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Dispensationalism

Dispensationalism

Dispensationalism is a conceptual overview and interpretive framework for understanding the overall flow of the Bible. As a branch of Christian theology it teaches biblical history as a number of successive economies or administrations under God, which it calls "dispensations," and emphasizes the continuity of the Old Testament covenants God made with the Jewish people through Abraham, Moses and King David. Dispensationalist eschatology emphasizes a premillennial futurist view of prophecy of the "end-times" and a pretribulation view of the rapture (i.e. a rapture occurring before the Great Tribulation). Regarding frameworks for understanding the Bible, Dispensationalism stands in contrast to Covenantalism or Covenant theology. Regarding the theological status of modern Jewish people, Dispensationalism rejects Supersessionism (also referred to as Replacement Theology), hence many Dispensationalists believe in Restorationism.

History

Born out of the restless religious environment in England and Ireland in the 1820s, it was rooted in the Plymouth Brethren movement, especially the teachings of John Nelson Darby (1800-1882). The Plymouth Brethren movement, essentially a reaction against the established church and its ecclesiology, became known for its anti-denominational, anti-clerical, and anti-credal stance. While theologically within the orthodox camp, the Plymouth Brethren (Darby in particular) developed some unique ideas regarding the interpretation of Scripture while emphasizing prophecy and the second coming of Christ. The theology of this movement became known as "dispensationalism". This new teaching first spread in America through prophecy conferences such as the Niagara Bible Conferences (1883-1897). Most importantly, Dwight L. Moody (1837-1899) was sympathetic to the broad outlines of dispensationalism and had as his closest lieutenants dispensationalist leaders such as Reuben A. Torrey (1856-1928), James M. Gray (1851-1925), Cyrus I. Scofield (1843-1921), William J. Eerdman (1833-1923), A. C. Dixon (1854-1925), and A. J. Gordon (1836-1895). These men were activist evangelists who promoted a host of Bible conferences and other missionary and evangelistic efforts. They also gave the dispensationalist movement institutional permanence by assuming leadership of the new independent Bible institutes such as the Moody Bible Institute (1886), the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (1907), and the Philadelphia College of the Bible--now the Philadelphia Biblical University (1914). The network of related institutes that soon sprang up became the nucleus for the spread of American dispensationalism. The energetic efforts of C. I. Scofield and his associates introduced dispensationalism to a wider audience in America and bestowed a measure of respectability through his Scofield Reference Bible. The publication of the Scofield Reference Bible in 1909 by the Oxford University Press was something of an innovative literary coup for the movement, since for the first time, overtly dispensationalist notes were added to the pages of the biblical text. The Scofield Reference Bible became the leading bible used by independent Evangelicals and Fundamentalists for the next sixty years. Lewis Sperry Chafer (1871-1952), strongly influenced by C. I. Scofield, founded Dallas Theological Seminary in 1924, which has become the flagship of Dispensationalism in America. Dispensationalism has come to dominate the American Evangelical scene, especially among non-denominational Bible churches, many Baptists, and most Pentecostal and Charismatic groups. Prior to dispensationalism, Covenant Theology was the prominent Protestant view regarding redemptive history and is still the view of the Reformed churches. A relatively recent view, which is seen as a third alternative, especially among conservative Baptists, is called New Covenant Theology. Outside of Protestantism, however, all of the Christian churches (e.g., Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox) reject dispensationalism.

Dispensationalist theology

The seven dispensational periods

Dispensationalism seeks to address what many see as opposing theologies between the Old Testament and New Testament. Its name comes from the fact that it sees biblical history as best understood in light of (usually) seven dispensations in the Bible. These are: # the dispensation of innocence (Genesis 1:1 – 3:7), prior to Adam's fall, # of conscience, (Genesis 3:8 – 8:22), Adam to Noah, # of government, (Genesis 9:1 – 11:32), Noah to Abraham, # of patriarchal rule, (Genesis 12:1 – Exodus 19:25), Abraham to Moses, # of the Mosaic Law, (Exodus 20:1 – Acts 2:4), Moses to Christ, # of grace, (Acts 2:4 – Revelation 20:3), the current church age, and # of a literal earthly 1,000 year Millennial Kingdom that has yet to come but soon will, (Revelation 20:4 – 20:6). Each one of these dispensations is said to represent a different way in which God deals with man, specifically a different testing for man. "These periods are marked off in Scripture by some change in God's method of dealing with mankind, in respect to two questions: of sin, and of man's responsibility," explained C. I. Scofield. "Each of the dispensations may be regarded as a new test of the natural man, and each ends in judgment—marking his utter failure in every dispensation." Viewing the flow of biblical history as a series of "dispensations" may be seen in some works that pre-date Darby's dispensationalism, such as L'OEconomie Divine by Pierre Poiret (1646-1719). But these earlier works did not include the unique testing/failure motif described by Scofield or any hint of the four underlying tenets of classic dispensationalism listed below.

The four basic tenets

In addition to these seven dispensations, the real theological significance can be seen in four basic tenets which underlie classic dispensational teaching. Dispensationalism maintains: # a radical distinction between Israel and the church, i.e. there are two peoples of God with two different destinies, earthly Israel and the heavenly church, # a radical distinction between the Law and Grace, i.e. they are mutually exclusive ideas, # the view that the New Testament church is a parenthesis in God's plan which was not foreseen by the Old Testament, and # a distinction between the Rapture and the Second Coming of Christ, i.e. the rapture of the church at Christ’s coming “in the air” (1 Thess. 4:17) precedes the “official” second coming by 7 years of tribulation. These tenets are supposedly derived from the dispensationalists' insistence on "consistent literalism" in their hermeneutic, especially in the literal interpretation of OT prophecies regarding Israel. Crucial to the dispensationalist reading of biblical prophecy, drawn principally from Daniel and Revelation, but also, to some degree, from Ezekiel, is the assertion that the Jewish Temple will be rebuilt on the Temple Mount as a precursor to the Lord returning to restore the earthly Kingdom of Israel centered on Jerusalem. The dispensationalist movement was therefore fueled by the re-establishment of the state of Israel in 1948. It has grown in popularity particularly since 1967, coinciding with the Arab-Israeli Six Day War, and a few years later in 1970 with the publication of Hal Lindsey's blockbuster book The Late Great Planet Earth. Dispensationalism teaches that the Second Coming of Jesus Christ will be a physical event, by which a world-wide, literal kingdom will be established in human history, geographically centered in Jerusalem. Dispensationalists teach that the Second Coming will be a two step process. In the first step, Christ returns to resurrect the blessed dead and rapture the living believers from the Earth. After this, a seven year period of tribulation occurs, climaxing in the Battle of Armageddon. In the second step, Christ intervenes at the Battle of Armageddon and establishes a literal 1000-year reign on earth. As such, some Dispensationalists are often associated with the circulation of end times prophecy, which professes to read omens of the Second Coming in current events; however, other Dispensationalists have criticised this apocalypticism popularized by authors such as Hal Lindsey.

Hyper-dispensationalism

See main article: Hyper-dispensationalism The majority of classic Dispensationalists would properly be known as Acts 2 Dispensationalists. These dispensationalists believe the present church began sometime between the birth of Christ and the day of Pentecost, in Acts chapter 2. Most classic Dispensationalists believe the New Testament epistles of James through Jude were written directly to the present church. Likewise, many (but not all) Classic Dispensationalists also believe the doctrine contained in the Four Gospels also pertains to the present church. However, there are two minority groups termed Hyper-Dispensationalists (or Ultra-Dispensationalists) that believe the church began at a later date. Mid-Acts Dispensationalists believe the church began with the Apostle Paul sometime in the Mid-Acts period, and Acts 28 Dispensationalists believe it began sometime around Acts 28. This uniqueness of Paul's ministry, especially toward the Gentiles, is sometimes referred to as the "Pauline Distinctive"; it is this distinctive, rather than eschatology as such, that distinguishes hyperdispensationalists. The prefixes "Hyper" or "Ultra" simply mean "farther than", and are not meant to be derogatory terms, although some classic Dispensationalists use them as such. These two groups are called Hyper-Dispensationalists because they tend to take dispensational concepts farther than their more traditional brethren. The most notable distinction of this brand of dispensationalism is the fact that it views the four Gospels and many of the New Testament epistles as applicable to the Jews in the coming millennial kingdom, but not applicable for the Christian church today.

