport device. For other meanings of the word, see elevator (disambiguation). elevator (disambiguation) An elevator is a transport device used to move goods or people vertically. In British English and other Commonwealth Englishes, elevators are known more commonly as lifts, although the word elevator is familiar from American movies and television shows, just as some Americans are aware of lift from imported entertainment. Other languages may have loanwords based on either elevator (e.g. Japanese) or lift (e.g. Cantonese). Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a requirement in new buildings with multiple floors.

History

Elevators began as simple rope or chain hoists. An elevator is essentially a platform that is either pulled or pushed up by a mechanical means. A modern day elevator consists of a cab (also called a "cage" or "car") mounted on a platform within an enclosed space called a shaft or more correctly a "hoistway". In the past elevator drive mechanisms were powered by steam and water hydraulic pistons. In a "traction" elevator, cars are pulled up by means of rolling steel ropes over a deeply grooved pulley, commonly called a sheave in the industry. The weight of the car is balanced with a counterweight. The friction between the ropes and the pulley furnishes the traction which gives this type of elevator its name. Hydraulic elevators use the principal of hydraulics to pressurize an above ground or in-ground piston to raise and lower the car. Roped Hydraulics use a combination of both ropes and hydraulic power to raise and lower cars. Recent innovations include permanent earth magnet motors, machine room-less rail mounted gearless machines, and microprocessor controls. Which technology is used in new installations depends on a variety of factors. Hydraulic elevators are cheaper, but installing cylinders greater than a certain length becomes impractical for very high lift hoistways. For buildings of much over seven stories, traction elevators must be employed instead. Hydraulic elevators are usually slower than traction elevators. In 1823, an "ascending room" made its debut in London[http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/extreme_machines/1280851.html]. hydraulics.]] In 1853, Elisha Otis introduced the safety elevator, which prevented the fall of the cab if the cable broke. The design of the OTIS safety is somewhat similar to one type still used today. It consists of knurled roller(s) that lock the elevator to its guides should the elevator descend at an excessive speed, which is monitored by a governor device. On March 23, 1857 the first Otis elevator was installed at 488 Broadway in New York City. The first elevator shaft preceded the first elevator by four years. Construction for Peter Cooper's Cooper Union building in New York began in 1853. An elevator shaft was included in the design for Cooper Union, because Cooper was utterly confident a safe passenger elevator would soon be invented; the shaft however was circular because Cooper felt it was the most efficient design. Later Otis designed a special elevator for the school. Today the Otis Elevator Company, now a subsidiary of United Technologies Corporation, is the world's largest manufacturer of vertical transport systems, followed by Schindler, Thyssen-Krupp and Kone, in order. The first electric elevator was built by Werner von Siemens in 1880. The safety and speed of electric elevators were significantly enhanced by Frank Sprague. The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of large amounts of raw materials including coal and lumber from hillsides. The technology developed by these industries and the introduction of steel beam construction worked together to provide the need for the passenger and freight elevators we use today.

Modern elevator construction

Today, elevators are built under strict supervision of the Building Codes. Model Codes which are the standard in most US and Canadian jurisdictions require compliance with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers' standards for the installation, maintenance, and inspection of elevators. In addition other related standards are likely required to be complied with as specified by Local Authorities Having Jurisdiction. Elevators are generally sold in prepackaged components which are inherently non-proprietary. All of the four major manufacturers sell proprietary microprocessor controls. Each manufacturer provides similar product designs, and the overriding issue for purchase is usually price and availability. In the case of renovations, the use of non-proprietary controls has become a large part of that business because it allows the owner to offer the maintenance contract to multiple bidders rather than accept a single manufacturer for the life of the elevator which can be more than 30 years. In some large campus type properties, the use of non-proprietary equipment in new construction has replaced the standard prepackaged product. Non-proprietary systems generally have a higher up front cost, but may be offset by allowing the owner to control the long term costs over the life of the elevator. In some locations, the shaft and parts of the cab are made of transparent material for specialized "Scenic elevators." This allows riders to see outside the cab as they travel on the elevator. Some locations take advantage of this transparent material by placing the elevators along the walls of their building. This allows riders to see the outdoor environment as the cab runs along the side of the buildings. Today, all new elevators are computer-controlled and microprocessor based. This allows the elevator system to place cabs where they are most needed in the interest of smooth running, with behavior based on analysis of building use called "Traffic Studies." Traffic Studies are done by professional elevator consultants who use specialized tools to determine the optimum size, speed and number of elevators for a building based on its peak use periods. Computer control also permits greater control of access to various floors of a building after hours and on weekends. Methods of access control include card readers, keys, and access codes entered into the control panel of the elevator. Elevators are usually installed in a building during construction. Renovations may consist of replacements for hoistway (floor landing) doors, car doors, interior cab finishes, controls, hoist machines, hydraulic pistons and hall fixtures. At times renovations may also include replacement of the entire cab itself. In many instances the upgrading of components may require additional code compliance, these issues should be reviewed with an elevator consultant prior to the purchasing of new materials.

Elevator safety

Elevators are inherently safe. Their safety record, that of moving millions of passengers every day, without incident, is unsurpassed by any other vehicle system. Recently, however, hydraulic elevators built prior to a code change in 1972 have been found to be subject to possible catastrophic failure. The code had previously required only single-bottom hydraulic cylinders; in the event of a breach of the cylinder, an uncontrolled fall of the elevator might result. This concern is reflected in the ASME A17.1 Maintenance of Hydraulic elevators section of the 2000 edition to require verification of system integrity in underground hydraulic elevator cylinders. Because it is impossible to verify the system completely without a pressurized casing (as described below), it is necessary to actually remove the piston to inspect it. The cost of removing the piston is such that it makes no economical sense to re-install the old cylinder, and therefore it is logically necessary to install a new elevator. In addition to the safety concerns for older hydraulic elevators, there is risk of leaking hydraulic oil into the aquifer and causing potential environmental contamination. This has led to the introduction of PVC liners (casings) around hydraulic cylinders which can be monitored for integrity. Recent innovations called machine room-less elevators may soon make the use of hydraulic elevators obsolete. Elevators are regulated by the Consumer Product Safety Commission and are subject to the provisions of that regulation body. In 2004 the CPSC published a consumer alert about the safe use of escalators.

Uses of elevators

Passenger service

A passenger elevator is designed to carry people and small packages.

Passenger elevator capacity

Passenger elevators capacity is related to the available floor space. Generally passenger elevators are available in typical capacities from 1,500 to 5,000 lb (680 to 2,300 kg) in 500 lb (230 kg) increments. Generally passenger elevators in buildings four stories or less are hydraulic. In buildings up to ten stories, electric elevators are likely to have speeds up to 300 ft/min (1.5 m/s), and above ten stories speeds begin at 500 ft/min (2.5 m/s) up to about 1200 ft/min (6 m/s).