Influence of dispensationalist beliefs

Dispensationalism has had a number of effects on Protestantism, at least as it is practiced in the United States of America. By consistently teaching that the Beast of Revelation, or the Antichrist, is a political leader, dispensationalism has weakened the traditional Reformation-era identification of that figure with the Pope, and the Roman Catholic Church with the Whore of Babylon. Dispensationalism has led many evangelical Christians of the USA to temper their traditional anti-Catholicism, although some dispensationalists, usually of the Fundamentalist variety, have continued to teach that a Pope (or an Anti-Pope) will be the Antichrist or the False Prophet of the book of Revelation. Dispensationalism rejects the notion of supersessionism. It tends to go hand-in-hand with a very protective attitude toward the Jewish people, and the modern State of Israel. John Nelson Darby taught, and most subsequent dispensationalists have consistently maintained, that God looks upon the Jews as his chosen people and continues to have a place for them in the dispensational, prophetic scheme of things. While virtually all traditions of Christianity teach that the Jews are a distinct people, irrevocably entitled to the promises of God (because, in the words of the epistle to the Romans "the gifts and calling of God are without repentance"), dispensationalism is unique in teaching that the covenant with the Church is only a provisional dispensation, until the Jews finally recognize Jesus as their promised Messiah during the trials that dispensationalists envision coming upon the Jews in the Great Tribulation. Darby's prophecies envision Judaism as continuing to enjoy God's protection, parallel to Christianity, literally to the End of Time, and teaches that God has a separate track in the prophecies for Jews apart from the Church.

Dispensationalism and Messianic Judaism

:The claims below that describe Messianic Judaism as "Christianity mixed with Jewish culture and tradition" and says Dispensationalist beliefs are widespread in Messianic Judaism are disputed. Per Martin Waldman, Congregational Leader of [http://www.BaruchHaShemSynagogue.org Baruch HaShem Messianic Synagogue] in Dallas, Texas, Dan Juster, Th.D., Executive Director of [http://www.tikkunministries.org Tikkun Ministries International], Russ Resnick, General Secretary of the [http://www.umjc.org Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations], David H. Stern, Ph.D., author of Messianic Jewish Manifesto, The Complete Jewish Bible, and The Jewish New Testament Commentary and many other Messianic Jewish leaders, "Christianity mixed with Jewish culture and tradition" is called Hebrew Christians and Messianic Judaism rejects Dispensationalism and proclaims Olive Tree Theology, detailed in Stern's Messianic Jewish Manifesto. Disputed statements, per above: On the other hand, dispensationalists tend to be energetically evangelistic, with special interest in the Jews because they are "God's chosen people." Dispensationalist beliefs are widespread in many forms of Messianic Judaism, for example, which aggressively seeks the conversion of Jews to a form of Christianity mixed with Jewish culture and tradition. In some dispensationalist circles, the Jewish converts to Christianity are sometimes referred to as "completed Jews". Thus, while it is at odds with traditional supersessionism (which was formulated to discourage directly carrying over Jewish practice into the Christian Church), dispensationalism generally is markedly at odds with modern religious pluralism, which is typified by the view that proselytism of the Jews is a form of anti-semitism. Also, some dispensationalists, such as Jerry Falwell, have asserted that the Antichrist will be a Jew, based on a belief that the Antichrist will falsely seem to some Jews to fulfill prophesies of the Messiah more accurately than Jesus did. This assertion stems from the dispensational belief that “he” who confirms “the covenant with many for one week” (Dan. 9:27) refers back to “the prince that shall come” in verse 26. In turn, this “prince” will stand up “against the Prince of princes” and destroy many “by peace” (Dan. 8:25); and will be responsible for the false “peace and safety” that will precede the destructive day of the Lord (1 Thes. 5:2-3). Many dispensationalists believe this man will be a Jew, based in part on John 5:43, where the Lord stated that the unbelieving Jews would receive another who “shall come in his own name” (as opposed to the Lord Himself, Who came in the Father’s name). The prophet Daniel refers to this man as “a vile person”, who will “obtain the kingdom by flatteries” (Dan. 11:21). This belief is not essential to dispensationalism. At any rate, dispensationalists are typically, in practical terms, Zionists and allies of the Jews and enthusiastic popularizers of Judaica, and foes of anti-semitism (in the conventional sense).

Dispensationalism and world politics

Dispensationalism teaches that Christians should not expect spiritual good from earthly governments, and should expect social conditions to decline as the end times draw nearer. Dispensationalist readings of prophecies often teach that the Antichrist will appear to the world as a peacemaker. This makes some dispensationalists suspicious of all forms of power, religious and secular, and especially of human attempts to form international organisations for peace, such as the United Nations. Almost all dispensationalists reject the idea that a lasting peace can be attained by human effort in the Middle East, and believe instead that "wars and rumors of wars" (cf. Matthew 24:6) will increase as the end times approach. Dispensationalist beliefs often underlie the religious and political movement of Christian Zionism. Some dispensationalists teach that churches that do not insist on Biblical literalism as they deem appropriate are in fact part of the Great Apostasy. This casts suspicion on attempts to create church organisations that cross denominational boundaries such as the World Council of Churches. (See also ecumenism.)

Dispensationalism and United States politics

Some political analysts have argued that dispensationalism has had a major influence on the foreign policy of the United States because believers in dispensationalism have had large amounts of influence through the Republican Party. This influence has included strong support for the state of Israel. Some dispensationalist authors such as Hal Lindsey have explicitly identified the Antichrist with the Soviet Union or the European Union.

Dispensationalism and fiction

Dispensationalist themes form the basis of the successful Left Behind series of books. However not all dispensationalists agree with the theology of author Tim LaHaye and his ghostwriter Jerry Jenkins. (See http://www.rapidnet.com/~jbeard/bdm/BookReviews/left.htm for a critical review of Left Behind.)

Biblical arguments in favor of dispensationalism

- The Apostles determined at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15) that it was not necessary for Gentiles to become Jewish in order to become Christians. Thus, the church is not a sect of Judaism but a separate entity.
- The term 'Israel' in the Bible usually refers to physical descendants of Jacob.
- Similarly, it is argued that the terms 'church' and 'kingdom' are never used interchangeably in Scripture.
- Paul claims that Israel will be grafted in again (Romans 11).
- The Book of Galatians is understood to teach that the Law continues to have binding force for Jews, but not for Christians. Now that Christ has come, Christians are not under the supervision of the law (3:25), but Jews are still governed by the law (5:3) unless they are in Christ (3:28).
- Many non-dispensationalists portray the olive tree of Romans chapter 11 as being Israel. Dispensationalists argue this is not the case, because the olive tree itself never falls. Some of its natural branches are broken off, and branches from a wild olive tree are grafted in; but the olive tree itself remains standing. By contrast, the first part of Romans 11 seems to indicate that Israel is now in a fallen state, and Gentiles today are saved through the fall of Israel (Ro. 11:11-13). The context of this passage is established in verse 7, where Paul states that "...Israel hath not obtained that which he seeketh for; but the election hath obtained it, and the rest were blinded". Dispensationalists conclude that if Israel has not obtained what they are seeking for, then the elect who did obtain it must no longer be part of Israel. Instead, they have become members of the body of Christ. So, when Paul states just four verses later that through "their fall" salvation is come unto the Gentiles, dispensationalists again conclude that this passage must be referring to the fall of Israel itself, and not just unbelievers within the nation of Israel. In turn, this would mean that the "olive tree" referred to in verses 16 through 24 would simply be the means by which both the natural branches (believing Jews) and the grafted-in branches (believing Gentiles) partake of "the root and fatness" of the tree (verse 17).
- Old Testament passages such as Leviticus 26:44-45 and Deuteronomy 4:30-31 state that the Lord will never totally forsake Israel. In the New Testament, Paul states in Ro. 3:1-2 that the Jew has the advantage, and there is profit in circumcision, because the oracles of God were committed to them. Here, Paul cannot mean that circumcision is profitable for believing Jews, because he states in Gal. 5:1-4 that circumcision is unprofitable for all believers. So, in view of Lev. 26:44-45 and Deut. 4:30-31, some dispensationalists conclude that Ro. 3:1-2 means the unbelieving Jew today still has an advantage over the unbelieving Gentile. Prior to this passage, Paul also states in Ro. 2:28-29 that he who is a Jew is one inwardly; and circumcision is of the heart, in the spirit. Since the context of the following verses (Ro. 3:1-2) concerns the unbelieving Jew, this must also be the context of Ro. 2:28-29. If so, this passage may actually refute the non-dispensational teaching that believers today are "spiritual Jews". Likewise, in Ro. 2:24, Paul applies Ezekiel's description of blaspheming Jews who are fallen (Ezek. 36:20-28), whom God will one day take from among the heathen, gathering them out of all countries, and bringing them into their own land (Ezek. 36:24-28).
- Paul states in Gal. 3:23-26 that before faith in Christ justified anyone, the Law served as a schoolmaster. But after faith in Christ came, we are no longer under a schoolmaster, because all believers are children of God by faith in Christ. Even though God Himself never changes (for example, Hebrews 13:8 states, “Jesus Christ the same yesterday, and to day, and for ever”; and Malachi 3:6 states, “For I am the LORD, I change not...”), His requirements have clearly changed over time. Just as an earthly father has different requirements for his eight-year-old son than he does for his eighteen-year-old son, our Heavenly Father also had different requirements for Old Testament Israel (“...it shall be our righteousness, if we observe to do all these commandments...”, Deut. 6:24-25) than he does for believers today (“...if righteousness come by the law, then Christ is dead in vain”, Gal. 2:21). Dispensationalists believe that these changing requirements define distinct and separate dispensations. Faith is always required for obedience in every dispensation, but God’s requirements must still be met on His Own terms. A man gathering sticks on the Sabbath learned this the hard way, when God ordered him to be put to death for doing so (Num. 15:32-36). As a result, in Romans 10:4-10, Paul contrasts God’s former requirement of Deuteronomy 6:24-25 (where Israel was righteous to observe the commandments) with the fact that Christ is the end of the law for righteousness to every one who believes. As Paul also explained in Acts 13:39, “...by (Jesus) all that believe are justified from all things, from which ye could not be justified by the law of Moses”.
- There are numerous passages in both the Old and New Testaments which state that Israel will one day return to the Lord; and dispensationalists interpret these passages more literally than non-dispensationalists: :
- Isaiah 2:2-4 and Micah 4:1-3 state that there will come a time when the word of the LORD (Jehovah) shall go forth from Jerusalem, and He will judge among the nations. At that time, the nations shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruninghooks; and nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more. Dispensationalists believe this prophecy will be literally fulfilled when Revelation 20:1-6 takes place, because Rev. 20:3 states that Satan will be bound for a thousand years, "that he should deceive the nations no more, till the thousand years should be fulfilled" (although dispensationalists and non-dispensationalists disagree concerning the literal interpretation of this passage, both groups refer to this period of time as the Millennium, or the Millennial reign of Christ). During that time, Rev. 20:4 also states that "the souls of them that were beheaded for the witness of Jesus, and for the word of God, and which had not worshipped the beast, neither his image, neither had received his mark upon their foreheads, or in their hands" will live and reign with Christ for a thousand years. Dispensationalists believe that after this time period that was prophesied in Isaiah 2:2-4 and Micah 4:1-3, Satan will again be loosed out of his prison for "a little season" (Rev. 20:3; see verse 7), until he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone, and tormented "day and night for ever and ever" (verse 10). :
- Zechariah 12:10 states that one day the house of David and the inhabitants of Jerusalem "shall look upon me whom they have pierced, and they shall mourn...as one that is in bitterness for his firstborn" (i.e. they shall mourn for the Lord Jesus Christ, Whom they pierced when they crucified him). Dispensationalists believe this prophecy will be literally fulfilled at the Lord's Second Coming, when "every eye shall see him, and they also which pierced him: and all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of him" (Revelation 1:7). Israel will finally believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, beginning with 144,000 servants of God from the twelve tribes of Israel that will be sealed in their foreheads during the tribulation (Revelation 7:1-8). Afterwards, Zech. 14:16 states that every one of "the nations which came against Jerusalem shall even go up from year to year to worship the King, the LORD of hosts, and to keep the feast of tabernacles". Dispensationalists believe this is the Millennial reign of Christ that was prophesied in Isaiah 2:2-4, Micah 4:1-3, and Revelation 20:2-6. :
- Hosea 1:9 prophesied of a day when God would call Israel "Lo-ammi" ("not my people"). Today, Israel is fulfilling this prophecy by her rejection of the Lord Jesus Christ, Who is the only way to the Father (John 14:6). But again, dispensationalists believe Israel’s present rejection is only temporary, because Paul also states in Ro. 11:25-26 that Israel is only blinded "in part" until "the fulness of the Gentiles" comes in; and "all Israel" will be saved. This indicates that Israel will no longer be blinded after the fulness of the Gentiles arrives. In that day, when Israel is no longer blinded, it will be possible for the Lord to literally fulfill the above-mentioned passages of Isaiah 2:2-4; Micah 4:1-3; Zechariah 12:10 and 14:16; and Revelation 20:2-6. :
- In Acts 1:6-8, after the Lord’s resurrection from the dead, even the apostles expected Him to literally restore the kingdom to Israel. Dispensationalists believe it is significant that the Lord never denied Israel’s kingdom would be restored one day. So, it is believed that Israel’s kingdom has simply been delayed, and not permanently taken away. One day, dispensationalists believe that Romans 11:26 will be literally fulfilled ("all Israel shall be saved") when Israel is provoked to jealousy (see Rom. 11:11); and the Lord will finally restore the kingdom to Israel, just as the apostles expected in Acts 1:6-8. At that time, after Zech 12:10 is fulfilled (when the house of David and the inhabitants of Jerusalem shall look with mourning "upon me whom they have pierced...and shall be in bitterness for him, as one that is in bitterness for his firstborn"), dispensationalists believe that Isaiah 2:2-4, Micah 4:1-3, Zechariah 14:16, and Revelation 20:1-6 will also be literally fulfilled. :
- Just as Israel and Judah have been a curse among the heathen, they will also be a blessing one day, because Zechariah 8:13-15 states, "And it shall come to pass, that as ye were a curse among the heathen, O house of Judah, and house of Israel; so will I save you, and ye shall be a blessing...So again have I thought in these days to do well unto Jerusalem and to the house of Judah: fear ye not." Later in this passage, the Lord promised that "many people and strong nations" will seek Him in Jerusalem, in Zech. 8:22-23 - "Yea, many people and strong nations shall come to seek the LORD of hosts in Jerusalem, and to pray before the LORD....it shall come to pass, that ten men shall take hold out of all languages of the nations, even shall take hold of the skirt of him that is a Jew, saying, We will go with you: for we have heard that God is with you." Dispensationalists do not believe this passage is referring to the church, because verse 33 states that Israel and Judah were a "curse" among the heathen (compare Jeremiah 44:8, which says the same thing). Yet the church was never a curse. Nor does "him that is a Jew", whom God is "with" (verse 23) refer to the Lord Jesus, because He is God (John 1:1). So, dispensationalists interpret verses 13 and 22 above literally. One day, they believe that Israel and Judah will truly be a "blessing", when "strong nations...seek the LORD of hosts in Jerusalem" (again, compare Zechariah 12:10 and 14:16; see also Isaiah 2:2-4; Micah 4:1-3; and Revelation 20:2-6.)