Types of passenger elevators

Passenger elevators may be specialized for the service they perform, including: Hospital emergency (Code blue), front and rear entrances, double decker, and other uses. Cars may be ornate in their interior appearance, may have audio visual advertising, and may be provided with specialized recorded voice instructions. The concern for entrapping passengers requires all elevators to have communication connection to an outside 24 hour emergency service, automatic recall capability in a fire emergency, and special access for fire department use in a fire. Elevators are not an acceptable means of escape during a fire and should not be used by the public for this purpose. Signs are required in almost all US jurisdictions to "USE STAIRS IN CASE OF FIRE." Residential elevators may be small enough for one person while some are large enough for more than a dozen. Wheelchair, or platform lifts, a specialized type of elevator designed to move a wheelchair 6 ft (2 m) or less, often can accommodate just one person in a wheelchair at a time with a maximum load of 750 lb (340 kg).

Freight elevators

A freight elevator is an elevator designed to carry goods, rather than passengers. (Passengers often accompany the freight, however.) Freight elevators are exempt from some of the ASME A17.1 code requirements, as defined by the words "not for public use." Freight Elevators or Service elevators may be exempt from some of the requirements for fire service. However, new installations would likely be required to comply with these requirements. Freight elevators are generally required to display a written notice in the car that the use by passengers is prohibited, though certain freight elevators allow dual use through the use of an inconspicuous riser. Freight elevators are typically larger and capable of carrying heavier loads than a passenger elevator, generally from 5,000 to 10,000 lb (2,300 to 4,500 kg). Freight Elevators may have manually operated doors, and often have rugged interior finishes to prevent damage while loading and unloading. Although hydraulic freight elevators exist, electric elevators are more energy efficient for the work of freight lifting. A small freight elevator is often called a dumb waiter (see next section), often used for moving of small items such as dishes in a 2-story kitchen or books in a multi-story rack assembly. Passengers are never permitted on dumbwaiters. Dumbwaiters and other material lifts are required to conform to the related sections of the ASME A17.1 code in most U.S. and Canadian Jurisdictions. A specialized type of freight elevator is an Automobile Lift, used to move automobiles around a parking garage or other facility. These are material lifts by definition and are exempt from the ASME A17.1 requirements, but may have to comply with the requirements of ALI ALCTV if provided for in the local jurisdiction. Stage and Orchestra lifts are specialized lifts for use in the performing arts, and are exempt from the ASME A17.1 requirements. Local Jurisdictions may govern their use, installation and testing, however they are often left out of local code enforcement provisions due to their infrequent installation.

Dumb waiter

A small box elevator designed for the carriage of lightweight freight is called a dumb waiter (or dumbwaiter). Dumbwaiters are required to comply with ASME A17.1 in most US and Canadian Jurisdictions. Dumbwaiters are generally driven by a small electric motor with a counterweight and their capacity is limited to about 750 lb (340 kg). They may also be hand operated using a roped pulley. Dumbwaiters are used extensively in the restaurant business (hence the name) and may also be used as book lifts in libraries, or to transport mail or similar items in an office tower.

Material handling belts

A different kind of elevator is used to transport material. It generally consists of an inclined plane on which a conveyor belt runs. The conveyor often includes partitions to prevent the material from sliding backwards. These elevators are often used in industrial and agricultural applications. When such mechanisms (or spiral screws or pneumatic transport) are used to elevate grain for storage in large vertical silos, the entire structure is called a grain elevator.

Types of elevator hoist mechanisms

grain elevator In general, there are three means of moving an elevator:

Traction elevators

- Geared and gearless traction elevators Geared Traction machines are driven by AC or DC electric motors. Geared machines use worm gears to mechanically control movement of elevator cars by "rolling" steel hoist ropes over a drive sheave which is attached to a gearbox driven by a high speed motor. These machines are generally the best option for basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to 350 ft/min (1.8 m/s). Gearless Traction machines are low speed, high torque electric motors powered by AC or DC current. In this case, the drive sheave is directly attached to the end of the motor. A brake is mounted between the motor and drive sheave (or gearbox) to hold the elevator stationary at a floor. This brake is usually an external drum type and is actuated by spring force and held open electrically; a power failure will cause the brake to hold the elevator in position. In each case, cables are attached to a hitch plate on top of the cab or may be "underslung" below a cab, and then looped over the drive sheave to a counterweight attached to the opposite end of the cables which reduces the amount of power needed to move the cab. The counterweight is located in the hoistway and rides a separate rail system; as the car goes up, the counterweight goes down, and vice versa. This action is powered by the traction machine which is directed by the controller, typically a relay logic or computerized device that directs starting, acceleration, deceleration and stopping of the elevator cab. The weight of the counterweight is typically equal to the weight of the elevator cab plus 40 to 50 % of the capacity of the elevator. The grooves in the drive sheave are specially designed to prevent the cables from slipping. "Traction" is provided to the ropes by the grip of the grooves in the sheave. As the ropes age and the traction grooves wear, some traction is lost and the ropes must be replaced and the sheave repaired or replaced. Some elevators have a system called compensation. This is a separate set of cables or a chain attached to the bottom of the counterweight and the bottom of the elevator cab. This makes it easier to control the elevator because the weight will fluctuate less over the entire system. If the elevator cab is at the top of the hoistway, there is a short length of hoist cable above the car and a long length of compensating cable below the car and vice versa for the counterweight. If the compensation is cables there is an additional sheave in the pit below the elevator, to guide the cables. If the compensation is a chain, the chain is guided by a bar mounted between the counterweight rails.

Hydraulic type

- Conventional Hydraulic elevators are quite common for low and medium rise buildings (2-5 stories). They use a hydraulically powered plunger to push the elevator upwards. On some, the hydraulic piston (plunger) consists of telescoping concentric tubes, allowing a shallow tube to contain the mechanism below the lowest floor. On others, the piston requires a deeper hole below the bottom landing, usually with a PVC casing (also known as a caisson) for protection.
- Roped hydraulic.
- Twin post hydraulic
- Holeless hydraulic elevators do not require holes to be dug for the hydraulic cylinder. In one [http://www.otis.com/products/detail/0,1355,CLI1_PRD735_PRT30_PST46_RES1,00.html design] manufactured by Otis, the cab is lifted by a pair of hydraulic jacks, one on each side of the elevator.

Climbing elevator

A climbing elevator is a self-ascending elevator with its own propulsion. The propulsion can be done by an electric or a combustion engine. Climbing elevators are used in guyed masts or towers, in order to make easy access to parts of these constructions, such as flight safety lamps for maintenance.

Paternoster

A special type of elevator is the paternoster, a constantly moving chain of boxes. A similar concept moves only a small platform, which the rider mounts while using a handhold and was once seen in multi-story industrial plants.