Biblical arguments in opposition to dispensationalism

- According to non-dispensationalist exegetes, the main problems with dispensationalism involve issues in biblical interpretation, including taking literally what, contextually and hermeneutically, should be understood figuratively, taking figuratively what should be understood literally, insisting that predictive prophecy is seldom if ever conditional, and reading a dispensational interpretation into texts (eisegesis) rather than extracting meaning from the texts themselves (exegesis).
- For example, according to the dominant dispensational interpretation of the Book of Revelation, the New Jerusalem's dimensions are accepted at face value, including its height of 12,000 stadia (about 1,400 miles), while, apart from any support in the text whatsoever, many, but not all dispensationalists understand the seven cities of Asia to represent periods of church history.
- Abraham was saved by faith, 430 years before the Law was given to Moses. (See Galatians 3:6,16-19.)
- Deuteronomy 28:58-64 indicates that the promises of God were conditional. "If thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this law that are written in this book... the Lord shall scatter thee among all people, from the one end of the earth even unto the other; and there thou shalt serve other gods, which neither thou nor thy fathers have known, even wood and stone." The conditional nature of predictive prophecy is explained clearly in Jeremiah 18:1-10, with immediate application to God's people in Judah and Jerusalem (vv. 11-17). It is also the subject of the entire book of Jonah. Both Jeremiah and Jonah indicate that prophecies can be conditional even when the conditions are not explicitly stated. Other prophecies without stated conditions are understood as conditional (e.g., 2 Samuel 12:14-23).
- An example of reading into a text is the dispensational use of Titus 2:13, in which some (but certainly not all) dispensationalists separate the "glorious hope" from the "blessed appearance" by the seven-year tribulation period (with no contextual support).
- The New Testament conceives of the church, not as a stop-gap substitution for the kingdom, but as the fulfillment of God's eternal purpose and plan: the faithful remnant of the Jews (the faithful apostles and the earliest Jewish disciples) accepted Jesus as Messiah, joined by a great multitude of Gentiles who have come to faith through their ministry. The new Israel is the heir of God's promises to the unbelieving nation. This theme begins with the preaching of John the Baptizer (see Matt. 3:9-10), continues throughout the ministry of Jesus (see Matt. 21:43), and is confirmed by the aposolic ministry (Acts 10:35-43; Romans 9:22-33; 1 Peter 2:4-10; etc.).
- Romans 11 speaks of the "olive tree" (Israel) as having branches broken off (unbelieving Jews) and branches grafted in (Gentiles). The broken branches can be grafted back in, however, if the unbelieving Jews were to come to faith in Jesus: "And they also, if they abide not still in unbelief, shall be grafted in: for God is able to graft them in again" (Romans 11:23). As far as God is concerned, then, the entire tree--roots, trunk, natural branches (the faithful remnant), and grafted branches (believing Gentiles), are still Israel, and subject to divine blessing under the New Covenant.
- Passages such as Deuteronomy 6:4 ("Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is one." NIV), and Psalm 103:17-18 ("But from everlasting to everlasting the LORD's love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children's children — with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts.") are seen as stating that there is only one entity, and one covenant.
- Jeremiah 31 says that the New Covenant will be with the "house of Israel" and the "house of Judah."
- There are passages in which 'kingdom' and 'church' are interchangeable. These include the Parables of the Kingdom (Mark 4; Matthew 13; Luke 8); Jesus' veiled prediction of His resurrection (Mark 14:25; Luke 22:16,18; Matthew 26:29); verses about entering or seeing the kingdom (e.g., Mark 10:23-25; Matthew 19:23-24; Luke 18:24-25; John 3:3,5); the spiritual nature of the kingdom (Romans 14:17; 1 Corinthians 4:20); and Christians as citizens of the kingdom (e.g., Colossians 1:13; Revelation 1:6; 5:10). A key passage is Christ's announcement that He will found His church and give to Peter the keys of the kingdom (Matthew 16:18-19), which is analogous to saying, "I will build my house and give you the keys to my residence."
- Galatians 3 indicates that there is no "Jew or Greek" in Christ, but only those with faith in Christ, etc. At the end of Galatians, Paul says, "Neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything; what counts is a new creation. Peace and mercy to all who follow this rule, even to the Israel of God." If there is no circumcision or uncircumcision (of the flesh), what is this 'Israel of God'? It must be the saved believers of the New Covenant, who have experienced the circumcision of the heart mentioned in Romans 1:28-29 and Colossians 2:11-13.
- Dispensationalism portrays a God with changing covenants and requirements that may not be part of a single plan for salvation. This goes against the orthodox understanding that God does not change His mind.
- Saved believers of the new covenant are God's children irrespective of their race; this is a major theme in the New Testament: "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God" (Matthew 5:9); see also Luke 3:8; Ephesians 2:11-22; 1 Peter 2:9-10.
- Dispensationalists de-emphasize (or even discourage) human efforts to achieve peace due to the belief that an increase of war and famine is prophesied, and inevitable. Some dispensationalists have taught that international peace institutions such as the United Nations may be paving the way for the reign of the Antichrist.
- In Matthew 24:36, 42, 44 we find "No one knows about the day and hour, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father.... because the Son of Man will come at an hour when you do not expect him.", and Acts 1:7 states "It is not for you to know the dates or times which the Father has set by his own authority." Dispensationalism would seem to violate these statements, by claiming to predict roughly (or sometimes exactly) when prophisied events will occur.
- Some dispensationalists draw up purported timetables for the fulfillment of prophecy. For example, dispensationalist Hal Lindsey wrote a book with the title The 1980s: Countdown to Armageddon. None of the prophecies made by Lindsey were fulfilled. Edgar Whisenant's 88 Reasons Why the Rapture will be in 1988 has likewise been set aside by the passing of the years.
- The old distinction between Jew and Gentile is permanently erased in Christ: "Remember that at the time you were separated from Christ, excluded from citizenship in Israel and foreigners to the covenants of the promise, without hope and without God in the world. But now in Christ Jesus you who once were far away have been brought near through the blood of Christ. For he himself is our peace, who has made the two one and has destroyed the barrier, the dividing wall of hostility. . ." (Ephesians 2:12-14).
- The Apostle Paul describes one plan of salvation open to Gentile and Jew alike (Romans 1:16-17; Galatians 3:26-29).

People

The following individuals have been associated with dispensationalism:
- Ron J. Bigalke Jr.
- James H. Brookes, (1830-1897) minister, writer, and theologian. Cyrus I. Scofield was one of his students
- Rev. Clarence Larkin, (1850-1924) author of many pamphlets and books around 1918 containing extensive graphical dispensational charts with commentary
- Jack Chick, (born 1924) controversial fundamentalist cartoonist and founder of Chick Publications.
- John Nelson Darby, (1800-1882) British preacher, Plymouth Brethren co-founder, and considered by many as the "father of dispensationalism"
- Tim LaHaye, minister, author of the "Left Behind" novel series, and speaker
- Hal Lindsey, (born 1929) evangelist and author of "The Late Great Planet Earth" and other books advocating a dispensationalist and fundamentalist understanding of Christianity
- Charles Caldwell Ryrie, (born 1925) Christian writer and theologian. Better known for his "Ryrie Study Bible" which is known to teach dispensationalism
- Cyrus I. Scofield, (1843-1921) minister, scholar, and theologian. Better known for his influencial Scofield Reference Bible, (published in 1909) that popularized dispensationalism
- Miles J. Stanford, (1914-1999) Christian author and Pauline dispensationalist
- Jack Van Impe, (born 1930) tele-evangelist known for interpreting current events in light of a dispensationalist approach to biblical prophecy
- John Walvoord , (1910-2002) long-time president of Dallas Theological Seminary and leading proponent of dispensationalism in late-20th century.
- Kenneth Wuest
- Arnold Fruchtenbaum
- Thomas Ice
- J. Dwight Pentecost