Controlling elevators

General controls

A typical modern passenger elevator will have:
- Call buttons to choose a floor. Some of these may be key switches (to control access). In some elevators, certain floors are inaccessible unless one swipes a security card or enters a passcode (or both).
- Door open and door close buttons to instruct the elevator to close immediately or remain open longer. In some elevators, holding the door open for too long will trigger an audible alarm (This alarm might confuse some people to think that the elevator is overloaded).
- A stop switch (this is not allowed under British regulations) to halt the elevator (often used to hold an elevator open while freight is loaded). Keeping an elevator stopped for too long may trigger an alarm. Often, this will be a key switch.
- An alarm button or switch, which passengers can use to signal that they have been trapped in the elevator. Some elevators may have one or more of the following:
- An elevator telephone, which can be used (in addition to the alarm) by a trapped passenger to call for help.
- A fireman's key switch, which places the elevator in a special operating mode designed to aid firefighters.
- A medical emergency key switch, which places the elevator in a special operating mode designed to aid medical personnel. Other controls, which are generally inaccessible to the public (either because they are key switches, or because they are kept behind a locked panel, include:
- Switches to control the lights and ventilation fans in the elevator.
- An inspector's switch, which places the elevator in inspection mode (this may be situated on top of the elevator)
- An independent service switch, which selects whether the elevator's operation will be coordinated with other elevators in an elevator bank.
- Up and down buttons, to move the car up and down without selecting a specific floor. Some older elevators can only be operated this way.

Controls in early elevators

- Some older freight elevators are controlled by switches operated by pulling on adjacent ropes. Safety interlocks ensure that the inner and outer doors are closed before the elevator is allowed to move.
- Early elevators had no automatic landing positioning. Elevators were operated by elevator operators using a motor controller. The controller was contained within a cylindrical container about the size and shape of a cake container and this was operated via a projecting handle. This allowed some control over the energy supplied to the motor (located at the top of the elevator shaft or beside the bottom of the elevator shaft) and so enabled the elevator to be accurately positioned — if the operator was sufficiently skilled. More typically the operator would have to "jog" the control to get the elevator reasonably close to the landing point and then direct the outgoing and incoming passengers to "watch the step". After stopping at the landing the operator would open the door/doors. Manually operated elevators were generally refitted or the cabs replaced by automatic equipment by the 1950s.
- Large buildings with multiple elevators of this type would also have an elevator dispatcher stationed in the lobby to direct passengers and to signal the operator to leave with the use of a mechanical "cricket" noisemaker.
- Some elevators still in operation have pushbutton manual controls; an example is in a thumbnail on this page. 1950s.

Floor numbering

The elevator algorithm

The elevator algorithm is a simple algorithm by which a single elevator can decide where to stop is:
- Continue travelling in the same direction while there are remaining requests in that same direction.
- If there are no further requests in that direction, then stop and become idle, or change direction if there are requests in the opposite direction. The elevator algorithm has found an application in computer operating systems as an algorithm for scheduling hard disk requests. Modern elevators use more complex heuristic algorithms to decide which request to service next.

Computer dispatched

Efficiencies of multiple elevators installed in an office building may increase if a central dispatcher is used to group passengers going to the same floor to the same elevator. In buildings with these computer-dispatched elevator system, passengers key in their destination floor in a central dispatch panel located at the building lobby. The dispatch panel will then tell the passenger which elevator to use. Inside the elevator there is no call button to push (or the buttons are there but they cannot be pushed, they only indicate stopping floors). Manufacturers of such systems claim that average travelling time can be reduced by up to 30%. Sometimes, however, one person enters the destination for a large group of people going to the same floor. The dispatching algorithm is usually unable to completely cater for the variation, and late comers may find the elevator they're assigned to is already full.

Special operating modes

Up peak

During Up Peak mode, elevator cars in a group are recalled to the lobby to provide expeditious service to passengers arriving at the building, most typically in the morning as people arrive for work or at the conclusion of a lunch-time period. Elevators are dispatched one-by-one when they reach a pre-determined passenger load, or when they have had their doors opened for a certain period of time. The next elevator to be dispatched usually has its hall lantern or a "this car leaving next" sign illuminated to encourage passengers to make maximum use of the available elevator system capacity. The commencement of Up Peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the departure of a certain number of fully loaded cars leaving the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a building attendant.

Down peak

During Down Peak mode, elevator cars in a group are sent away from the lobby towards the highest floor served, after which they commence running down the floors in response to hall calls placed by passengers wishing to leave the building. This allows the elevator system to provide maximum passenger handling capacity for people leaving the building. The commencement of Down peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the arrival of a certain number of fully loaded cars at the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a building attendant.

Sabbath service

In areas with large populations of observant Jews, one may find a "Sabbath Elevator". In this mode, an elevator will stop automatically at every floor, allowing people to step on and off without having to press any buttons. Regenerative braking is also disabled if it is normally used, shunting energy collected from downward travel, and thus the gravitational potential energy of passengers, into a resistor network. This prevents violation of the Sabbath prohibition against doing useful work.

Independent service

Independent Service is a special service mode found on most elevators. It is activated by a key switch either inside the elevator itself or on a centralised control panel. When an elevator is placed on independent service, it will no longer respond to hall calls. (In a bank of elevators, traffic would be rerouted to the other elevators, while in a single elevator, the hall buttons will be disabled). The elevator will remain parked on a floor with its doors open until a floor is selected and the door close button is held until the elevator starts to travel. Independent Service is useful when transporting large goods or moving groups of people between certain floors.

Standards

The mechanical, electrical and operational design of elevators are dictated according to various standards (aka elevator codes), which may typically be international, national, state, regional or city based. Where once many standards were prescriptive, specifying exact criteria which must be complied with, there has been a shift towards more performance-based standards where the onus falls on the designer to ensure that the elevator meets or exceeds the standard. Some of the national elevator standards include:
- USA - ASME A17
- Canada - CAN/CSA B44
- Europe - EN81
- Australia - AS1735 Because an elevator is part of a building, it must also comply with standards relating to earthquake resilience, fire standards, electrical wiring rules and so forth. Additional requirements relating to access by disabled persons, may be mandated by laws or regulations such as the Americans with Disabilities Act

US and Canadian elevator standard specifics

Passenger elevators are required to conform to the American Society of Mechanical Engineer's Standard A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators in most US and Canadian Jurisdictions (In Canada the document is the CAN/CSA B44 Safety Standard which was harmonized with the US version in the 2000 edition.) In addition passenger elevators may be required to conform to the requirements of A17.3 for existing elevators where referenced by the Local Jurisdiction. Passenger elevators are tested using the ASME A17.2 Standard. The frequency of these tests is mandated by the Local Jurisdiction, which may be a town, city, or state standard. Passenger elevators must also conform to many ancillary building codes including the Local or State building code, National Fire Protection Association standards for Electrical, Fire Sprinklers and Fire Alarms, Plumbing codes, and HVAC codes. In addition passenger elevators are required to conform to the American's with Disabilities Act and other State and Federal civil rights legislation regarding accessibility. Residential elevators are required to conform to ASME A17.1 Platform and Wheelchair lifts are required to comply with ASME A18.1 in most US Jurisdictions.