References

- Allis, Oswald T. Prophecy and the Church (Presbyterian & Reformed, 1945; reprint: Wipf & Stock, 2001). ISBN 15795107095
- Bass, Clarence B.: Backgrounds to Dispensationalism (Baker Books, 1960) ISBN 0801005353
- Boyer, Paul: When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture (Belknap, 1994) ISBN 0674951298
- Camp, Gregory S. Selling Fear: Conspiracy Theories and End-Time Paranoia (Baker, 1997) ISBN 0801057213
- Clouse, Robert G., ed. The Millennium: Four Views (InterVarsity, 1977) ISBN 0877847940
- Crenshaw, Curtis I., and Grover E. Gunn, III. Dispensationalism: Today, Yesterday, and Tomorrow (Footstool, 1987) ISBN 1877818011
- Crutchfield, Larry. Origins of Dispensationalism: The Darby Factor (University Press of America, 1992). ISBN 01819184683
- Enns, Paul: The Moody Handbook of Theology (Moody, 1989) ISBN 0802434282
- Fruchtenbaum, Arnold. "The Footsteps of the Messiah" (Ariel Press, 2003) ISBN 0914863096
- Granz, Stanley. The Millennial Maze (InterVarsity, 1992) ISBN 0830817573
- LaHaye, Tim, and Jerry B. Jenkins. Are We Living in the End Times? (Tyndale House, 1999) ISBN 0842300988
- Noē, John. The Apocalypse Conspiracy (Wolgemuth & Hyatt, 1991). ISBN 1561210404
- Oropeza, B. J. 99 Reasons Why No One Knows When Christ Will Return (InterVarsity, 1994). ISBN 0830816364
- Reymond, Robert L. New Systematic Theology Of The Christian Faith (Nelson 2d ed., 1998) ISBN 0849913179
- Ryrie, Charles C. Dispensationalism (Moody, 1995) ISBN 0802421873
- Ryrie, Charles C. Basic Theology (Moody, 1999) ISBN 0802427340
- Singleton, Steve. Behind ‘Left Behind’: The Popular Novel Series Not a Reliable Guide to End-Times Events (E-book: DeeperStudy.com, 2001)
- Walvoord, John. The Millennial Kingdom (Zondervan, 1983) ISBN 0310340918

External links

Dispensationalist sites

- [http://www.pre-trib.org Pre-Trib Research Center]
- [http://www.conservativeonline.org/index.php Conservative Theological Society]
- [http://www.eternalministries.org Eternal Ministries]
- [http://www.hallindseyoracle.com/ Hal Lindsey]
- [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/ Plymouth Brethren]
- [http://www.pre-trib.org Pre-Trib Research Center]
- [http://www.voicesforchrist.org/ "Voices for Christ"]
- [http://www.dts.edu Dallas Theological Seminary]
- [http://www.solagratia.org/Categories/Dispensationalism.aspx Articles on Dispensationalism]
- [http://www.jesus2006.org Signs of the End]
- [http://withChrist.org/center.htm Pauline Dispensationalism]
- [http://withChrist.org/MJS/ Miles J. Stanford]

Critics of Dispensationalism

- [http://planetpreterist.com Planet Preterist]
- [http://www.truthout.org/ There is no tomorrow] by Bill Moyers
- [http://www.grist.org/news/maindish/2004/10/27/scherer-christian/ The Godly Must Be Crazy] by Glenn Scherer
- [http://www.alternet.org/waroniraq/15221/ When U.S. Foreign Policy Meets Biblical Prophecy] by Paul S. Boyer
- [http://www.fisheaters.com/dispensationalism.html Dispensationalism from the Traditional Catholic Perspective]
- [http://www.kensmen.com/catholic/endtimes.html Eschatology from the Traditional Catholic Perspective]
- [http://www.fwponline.cc/v9n1reasoner.html The Obituary of Dispensationalism: 1830-1988] by Vic Reasoner
- [http://www.bible-researcher.com/gal6-16.html The Israel of God (Galatians 6:16)] by Michael Marlowe, a Reformed critic of dispensationalism
- [http://www.historicist.com/related_subjects/interpretations.htm Origins of the three interpretations of prophecy including the works of Isaac Newton] Category:Christian fundamentalism Category:Christian philosophy Category:Christian eschatology Category:Christian theology

Bible

The Bible (sometimes The Book, Good Book, Word of God, The Word, or Scripture), from Greek (τα) βιβλια, (ta) biblia, "(the) books", plural of βιβλιον, biblion, "book", originally a diminutive of βιβλος, biblos, which in turn is derived from βυβλος—byblos, meaning "papyrus", from the ancient Phoenician city of Byblos which exported this writing material), is the classical name for the Hebrew Bible of Judaism or the combination of the Old Testament and New Testament of Christianity ("The Bible" therefore actually refers to at least two different Bibles). It is thus applied to sacred scriptures. Many Christian English speakers refer to the Christian Bible as "the good book" (Gospel means "good news"). For many people, their Bible is the revealed word of God or an authoritative record of the relationship between God, the world, and humankind. Both Bibles have been the most widely distributed of books. It has also been translated more times, and into more languages, than any other book. The complete Bible, or portions of it, have been translated into more than 2,100 languages. It is said that more than 5 billion copies of the Bible have been sold since 1815, making it the best-selling book of all-time. Because of Christian domination of Europe from the late Roman era to the Age of Enlightenment, the Christian Bible has influenced not only religion, but language, law and, until the modern era, the natural philosophy of mainstream Western Civilization. The Age of Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution in Europe and America brought skepticism regarding the divine origin and historical accuracy of the Bible and Bible prophecy. Scholars such as Professor Peter Stoner and Dr. Hawley O. Taylor have argued that Bible prophecy is of a remarkable nature and did not happen by mere chance. Skeptics counter, however, that there have been notable figures like Porphyry of Tyros and the scholar Gustave Holscher who have made criticisms of Bible prophecy. With that being said, many still view the Bible as a great work of literature, including important reflections on morality, and dramatic love poetry such as the Song of Solomon. Although the term "Bible" is most often used to refer to Jewish and Christian scriptures, "Bible" is sometimes used to describe scriptures of other faiths. Thus the Guru Granth Sahib is often referred to as the "Sikh Bible". In the early years after the publication of the Book of Mormon in 1830, it was sometimes known as the "Golden Bible". The word "bible" (in lower case) is also used to refer to any tome which incorporates comprehensive and/or authoritative coverage of its subject. As the original meaning of the word indicates, the Jewish and Christian Bibles are actually collections of several books, considered to be inspired by God or to record God's relationship with humanity or a particular nation.

The Hebrew Bible

God.]] The Hebrew Bible (also known as the Jewish Bible, or תנ"ך, Tanakh in Hebrew) consists of 24 books. Tanakh is an acronym for three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim.

Torah

The Torah, or "teaching" is also known as the five books of Moses, thus Chumash or Pentateuch (Hebrew and Greek for "five," respectively). The five books are:
- I Genesis (Bereishit בראשית),
- II Exodus (Shemot שמות),
- III Leviticus (Vayikra ויקרא),
- IV Numbers (Bemidbar במדבר) and
- V Deuteronomy (Devarim דברים) The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people.
- The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity.
- The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel), and Jacob's children (the "Children of Israel"), especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt
- The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, the greatest Hebrew prophet, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in Egypt, to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses. Traditionally, the Torah contains 613 mitzvot, or commandments, of God, revealed during the passage from slavery in the land of Egypt to freedom in the land of Canaan. These commandments provide the basis for Jewish law Halakha and are elaborated in the Talmud. The Torah is divided into fifty four portions which are read in turn, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy, each Sabbath. The cycle ends and recommences at the end of Sukkot.

The Two Torahs

By the Hellenistic period of Jewish history, Jews were divided over the nature of the Torah. Some (for example, the Sadducees) believed that the Chumash contained the entire Torah, that is, the entire contents of what God revealed to Moses at Sinai and in the desert. Others, principally the Pharisees, believed that the Chumash represented only that portion of the revelation that had been written down (i.e. the Written Torah or the Written Law), but that the rest of God's revelation had been passed down orally (thus composing the Oral Law or Oral Torah). Orthodox Jews today believe that the Talmud consists of the Oral Torah committed to writing.

The Four Sources

Although Orthodox Jews generally believe that the Torah was given to the Children of Israel at Sinai "Min Hashamayim", from the heavens — that is, that God actually dictated the words of Torah to Moses atop Mount Sinai — most Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist Jews, as well as many liberal Christian scholars, now accept the Documentary hypothesis. This theory posits that the Written Torah has its origins in earlier sources who lived during the time of the monarchy, labeled J (Yahwists), E (Elohim), D (Deuteronomists), and P (Priests). These in turn may go back to oral traditions and/or drew on (and sometimes parodied) earlier ancient Near Eastern mythology. The documentary hypothesis posits that these four distinct traditions (or sources) are evident in the Torah. Julius Wellhausen, who in the late 1800s gave this hypothesis a definitive formulation, suggested that these sources were edited together or redacted during the time of Ezra, perhaps by Ezra himself. Jewish scholars who accept the documentary hypothesis differ as to whether these sources were or were not divinely inspired, and differ over the nature and extent of their obligation to the 613 commandments and the body of law represented in the Oral Torah, although each branch of Judaism recognizes both the Written and Oral Torahs as central to Jewish tradition, whether it be conceived of as sacred, national, or cultural. The documentary hypothesis has not been without its critics. For example, evangelical Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen, and Gleason Archer, have sharply criticized and rejected the documentary hypothesis using various lines of argumentation, as has the critical scholar R. N. Whybray.[http://www.equip.org/free/DW035.htm][http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/moses.html][http://www.ankerberg.com/Articles/apologetics/AP0404W3.htm][http://answering-islam.org.uk/Campbell/s3c1.html]

Nevi'im

Nevi'im, or "Prophets," tells the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, judged the kings and the Children of Israel. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judea by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Portions of the prophetic books are read on the Sabbath (Shabbat). The Book of Jonah is read on Yom Kippor. According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books. The eight books are:
- I. Joshua or Yehoshua [יהושע]
- II. Judges or Shoftim [שופטים]
- III. Samuel or Shmu'el [שמואל] (often divided into two books; Samuel may be considered the last of the judges (his sons were named judges, but rejected by the people) or the first of the prophets; it was he who negotiated on behalf of the Children of Israel with God to anoint a King)
- IV. Kings or Melakhim [מלכים] (often divided into two books)
- V. Isaiah or Yeshayahu [ישעיהו]
- VI. Jeremiah or Yirmiyahu [ירמיהו]
- VII. Ezekiel or Yehezq'el [יחזקאל]
- VIII. Trei Asar (The Twelve Minor Prophets) תרי עשר
- 1. Hosea or Hoshea [הושע]
- 2. Joel or Yo'el [יואל]
- 3. Amos [עמוס]
- 4. Obadiah or Ovadyah [עבדיה]
- 5. Jonah or Yonah [יונה]
- 6. Micah or Mikhah [מיכה]
- 7. Nahum or Nachum [נחום]
- 8. Habakkuk or Habaquq [חבקוק]
- 9. Zephaniah or Tsefania [צפניה]
- 10. Haggai or Haggai [חגי]
- 11. Zechariah Zekharia [זכריה]
- 12. Malachi or Malakhi [מלאכי] The Torah and the Nevi'im have an epical quality, although they have no human hero (Moses and David are, in many ways, anti-heros; one may consider the Children of Israel collectively to be the hero of the epic, or, if one must chose a single character, God)

Ketuvim

Ketuvim, or "Writings," were, according to critical scholars, mostly written during or after the Babylonian Exile and were among the last books to be canonized. According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of Psalms are attributed to King David; King Solomon wrote three books: Song of Songs in his youth, Proverbs at the prime of his life, and Ecclesiastes at old age; and the prophet Jeremiah wrote Lamentations. The Book of Job is the only Biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew. The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a Moabite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of King David. Five of the books, called "The Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: Song of Songs on Passover; the Book of Ruth on Shavuot; Lamentations on the Ninth of Av; Ecclesiastes on Sukkot; and the Book of Esther on Purim. Collectively, the Ketuvim contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Judea to rebuild the Temple. Ketuvim contains eleven books:
- I. Tehillim (Psalms) תהלים
- II. Mishlei (Book of Proverbs) משלי
- III. `Iyyov (Book of Job) איוב
- IV. Shir ha-Shirim (Song of Songs) שיר השירים
- V. Ruth (Book of Ruth) רות
- VI. Eikhah (Lamentations) איכה [Also called Kinnot in Hebrew.]
- VII. Kohelet (Ecclesiastes) קהלת
- VIII. Esther (Book of Esther) אסתר
- IX. Daniel (Book of Daniel) דניאל
- X. Ezra (often divided into two books, Book of Ezra and Book of Nehemiah) עזרא
- XI. Divrei ha-Yamim (Chronicles, often divided into two books) דברי הימים

Translations and editions

The Tanakh was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Aramaic. Some time in the 3rd century BC, the Torah was translated into Koine Greek, and over the next century other books were translated as well. This translation became known as the Septuagint and was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews and, later, by Christians. It differs somewhat from the Hebrew text as standardized later (Masoretic Text). From the 800s to the 1400s, Rabbinic Jewish scholars known as the Masoretes compared the text of all known Biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified standardized text; a series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called niqqud) to the text, since the original text only contained consonants. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since words can differ only in their vowels, and thus the meaning can vary in accordance with the choice of vowels to insert. In antiquity other variant readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Dead Sea scrolls, and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages. Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books additional to what was included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition from the one that eventually became the basis for the Masoretic texts. The Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as targums, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Rabbinic oral tradition. See below for a partial list of contemporary English translations.

The Christian Bible

targum The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the Masoretic text as the basis for translations into Western languages from Saint Jerome's Vulgate to the present day. In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text that seem to have suffered corruption in transcription. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in texts discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. (For more information, see the entry on Bible translations).

The Old Testament

The collection of books that the majority of Christians (including members of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox Churches) call the Old Testament include not only the 24 books of the Jewish Tanakh, but also certain deuterocanonical books preserved in the Greek of the Septuagint. The Roman Catholic Church recognizes seven such books (Tobit, Judith, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), and Baruch), as well as some passages in Esther and Daniel, that are not included in the Jewish Scriptures. Various Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically 3 Maccabees, Psalm 151, 1 Esdras, Odes, Psalms of Solomon, and occasionally even 4 Maccabees. Protestants in general do not recognize these books as truly part of the Bible, though they may print them along with the books they do recognize.

The New Testament

The New Testament is a collection of 27 books with Jesus as its central figure, written in Koine Greek in the early Christian period, that almost all Christians recognize as Scripture. These can be grouped into:
- The Synoptic Gospels
- The Gospel of John
- The Acts of the Apostles
- The Pauline Epistles
- The General Epistles
- Revelation - John "the divine", traditionally identified as John the Apostle.

Original language

Most scholars believe that all of the New Testament was originally composed in Greek. The three main textual traditions are sometimes called the Western text-type, the Alexandrian text-type, and Byzantine text-type. Together they comprise the majority of New Testament manuscripts. There are also several ancient versions in other languages, most important of which are the Syriac (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony) and the Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate). A few scholars believe in Aramaic primacy - that parts of the Greek New Testament are actually a translation of an Aramaic original, in particular the Gospel of Matthew. Of these, a small number accept the Syriac Peshitta as representing the original, while most take a more critical approach to reconstructing the original text.