Unique elevator systems

HVAC

The gateway arch

The Gateway Arch in Saint Louis, Missouri has a unique elevator system which carries passengers from the visitors center underneath the Arch to the observation deck at the top of the structure. Called a tram or tramway, people enter this unique tramway much as one would enter an ordinary elevator, through double doors. Passing through the doors the passengers in small groups enter a horizontal cylindrical compartment containing seats on each side and a flat floor. A number of these compartments are linked to form a train. These compartments each individually retain an appropriate level orientation by tilting while the entire train follows curved tracks up one leg of the arch. There are two tramways within the Arch, one at the north end, and the other at the south end. The entry doors have windows, so people traveling within the Arch are able to see the interior structure of the Arch during the ride to and from the observation deck. tramway

New city hall, Hannover, Germany

tramway The elevator in the new city hall in Hannover, Germany is a technical rarity, and unique in Europe, as the elevator starts straight up, but then changes its angle by 15 degrees to follow the contour of the dome of the new city hall in Hannover. The cabin therefore tilts 15 degrees during the ride. The elevator travels a height of 43 meters. The new city hall was built in 1913. The elevator was destroyed in 1943 and rebuilt in 1954.

Luxor Inclinator

In Las Vegas, Nevada, at the Luxor Casino, is the Inclinator. The shape of this casino is a pyramid. Therefore, the elevator travels up the side of the pyramid at a 39 degree angle.

Fourth Street elevator

The Fourth Street Elevator is located in Dubuque, Iowa. Also known as the Fenelon Place Elevator, it is the shortest and steepest railroad in the world. This elevator carries passengers from the bottom of one of the major bluffs in Dubuque to the top and back. The elevator is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The elevator is 296 feet (90 m) long, with a vertical elevation of 189 feet (58 m). The elevator is funicular in design. There are two cars that always start out opposite each other, and pass each other at the mid-point of the elevator. The two cars in the cable-driven railway are powered by an engine in the station house at the top of the hill. The engine only needs to overcome inertia and compensate for the varying weight of the passengers in the cars. Because the design is funicular, the cars counterbalance each other, and the weight of the two cars does much of the work in moving them back and forth. The weight of the car going down the bluff helps pull the other car at the bottom up to the top. funicular]] Local businessman J.K. Graves built an elevator in 1882 to carry him from his home at the top of the bluff to his office at the bottom. This saved a considerable amount of time - during the 19th century it took at least half an hour to get from one end of the bluff to the other. Eventually Graves gave his neighbors rides on the elevator. In 1884 the first elevator was destroyed by fire. Graves rebuilt the elevator, opened it to the public and charged admission. The second elevator lasted until 1893, when it was destroyed by fire. Graves was unable to rebuild the elevator, so a number of his neighbors banded together and formed the Fenlon Place Elevator Company. They built the present elevator, which is still in service today. Even though the elevator is no longer a daily necessity for neighbors since the rise of the automobile, it is still a popular tourist attraction and a unique part of the city. Downtown Dubuque can be seen from the observation deck, as well as the Mississippi River, and the states of Illinois and Wisconsin.

Manufacturers of elevators

- American Elevator Co
- AMTECH Elevator Services
- Fujitec
- KONE
- Mitsubishi Elevator/Escalator Division
- North American Elevator Services
- Otis
- Schindler
- The Elevator Contractors of America
- ThyssenKrupp

References

- Manavalan, Theresa (30 October 2005). "Don't let them ride alone". New Straits Times, p. F2.

External links

- [http://www.elevatormoods.com Elevator Moods]-Fictional security films of elevator passengers.
- [http://science.howstuffworks.com/elevator.htm Elevators] page from Howstuffworks.com
- [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=31,128.WKU.&OS=PN/31,128&RS=PN/31,128 US Patent 31,128: Improvement in Hoisting Apparatus]
- [http://www.schindler.com/man/com/webmanen.nsf/pages/prod-elev-comp-miconic10-01 Schindler] Miconic 10 dispatch system
- Category:Vertical transportation devices zh-min-nan:Liû-lông ja:エレベーター

Wheelchair ramp

A wheelchair ramp is an inclined plane installed in addition to or instead of stairs. Ramps permit wheelchair users, as well as people pushing strollers, carts, or other wheeled objects, to more easily access a building. The minimum width of a wheelchair ramp is 36 inches, and the slope must not be steeper than 1 inch of rise for every 12 inches of length. A less steep rise can be easier for a wheelchair user to navigate, as well as safer in icy climates. Wheelchair ramps (or other ways for wheelchair users to access a building) are required in new construction for public accommodations in the U.S. by the Americans with Disabilities Act.

External links

- [http://www.disabilitysystems.com DisabilitySystems.com]
- [http://www.wheelchairramp.org WheelchairRamp.Org]
- [http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm US Americans with Disabilities Act]
- [http://www.1800wheelchair.com/asp/view-category-subcats.asp?category_id=325 Wheelchair Ramps at 1800Wheelchair.com]

Curb cut

A curb cut (US) or dropped kerb (UK) is a ramp leading smoothly down from a sidewalk to a street, rather than abruptly ending with a curb and dropping roughly 10-15 cm (4~6 inches).

Curb cuts at intersections

sidewalk Curb cuts placed at street intersections allow someone in a wheelchair, on a toddler's tricycle etc., to move onto or off of a sidewalk without difficulty. A pedestrian using a walker or cane, pushing a stroller or buggy, pushing or pulling a cart or walking next to a bicycle also benefits from a curb cut. It can also be used by someone on a bicycle, roller skates, skateboard, etc. For the safety and comfort of pedestrians this may be a disadvantage. In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) requires that curb cuts be present on sidewalks. Supporters of the ADA often point to curb cuts as an outcome of the ADA that benefits every user of public resources, even though the law is meant to protect the rights of people with disabilities. The first such curb cuts in the United States were pioneered in Berkeley, California, in 1970, according to a commemorative plaque there.

Other curb cuts

A wider curb cut is also useful for motor vehicles to enter a driveway or parking lot on the other side of a sidewalk. Category:Accessibility Category:Road transport

Public transit

Public transport (Commonwealth English) comprises all transport systems in which the passengers do not travel in their own vehicles. It is also called public transportation, public transit or mass transit (U.S. English). While it is generally taken to include rail and bus services, wider definitions would include scheduled airline services, ferries, taxicab services etc. — any system that transports members of the general public. A further restriction that is sometimes applied is that it should take place in shared vehicles, which would exclude taxis that are not shared-ride taxis. Public transport is the primary form of motor transport on Earth. Whilst in the Western World private cars dominate, in poor countries (which represent the majority of human population) most people can not afford a private car (or in dense urban areas the cost for parking), so walking, (motor)cycling or public transport are often the only options, with only the latter being viable for larger distances (which by their nature represent the majority of transportation). This usually takes the form of mini-buses (jitneys) that may follow fixed routes but are usually flexible, including the option of taxi-style door-to-door transportation. Public transport can be faster than other modes of travel where a separate infrastructure is used and thus much higher speeds are possible than are permitted on roads. Prime examples are in cities where road congestion can be avoided (metro), and for long distance travel (trains). On roads this is also possible if the public transportation has its own separate lanes. However, in reality the lanes are often shared, in which case public transport on roads is usually slower due to the (frequent) stops and changeovers. Additionally, public transport system may be poorly developed and thus may take up to two or even three times longer than an equivalent trip in a private vehicle. Increased road traffic congestion and improved transit systems are reducing or eliminating this disparity in many areas, and public transport use rises sharply with population density. Ultimately, if all transport were public (in the sense of shared), more people per vehicle would mean fewer vehicles on the roads, thus reducing and probably even eliminating traffic jams. Additionally, it would be easier to centrally coordinate the flow of traffic with phased traffic lights, eliminating the usually frequent stops at traffic lights and the absence of parked cars would even create space for extra lanes. Thus, public transportation is potentially much faster than private transportation. The term rapid transit refers to fast public transport in and around cities, such as metro systems (metropolitan rail). The distinction between (national) rail, metro and tram is sometimes blurred, such as in Amsterdam and the wider Randstad area, where trains often run once every 10 minutes, thus taking on the role of a metro, the metro is only partly underground and the so-called light rail is basically a tram that runs on metro lines.

History

light rail Conveyances for public hire are as old as the first manned ferries, and the earliest public transport was water transport, for on land people walked or rode an animal. This form of transport is part of Greek mythology — corpses in ancient Greece were always buried with a coin underneath their tongue to pay the ferryman Charon to take them to Hades. Some historic forms of public transport are the stagecoach, travelling an appointed route from inn to inn, and the horse-drawn boat carrying paying passengers, which was a feature of canal systems from their 17th-century origins. The omnibus, the first organized public transit system within a city, appears to have been originated in Nantes, France, in 1826.

Modern forms of public transport

1826 1826 Public transportation comes in many forms: 1826 1826

Road

- Share taxi
- Auto rickshaw
- Bus normally serving a regular fixed route but could include a variable route, divert-on-demand service, see Bus rapid transit and Dual-mode bus
- Bush taxi of West and Central Africa
- Coach
- Trolleybus
- Jitney
- Limousine
- Matatu, of East Africa
- Paratransit
- Rickshaw
- Taxicab
- Transit bus
- Vanpool
- Vehicle for hire
- Velotaxi

Rail

- Automated guideway transit (AGT), also called Peoplemover
- Cable car on rails, used in cities, a streetcar (tram{{{{

Stroller

For transportation of a baby or toddler there are special vehicles, special car seats, and devices for carrying.

Carrying the child

Main article: Babywearing Baby carriers and slings are devices that hold the infant against the parent's body in order to be easily held and carried while walking. These are very commonly seen in Africa as a piece of cloth wrapped and tied to support the baby while the mother walks or works.

Pushable vehicles

Carriages and prams

Africas in a pram]] A baby carriage (or baby buggy in American English) or pram in British English (a shortening of perambulator). They are generally used for newborn babies and have the infant laying down facing the pusher. Prams have been widely used in the UK since the Victorian era. As they developed through the years suspension was added, making the ride smoother for both the baby and the person pushing it. In the 1970s, however, the trend was more towards a more basic version, not fully sprung, and with a detachable body known as a "carrycot". Now prams are very rarely used, being large and expensive when compared with "buggies". One of the longer lived and better known brands in the UK is Silver Cross, first manufactured in Guiseley, near Leeds, in 1877, though this factory has now closed down.

Strollers and pushchairs

A stroller (American English) or pushchair (British English). They have the child in a sitting position, usually facing forwards. "Pushchair" was the popularly used term in the UK between its invention and the early 1980s, when a more compact design known as a "buggy" became the trend, popularised by the conveniently collapsible aluminium framed Maclaren buggy designed and patented by the British aeronautical designer Owen Maclaren in 1965. "Buggy" is now the regular term used in the UK; in American English, "buggy" more likely refers to a pram. Newer versions can be configured to carry a baby lying down like a low pram and then be reconfigured to carry the child in the forward-facing position.

Travel systems

Travel systems typically consist of a chassis with a detachable baby seat and/or carrycot. Thus a travel system can be switched between a pushchair and a pram. Another benefit of a travel system is that the detached chassis when folded will usually be smaller than other types of pushable vehicles.

Car seats

Baby car seats are legally required in many countries to safely transport children up to the age of 2 or more years. Car seats have been found to cause severe and fatal injuries to the child when fitted in a seat with airbags. In 1990, the International Organization for Standardization FIX (ISOFix) was launched in an attempt to provide a standard for fixing car seats into different makes of car. While some manufacturers have started selling ISOFIX-compliant baby car seats there has been a long delay in agreeing the technical specifications and the standard is still yet to become widely used. There are several types of car seat depending on the position of the child and size of the seat. The United Nations standard ECE R44/03 categorised these into 4 groups: 0-3. Many car seats combine the larger groups 1, 2 and 3.

Group 0

Group 0 baby seats or infant carriers keep the baby in a rear facing position and are secured in place by a standard adult seat belt and/or an ISOFix fitting. Group 0 carrycots hold the baby laying on its back - they are not as safe as the seat as they offer less support to the baby's neck in the event of an accident or sudden braking. Carrycots are secured by both seat belts in the rear seat of the car. Both types have handles to allow them to be easily moved in to and out of the car.
- Position: Laying (in carrycots), rear facing (in infant carriers)
- Recommended weight: Birth to 10 kg (22 lb)
- Approximate age: Birth to 9 months

Group 0+

Commonly have a chassis permanently fixed into the car by an adult seat belt and can be placed into a pushchair using the integral handle.
- Position: Sitting, rear facing
- Recommended weight: Birth to 13 kg (29 lb)
- Approximate age: Birth to 15 months

Group 1

A permanent fixture in the car using an adult seat belt to hold it in place and a five-point baby harness to hold the infant.
- Position: Sitting, forward facing
- Recommended weight: 9 kg (20 lb) to 18 kg (40 lb)
- Approximate age: 9 months to 4 years (Although older kids can fit too sometimes)

Group 2

A larger seat than the Group 1 design, these seats use an adult seat belt to hold the child in place.
- Position: Sitting, forward facing
- Recommended weight: 15 kg (33 lb) to 25 kg (55 lb)
- Approximate age: 4 to 6 years (Although older kids can sometimes fit)

Group 3

Also known as booster seats, these position the child so that the adult seat belt is held in the correct position for safety and comfort.
- Position: Sitting, forward facing
- Recommended weight: 22 kg (48 lb) to 35 kg (76 lb)
- Approximate age: 6 to 11 years

External links

- [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/popstds/isofix.html ISOFIX]
- [http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/wp29regs41-60.html Restraining devices for child occupants of power-driven vehicles (Child restraint system)]. The full text of R44/03 and its amendments are to be found here. als:Kinderwagen Category:Vehicles Category:Transportation Category:Human powered vehicles Category:Infancy

Bicycle

tubing and carbon fiber stays and forks. It sports a drop handlebar and thin tires and wheels for efficiency and aerodynamics]] carbon fiber A bicycle, or bike, is a pedal-driven land vehicle with two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. First introduced in 19th-century Europe, bicycles evolved quickly into their familiar, current design. Numbering over 1,000,000,000 in the world today, bicycles provide the principal means of transportation in many regions and a popular form of recreation and transport in others. The bicycle has affected history considerably in both the cultural and industrial realms. In its early years, bicycle construction drew on pre-existing technologies; more recently, bicycle technology has contributed, in turn, to other, newer areas. Beyond recreation and transportation, bicycles have been adapted for use in many occupations, including the military, local policing, courier services, and sports. A recurrent theme in bicycling has been the tension between bicyclists and drivers of motor vehicles, each group of whom argues for its fair share of the world's roadways. According to members of Critical Mass, a bicycle activist group, "We aren't blocking traffic, we are traffic!"