Historic editions

The earliest printed edition of the New Testament in Greek appeared in 1516 from the Froben press. It was compiled by Desiderius Erasmus on the basis of the few recent Greek manuscripts, all of Byzantine tradition, at his disposal, which he completed by translating from the Vulgate parts for which he did not have a Greek text. He produced four later editions of the text. Erasmus was a deeply religious Roman Catholic, but his preference for the textual tradition represented in Byzantine Greek text of the time rather than that in the Latin Vulgate led to him being viewed with suspicion by some authorities of his Church. The first edition with critical apparatus (variant readings in manuscripts) was produced by the printer Robert Estienne of Paris in 1550. The type of text printed in this edition and in those of Erasmus became known as the Textus Receptus (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the Elzevier edition of 1633, which termed it the text "nunc ab omnibus receptum" ("now received by all"). On it the Churches of the Protestant Reformation based their translations into vernacular languages, such as the King James Version. The discovery of older manuscripts, such as the Codex Sinaiticus and the Codex Vaticanus, led scholars to revise their opinion of this text. Karl Lachmann’s critical edition of 1831, based on manuscripts dating from the fourth century and earlier, was intended primarily to demonstrate that the Textus Receptus must finally be rejected. Later critical texts are based on further scholarly research and the finding of papyrus fragments dating in some cases from within a few decades of the composition of the New Testament writings. It is on the basis of these that nearly all modern translations or revisions of older translations have, for more than a century, been made, though some still prefer the Textus Receptus or the similar "Byzantine Majority Text".

The canonization of Scripture

For Judaism, it is commonly thought that the canonical status of some books was discussed between 200 BC and around 100 AD, though it is unclear at what point during this period the Jewish canon was decided. To the books accepted by Judaism as Scripture, Christianity subsequently added those of the New Testament, the 27-book canon of which was finally fixed in the 4th century. As indicated above, Christianity also mostly considers certain deuterocanonical books to be part of the Old Testament, though Protestantism in general accepts as part of the Old Testament only the books in the canon of Judaism and uses the term Apocrypha for the deuterocanonical books. The Protestant Old Testament has a 39-book canon– the number varies from that of the books in the Tanakh because of a different way of dividing them – while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the Old Testament. For details, see Books of the Bible. Canonicity is distinct from questions of human authorship and the formation of the books of the Bible, questions discussed in the entries on higher criticism and textual criticism.

Biblical versions and translations

In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as 'versions', with the term 'translation' being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Information about Bible versions is given below, while Bible translations can be found on a separate page. The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some portions were in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of much of the Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. Early Christians produced translations of the Hebrew Bible into several languages; their primary Biblical text was the Septuagint. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament. The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible. The ever-increasing number of variants in Latin manuscripts induced Pope Damasus, in 382, to commission his secretary, Saint Jerome, to produce a reliable and consistent text. Jerome later took it on himself to make a completely new translation directly from the Hebrew of the Tanakh. This translation became the basis of the Vulgate Latin translation. Though he also translated Psalms from Hebrew, the earlier Septuagint-based version, slightly revised by him, is the text that was actually used in Church and is included in editions of the Vulgate. This includes the deuterocanonical books, also revised by Jerome, and became the official translation of the Roman Catholic Church. See Origin and Growth of the English Bible for a chart on how the English Bible came to be.

The Introduction of chapters and verses

; see Tanakh for the Jewish textual tradition. The Hebrew Masoretic text contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the Talmudic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called parashiyot, which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the parashiyot is usually thematic. The parashiyot are not numbered. In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the Aleppo codex) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must always begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections never start at the beginning of a new line. Another related feature of the Masoretic text is the division of the sedarim. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the quantity of text. The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called Kephalaia. It is not identical to the present chapters. The current division of the Bible into chapters and the verse numbers within the chapters have no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by many Jews as well, as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a 1330 manuscript, and for a printed edition in 1516. However, for the past generation most Jewish editions of the complete Hebrew Bible have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text. The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism from traditionalists and modern scholars alike. Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate points within the narrative, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, even the critics admit that the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study. Stephen Langton is reputed to have been the first to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible, in 1205. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 1400s. Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in 1565 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible).[http://www.fuller.edu/ministry/berean/chs_vss.htm][http://www.theexaminer.org/history/chap6.htm]

References

- Anderson, Bernhard W. Understanding the Old Testament (ISBN 0139483993)
- Dever, William B. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did they Come from? Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0802809758.
- Head, Tom. The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible. Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0789734192.
- Miller, John W. The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0809135221.
- Silberman, Neil A. and colleagues. The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0684869136.
- [http://www.geocities.com/stonerdon/science_speaks.html Peter, Stoner Science Speaks, Chapter 2: Prophetic Accuracy, Chicago, Moody Press, 1963 (online version available)]
- Taylor, Hawley O., "Mathematics and Prophecy," Modern Science and Christian Faith, Wheaton,: Van Kampen, 1948, pp.175-183.
- Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, subject: prophecy, page 1410, Moody Bible Press, Chicago, 1986
- Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, subject: Book of Ezekiel, page 580, Moody Bible Press, Chicago, 1986
- Heline, Corinne, New Age Bible Interpretation, 1954, New Age Bible & Philosophy Center, Santa Monica (CA), [http://www.campusi.com/ta_New_Age_Bible_Interpretation_by_Heline.htm 7 volumes]

External links

- [http://www.BibleGateway.com/ BibleGateway.com] (NIV, ESV, etc.)
- [http://biblestudytools.net/ BibleStudyTools.net] (NRSV, NKJV, etc.)
- [http://www.sacredbible.org/ SacredBible.org] Latin Vulgate
- [http://www.unboundbible.org/ UnboundBible.org] Languages other than English
- [http://bible.tmtm.com/ Bible Wiki] The Bible as a Wiki
- [http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/ Skeptic's Annotated Bible] A critical view of the Bible, using the unedited text of the King James version Category:Holy scripture Category:Metanarratives Category:Religious texts zh-min-nan:Sèng-keng ko:성서 ms:Bible ja:聖書 simple:Bible

Old Testament

The Old Testament or the Hebrew Scriptures (also called the Hebrew Bible) constitutes the first major part of the Bible according to Christianity. It is usually divided into the categories of law, history, poetry (or wisdom books) and prophecy. All of these books were written before the birth of Jesus of Nazareth who is the subject of the subsequent Christian New Testament. The Bible of Jesus is the Old Testament, specifically according to the Gospel of Luke 24:44 "written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms" (KJV).

Canon of the Old Testament

:Main article: Biblical canon Following Jerome's Veritas Hebraica, the Protestant Old Testament consists of the same books as the Tanakh, but the order and numbering of the books are different. Protestants number the Old Testament books at 39, while the Jews number the same books as 24. This is because the Jews consider Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles to form one book each, group the 12 minor prophets into one book, and also consider Ezra and Nehemiah a single book. The Roman Catholic, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox include books removed by Martin Luther, called the deuterocanonical books, which Protestants exclude as apocryphal. The basis for these books is found in the early Koine Greek Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible. This translation was widely used by the early Christians and is the one most often quoted (300 of 350 quotations including many of Jesus' own words) in the New Testament when it quotes the Old Testament. See also: Books of the Bible, for a side-by-side comparison of the various canons of the Hebrew Bible.