History

No single time or person can be identified with the invention of the bicycle. Its earliest known forebears were called velocipedes, and included many types of human-powered vehicles. One of these, the scooter-like dandy horse, of the French Comte de Sivrac, dating to 1790, was long cited as the earliest bicycle. Most bicycle historians now believe that these hobby-horses with no steering mechanism probably never existed, but were instead made up by Louis Baudry de Saunier, a 19th-century French bicycle historian. Louis Baudry de Saunier The most likely originator of the bicycle is German Baron Karl von Drais, who rode his 1816 machine while collecting taxes from his tenants. He patented his draisine, a number of which still exist, including one at the Paleis het Loo museum in Apeldoorn, the Netherlands. These were pushbikes, powered by the action of the rider's feet pushing against the ground. Scottish blacksmith Kirkpatrick MacMillan shares creative credit with von Drais for adding a treadle drive mechanism, in 1840, that enabled the rider to lift his feet off the ground while driving the rear wheel. However, some reports describe MacMillan's vehicle as more of a "quadricycle". In the 1850s and 1860s, Frenchman Ernest Michaux and his pupil Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a different direction, placing pedals on an enlarged front wheel. Their creation, which came to be called the "Boneshaker", featured a heavy steel frame on which they mounted wooden wheels with iron tires. Lallement emigrated to America, where he recorded a patent on his bicycle in 1866. The Boneshaker was further refined by James Starley in the 1870s. He mounted the seat more squarely over the pedals, so that the rider could push more firmly, and further enlarged the front wheel to increase the potential for speed. With tires of solid rubber, his machine became known as the ordinary. British cyclists likened the disparity in size of the two wheels to their coinage, nicknaming it the penny-farthing. The primitive bicycles of this generation were difficult to ride, and the high seat and poor weight distribution made for dangerous falls. The subsequent dwarf ordinary addressed some of these faults, by adding some kind of gearing, reducing the front wheel diameter and setting the seat further back with no loss of speed. However, having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem. Starley's nephew, J. K. Starley, J. H. Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the chain and producing rear-wheel drive. These models were known as dwarf safeties, or safety bicycles, for their lower seat height and better weight distribution. Starley's 1885 Rover is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle. Soon the seat tube was added, creating the double-triangle, diamond frame of the modern bike. 1885 While the Starley design was much safer, the return to smaller wheels made for a bumpy ride. The next innovations increased comfort and ushered in the 1890s Golden Age of Bicycles. In 1888 Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop introduced the pneumatic tire, which soon became universal. Shortly thereafter the rear freewheel was developed, enabling the rider to coast without the pedals spinning out of control. This refinement led to the 1898 invention of coaster brakes. Derailleur gears and hand-operated, cable-pull brakes were also developed during these years, but were only slowly adopted by casual riders. By the turn of the century, bicycling clubs flourished on both sides of the Atlantic, and touring and racing were soon the rage. Successful early bicycle manufacturers included Englishman Frank Bowden and German builder Ignaz Schwinn. Bowden started the Raleigh company in Nottingham in the 1890s, and soon was producing some 30,000 bicycles a year. Schwinn emigrated to the United States, where he founded his similarly successful company in Chicago in 1895. Schwinn bicycles soon featured widened tires and spring-cushioned, padded seats, sacrificing some efficiency for increased comfort. Facilitated by connections between European nations and their overseas colonies, European-style bicycles were soon available worldwide. By the mid-20th century bicycles had become the primary means of transportation for millions of people around the globe. 20th century In many western countries the use of bicycles levelled off or declined, as motorized transportation became affordable and car-centred policies led to an increasingly hostile road environment for bicycles. In North America, bicycle sales declined markedly after 1905, to the point where by the 1940s, they had largely been relegated to the role of children's toys. In other parts of the world however, such as China, India, and European countries such as Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands, the traditional utility bicycle remained a mainstay of transportation, its design only gradually changing to incorporate hand-operated brakes and internal hub gears allowing up to seven speeds. In the Netherlands, old style bicycles so-called 'granny bikes', have remained very popular and are again being produced now the original supply is turning to rust. Especially Amsterdam granny bikes are often colourfully painted and/or otherwise decorated. Amsterdam In North America, increasing consciousness of physical fitness and environmental preservation spawned a renaissance of bicycling in the late 1960s. Bicycle sales in the United States boomed, largely in the form of the racing bicycles long used in such events as the hugely popular Tour de France. Sales were also helped by a number of technical innovations that were new to the US market, including higher performance steel alloys and gearsets with an increasing number of gears. While 10-speeds were the rage in the 1970s, 12-speed designs were introduced in the 1980s, and today most bikes feature 18 or more speeds. By the 1980s these newer designs had driven the three-speed bicycle from the roads. In the late 1980s the mountain bike became particularly popular, and in the 1990s something of a major fad. These task-specific designs led many American recreational cyclists to demand a more comfortable and practical product. Manufacturers responded with the hybrid bicycle, which restored many of the features long enjoyed by riders of the time-tested European utility bikes.

Technical aspects

utility bikes

Legal requirements

The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic considers a bicycle to be a vehicle, and a person controlling a bicycle is considered a driver. The traffic codes of many countries reflect these definitions and demand that a bicycle satisfy certain legal requirements, including licencing, before it can be used on public roads. In many jurisdictions it is an offence to use a bicycle that is not in roadworthy condition and which does not have functioning front and rear brakes. In some places, bicycles must have functioning front and rear lights or lamps. As some generator or dynamo-driven lamps only operate while moving, rear reflectors are frequently also mandatory. Since a moving bicycle makes very little noise, in many countries bicycles must have a warning bell for use when approaching pedestrians, equestrians and other bicyclists.

Construction and parts

Frame

Nearly all modern upright bicycles feature the diamond frame, composed of two triangles: the front triangle and the rear triangle. The front triangle consists of the head tube, top tube, down tube and seat tube. The head tube contains the headset, the interface with the fork. The top tube connects the head tube to the seat tube at the top, and the down tube connects the head tube to the bottom bracket. The rear triangle consists of the seat tube and paired chain stays and seat stays. The chain stays run parallel to the chain, connecting the bottom bracket to the rear dropouts. The seat stays connect the top of the seat tube (often at or near the same point as the top tube) to the rear dropouts. Historically, women's bicycle frames had a top tube that connected in the middle of the seat tube instead of the top, resulting in a lower standover height. This allowed the rider to dismount while wearing a skirt or dress. Although some women's bicycles continue to use this frame style, there is also a hybrid form, the mixte or step-through frame, which also allows easier mounting and dismounting for both male and female riders. Historically, materials used in bicycles have followed a similar pattern as in aircraft, the goal being strength and low weight. Since the late 1930s alloy steels have been used for frame and fork tubes in higher quality machines. Celluloid found application in mudguards, and aluminium alloys are increasingly used in components such as handlebars, seat stems (also known as seatposts), and brake levers. In the 1980s aluminium alloy frames became popular, and their affordability now makes them common. More expensive carbon fibre and titanium frames are now also available, as well as advanced steel alloys.

Drivetrain

The drivetrain begins with pedals which rotate the crankset, which fit into the bottom bracket. Attached to the crank is the chainring which drives the chain, which in turn rotates the rear wheel via the rear sprockets. Between the chain and rear wheel may be interspersed various gearing systems, described below, which vary the gear ratio, the number of rear wheel revolutions produced by each turn of the pedals. Since cyclists' legs produce a limited amount of power most efficiently over a narrow range of cadences, a variable gear ratio is needed to maintain an optimum pedaling speed while covering varied terrain. The gear systems are hand-operated, via cables (or rarely, hydraulics), and are of two types.
- Internal hub gearing works by planetary, or epicyclic, gearing, in which the outer case of the hub gear unit turns at a different speed relative to the rear axle depending on which gear is selected. Rear hub gears may offer 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, or 14 speeds. Bottom bracket fittings offer a choice of 2 speeds.
- External gearing utilizes derailleurs, which can be placed on both the front chainring and on the rear cluster or cassette, to push the chain to either side, derailing it from the sprockets. The sides of the gear rings catch the chain, pulling it up onto their teeth to change gears. There may be 1 to 3 chainrings, and 5 to 10 sprockets on the cassette. Internal hub gears are much less affected by adverse weather conditions than derailleurs, and often last longer and require less maintenance. However, they may be heavier and/or more expensive, and often do not offer the same range or number of gears. Internal hub gearing still predominates in some regions, particularly on utility bikes, whereas in other regions, such as the USA, external derailleur systems predominate. Road bicycles have close set multi-step gearing, which allows very fine control of cadence, while utility cycles offer fewer, more widely spaced speeds. Mountain bikes and most entry-level road racing bikes may offer an extremely low gear to facilitate climbing slowly on steep hills. Fixed-gear track racing bikes have transmission efficiencies of over 99% (nearly all the energy put in at the pedals ends up at the wheel). Whilst variable ratio gear mechanisms are essential for human efficiency, they do reduce mechanical efficiency. The efficiency varies considerably with the gear ratio being used. In a typical hub gear mechanism the mechanical efficiency will be between 82% and 92% depending on the ratio selected. Which ratios are best and worst depends on the specific model of hub gear. Derailleur type mechanisms fare better, with a typical mid-range product (of the sort used by serious amateurs) achieving between 88% and 99% efficiency at 100W. In derailleur mechanisms the highest efficiency is achieved by the larger cogs and, generally speaking, efficiency decreases with smaller cog sizes. This is because the chain must bend more sharply as it rolls on and off the cog, and also forms a sharp angle at the chain tensioner⁹. Efficiency is also compromised on derailleur drivetrains if the chain is running large-ring to large-cog or small-ring to small-cog; this is called cross-chaining, and also results in increased wear because of the lateral deflection of the chain. Retro-Direct was a type of drivetrain used on some bicycles in the early 20th century that has been resurrected by bicycle hobbyists. Refer to bicycle gearing for some discusion about choice of suitable gears together with examples for various scenarios.

Steering and seating

The handlebars rotate the fork and the front wheel via the stem, which articulates with the headset. Three styles of handlebar are common. Touring handlebars, the norm in Europe and elsewhere until the 1970s, curve gently back toward the rider, offering a natural grip and comfortable upright position. Racing handlebars are "dropped", offering the cyclist either an aerodynamic "hunched" position or a more upright posture in which the hands grip the brake lever mounts. Mountain bikes feature a crosswise handlebar, which helps prevent the rider from pitching over the front in case of sudden deceleration. Variations on these styles exist. The Bullhorn style handlebars are often seen on modern Time Trial specific bicycles, equipped with two forward-facing extensions, allowing a rider to rest his entire forearm on the bar. These are usually used in conjunction with the aero bar, a pair of forward-facing extensions spaced close together, to allow the rider a position of increased aerodynamics. The Bullhorn style handlebars are banned from ordinary road racing because it is considered there is less fine control in bike traffic. Seats, or saddles, also vary depending on rider preference, from the cushioned ones favoured by short-distance riders to narrower seats which allow more free leg swings. Comfort depends on riding position. With comfort bikes and hybrids the cyclist sits high over the seat, their weight directed down onto the saddle, such that a wider and more cushioned saddle is preferable. For racing bikes where the rider is bent over, weight is more evenly distributed between the handlebars and saddle, and the hips are flexed. For this style of riding a narrower and harder saddle is more efficient. Recumbent bicycles have more chair-like seats, and so are much more comfortable to ride, although generally slower up hills due to this positioning. The reclined, low seating position does provide increased aerodynamics over standard seating.

Brakes

Bicycle brakes are either rim brakes, in which friction pads are compressed against the wheel rims, internal hub brakes, in which the friction pads are contained within the wheel hubs, or disc brakes. A rear hub brake may be either hand-operated or pedal-actuated, as in the back pedal coaster brakes which were the rule in North America until the 1960s. Hub drum brakes do not cope well with extended braking, so rim brakes are favoured in hilly terrain. With hand-operated brakes, force is applied to brake handles mounted on the handle bars and then transmitted via Bowden cables to the friction pads. In the late 1990s, disc brakes appeared on some off-road bicycles, tandems and recumbent bicycles, but are considered impractical on road bicycles, which rarely encounter conditions where the advantages of discs are significant. The advantages of discs make them well-suited to steep, extended downhills through wet and muddy off-road terrain, which falls under the category of downhill and freeride bicycle riding. The use of tires as large as 3.0 inches in width also makes disc brakes a necessity, as rim brakes simply cannot straddle a tire that wide. Two main disc brake systems exist: hydraulic and mechanical (cable-actuated). Mechanical disc brakes have less modulation than hydraulic disc brake systems, and since the cable is usually open to the outside, mechanical disc brakes tend to pick up small bits of dirt and grit in the cable lines when ridden in harsh terrain. Hydraulic disc brake systems generally keep contaminants out better. However, since hydraulic disc brakes usually require relatively specialized tools to bleed the brake systems, repairs on the trail are difficult to perform, whereas mechanical disc brakes rarely fail. Also, the hydraulic fluid may boil on steep, continuous downhills. This is due to the brake losing its ability to transmit force through incompressible fluids, since some of it has become a gas, which is compressible. For these reasons, one must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of using a hydraulic system versus a mechanical system.

Accessories and repairs

Utility bicycles have many standard features which enhance their usefulness and comfort that would be considered accessories on sports bicycles. Chainguards and mudguards, or fenders, protect clothes and moving parts from oil and spray. Kick stands help with parking. Front-mounted wicker or steel baskets for carrying goods are often used. Rear racks or carriers can be used to carry items such as school satchels. Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats and/or an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar to transport children. recumbent bicycle Other accessories include lights, pump, lock, and additional (pedal or wheel-mounted) reflectors. Technical accessories include solid-state speedometers and odometers for measuring distance. Toe-clips help to keep the foot planted firmly on the pedals, and enable the cyclist to pull as well as push the pedals. In North America, a large minority, possibly up to 25% in the US, of bicyclists wear plastic bicycle helmets for safety. There is no US federal law requiring the use of helmets, but the majority of states require children up to a certain age to wear them; a number of cities and counties in Washington require them for riders of all ages. In most European countries, helmets are viewed as an indicator of inexperience or recklessness, and their use is considered unusual for adult utility cyclists. In Australia and New Zealand, and parts of Canada, such helmets are required by law. The use of helmets by utility cyclists is practically unknown in most other regions. Many cyclists also carry tool kits, containing at least a patch kit for tires, tire levers, and some spanners. At one time it was possible to use a single tool to carry out most common bicycle repairs. More specialised parts now often require more complex tools, including proprietary tools specific for a given manufacturer. Some bicycle parts, particularly hub-based gearing systems, are complex, and many people prefer to leave most maintenance and repairs to professionals. Others maintain their own bicycles, finding it enhances their enjoyment of the hobby of cycling.

Performance

In both biological and mechanical terms, the bicycle is extraordinarily efficient. In terms of the amount of energy a person must expend to travel a given distance, investigators have calculated it to be the most efficient self-powered means of transportation.¹ From a mechanical viewpoint, up to 99% of the energy delivered by the rider into the pedals is transmitted to the wheels, although the use of gearing mechanisms may reduce this by 10-15% ² ⁹. In terms of the ratio of cargo weight a bicycle can carry to total weight, it is also a most efficient means of cargo transportation. 9 On firm, flat, ground, a 70 kg man requires about 100 watts to walk at 5 km/h. That same man on a bicycle, on the same ground, with the same power output, can average 25 km/h, so energy expenditure in terms of kcal/kg/km is roughly one-fifth as much. Generally used figures are
- 1.62 kJ/(km∙kg) or 0.28 kcal/(mile∙lb) for cycling,
- 3.78 kJ/(km∙kg) or 0.653 kcal/(mile∙lb) for walking/running,
- 16.96 kJ/(km∙kg) or 2.93 kcal/(mile∙lb) for swimming. For many people whose running might be limited by muscle and knee pain, cycling offers comparable outdoor exercise that can be enjoyed by people of a wide range of fitness levels: it is a "no-impact" sport that is easy on the body as long as the bike is properly "fit." In addition, since bicycling can also provide convenient transportation, less self-discipline may be required to keep to the activity, since it has a practical purpose. However, because of its efficiency, cycling requires a longer distance, and often greater time, than running to consume the same amount of energy. The average "in-shape" man can produce about 3 watts/kg for more than an hour (e.g., around 200 watts for a 70 kg rider), with top amateurs producing 5 watts/kg and elite athletes achieving 6 watts/kg for similar lengths of time. Elite track sprinters are able to attain an instantaneous maximum output of around 2,000 watts, or in excess of 25 watts/kg; elite road cyclists may produce 1,600 to 1,700 watts as an instantaneous maximum in their burst to the finish line at the end of a five-hour long road race. Even at moderate speeds, most cycling energy is spent in overcoming aerodynamic drag, which increases with the square of speed; therefore, power needs increase approximately with the cube of speed. Typical speeds for bicycles are 16 to 32 km/h (10 to 20 mph). On a fast racing bicycle, a reasonably fit rider can ride at 50 km/h (30 mph) on flat ground for short periods. The highest speed ever officially attained on the flat, without using motor pacing and wind-blocks, is by Canadian Sam Whittingham, who in 2002 set a 130.36 km/h (81.00 mph) record on his highly aerodynamic recumbent bicycle. This stands as the official record for all human-powered vehicles. There has been major corporate competition to lower the weight of racing bikes through the use of advanced materials and components. Additionally, advanced wheels are available with low-friction bearings and other features to lower road resistance. In measured tests these components have almost no effect on cycling performance. For instance, lowering a bike's weight by 1 kg, a major effort considering they may weigh less than 15 kg to start with, will have the same effect over a 40 km time trial as removing a protrusion into the air the size of a pencil. For this reason more recent designs have concentrated on lowering wind resistance, using aerodynamically shaped tubing, flat spokes on the wheels, and handlebars that allow the rider to bend over into the wind. These changes can impact performance dramatically, cutting minutes off a time trial.

Bicycle physics

A rider stays upright on a bicycle by steering the bicycle so that the point where the wheels touch the ground stays underneath the center of gravity. Once underway, this effort is largely replaced by physical forces generated by the rotation of the wheels which produce a remarkable "self-steering" effect.³ The angular momentum of the wheels and the torque applied to them by the ground generates a phenomenon called precession, by which the wheel turns, or trails, toward whichever side the bicycle tilts. Like the rider's steering adjustments, this motion automatically returns the contact point of the wheel directly under the center of gravity. These forces, perhaps aided at very high speeds by the gyroscopic effect of the spinning wheels,⁴ are sufficiently strong that a riderless bicycle going down a slope will stay upright by itself. Conversely, a bicycle whose steering fork is locked in a perfectly straight ahead position is virtually impossible to balance. That gyroscopic effects are unimportant at normal cycling speeds was shown by physicist and researcher into bicycle stability David E. H. Jones, whose series of "URBs" ("unrideable bikes" with various modifications to the front end) included a bike which cancelled the gyroscopic effect of the front wheel by dint of attaching a second wheel to his front forks (alongside the regular wheel) whose lower edge was about an inch (25 mm) above the ground. By gearing this wheel to the regular front wheel so that it spun in the opposite direction at equal speed, the net angular momentum of both wheels together was close to zero. Jones found he could ride this bike with no difficulty, but did discover that without a rider the non-gyroscopic bike fell over much faster than a regular bike. Stability is also influenced by a geometric factor called trail. This is the distance between the point of contact the front wheel makes with the ground and the place the steering axis makes contact with the ground. The greater the amount of trail, the greater the reaction. One can see the effect that trail has by simply holding a bicycle by the seat and leaning it. The moment due to trail and the weight of the bicycle will turn the front wheel in the direction of the turn. Negative trail (rolling a bicycle backwards) results in immediate steering problems. Zero trail (as in a unicycle) requires c