Historicity of the Old Testament

The historicity of the Old Testament has been a matter of debate, particularly since the 19th century when Julius Wellhausen using source criticism claimed to have isolated four strands of tradition behind the Pentateuch (JEDP)(see the documentary hypothesis). The Wellhausen School assigned dates for these strands (and their later editing) from the 10th-5th centuries BCE. Because the composition of the Pentateuch according to Wellhausen was so much later than the events it described, those who accept Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis tend to regard the narratives of the Pentateuch as largely fictional or legendary. Conservative biblical scholarship, on the other hand, generally rejected Wellhausen's Documenatary Hypothesis along with its negative assessment of Israelite historicity. In the 20th century, with the dawn of modern archaeology and a comparative ancient Near Eastern approach led by biblical archaeologist William F. Albright, the general historicity of the biblical narratives became increasingly accepted by critical scholarship until about 1970, though not completely. Since the 1970s new objections were raised by John van Seters and Thomas L. Thompson concerning the Albright School's comparative analysis, arguing instead for a less historical understanding of these narratives. This has resulted in a movement away from Albright's higher view of the historicity of the Hebrew Bible's account of Israel's early history. Current debate concerning the historicity of the Old Testament can be divided into several camps. One group has been labeled by its critics "biblical miminalists." Minimalists (e.g. Philip Davies) see very little reliable history in any of the Old Testament. Other critical scholars (e.g. William Dever) take the label "biblical maximalists" and see considerable historical reliability in biblical accounts at least from the time of the monarchy onwards, though even "maximalists" express doubts about accounts from the time of the Judges and earlier. Conservative Old Testament scholars generally accept the historicity of all Old Testament narratives on confessional grounds, though they argue that such a belief is not incompatible with the external evidience (e.g. Kenneth Kitchen). For further discussion, see The Bible and History

Naming of the Old Testament

Tertullian, in the 2nd century, was the first to use the terms novum testamentum/new testament and vetus testamentum/old testament, for example, in Against Marcion book 3 [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian123.html], chapter 14, he wrote: :This may be understood to be the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel and in book 4 [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian124.html], chapter 6, he wrote: :For it is certain that the whole aim at which he has strenuously laboured even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator, as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the prophets. Lactantius, in the 3rd century, in his Divine Institutes, book 4, chapter 20 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-07/anf07-07.htm#P1533_624437], wrote: :But all Scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ - that is, the law and the prophets - is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: [Jer. 31:31-32,Vulgate] "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord." ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that that which was to be given by Christ would be complete. The Vulgate translation, in the 5th century, used testamentum in 2nd Corinthians 3 [http://www.latinvulgate.com/verse.aspx?t=1&b=8&c=3]: :(6)Who also hath made us fit ministers of the new testament, not in the letter but in the spirit. For the letter killeth: but the spirit quickeneth. (Douay-Rheims) :(14)But their senses were made dull. For, until this present day, the selfsame veil, in the reading of the old testament, remaineth not taken away (because in Christ it is made void). (Douay-Rheims) However, the more modern NRSV translates these verses from the Koine Greek as such: :(6)who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant, not of letter but of spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life. :(14)But their minds were hardened. Indeed, to this very day, when they hear the reading of the old covenant, that same veil is still there, since only in Christ is it set aside. Thus, it is common to conflate the English terms testament and covenant, even though they are not synonymous. The term "Old Testament" is a translation of the Latin Vetus Testamentum, which translates the Greek Η Παλαια Διαθηκη, I Palea Diathiki, meaning "The Old Covenant (or Testament)". Some believe Christians came to call this group of books the Old Testament because of a belief taught in the Epistle to the Hebrews and based on Jeremiah 31:31-34 that Jesus of Nazareth established a New Covenant or testament between God and mankind. This new covenant is said to be in contrast with the covenant made through Moses during the exodus (Hebrews 8:9; Jeremiah 31:32). Books written after Jesus established this new covenant or testament are thus called the books of the new covenant/testament, or simply the New Testament. The earlier books are then called the books of the Old Testament in contrast. However, it should be kept in mind that the church father Tertullian invented this terminology and the terms testament and covenant are actually unrelated. Also, not all Christians believe there is a contrast, first proposed by Marcion of Sinope, between the Old and New Testaments. Judaism accepts as Scripture the same books as those found in the Protestant Old Testament, though the ordering of the books in the Jewish Bible differs from that of the Protestant English Old Testament. However, because Judaism does not accept the books of the New Testament as Scripture, they do not label their Bible "the Old Testament." For Jews the books of the Protestant Old Testament are simply "the Bible." Since the books of the Jewish Bible were written primarily in Hebrew (with some Aramaic), the Bible of Judaism is also called "the Hebrew Bible." The term Hebrew Bible is a theologically neutral term as compared with "the Old Testament" which is distinctively Christian. Another Jewish term for the Jewish Bible/Old Testament is Tanakh, which is short for Torah, Nebi'im, and Ketubim, or Law, Prophets and Writings, the three major divisions of the Hebrew Bible. 21st century Christian theologian Marva Dawn has advocated calling the Old Testament the First Testament, freeing the writings from any trace of irrelevancy associated with aging in western culture. However, Dawn's label has not yet gained much popularity.

Christian use of the Old Testament

The relationship between the Old Testament and the New Testament is not fully agreed upon among Christians. There is some debate among Protestant scholars over the issue of whether the New Testament applies to Jewish people, but there is very little debate over its applicability to Gentiles. Similarly, the degree to which the Old Testament and its laws applies to Christians is disputed, see antinomianism. Very few Christians, for example, follow the dietary laws within the Old Testament, whereas most Christians believe that the Ten Commandments are applicable, with the possible exception of the Sabbath. The question of which Old Testament laws are applicable affects debates on a variety of issues, including homosexuality and the ordination of women to the priesthood, see Cafeteria Christianity. Most Christians agree, however, that understanding the Old Testament is essential to understanding the New Testament, and that the contents of both are inspired by God. Some historical groups such as Gnostics have gone so far as to assert that the God of the Old Testament is a different being from the God of the New Testament, often calling the Old Testament God the demiurge; of these, some like Marcion of Sinope, though technically not a gnostic, went further to say that the Old Testament should not be retained as part of the Christian Bible. Most Christian groups believe that this view is heresy. Today, many scholars prefer Hebrew Bible as a term that covers the commonality of the Tanakh and the Old Testament while avoiding sectarian bias, although this commonality only includes the Protestant Old Testament. The New Testament contains many references to, and quotes from, the Old Testament, especially in relation to the fulfillment of prophecies (see Bible prophecy) concerning the promised messiah (Greek: Christ), whom Christians believe to be Jesus of Nazareth. In Christian theological views, this expectation, present fulfillment and eschatological fulfillment of the divine, eternal kingdom under the headship of Jesus of Nazareth are the thread running through both Testaments. Supersessionists adhere to a doctrine that claims the replacement of the nation of Israel with the Christian Church since Christ. This is based upon a number of New Testament verses, one of which is Galatians 3:28, which says And if you are Christ's, then you are Abraham's offspring, (and) heirs according to the promise (English Standard Version). In practice, this means that while the Old Testament ceremonial and dietary laws can be dispensed with, the ethical and moral laws remain. Moreover, those who believe in Supersessionism also hold to the belief that specific Old Testament prophecies about Israel are fulfilled in both the person of Jesus of Nazareth and the church as God's people. Proponents of Dispensationalism and others disagree with this thesis. For example, it is not compatible with Orthodox Christianity or Roman Catholicism. Another take on the matter is proposed by Covenant Theologians, who believe that the various covenants of the Bible are supersessive, and culminate in the covenant made in the blood of Jesus of Nazareth, but who claim that Israel has always served as a type (or symbol) of the national church, and who assume a pattern of continuity between the covenants unless a discontinuity is specifically introduced by the covenant-maker (such as the discontinuity between dietary and social proscriptions). It is useful to note that Dispensationalists, Supersessionists and Covenant Theologians may all be considered to be Evangelical Christian views.

Christian view of the Law

Traditional Christianity affirms that the laws or Torah of the Old Testament is the word of God, but many Christians deny that all of the laws of the Pentateuch apply directly to themselves as Christians. The New Testament indicates that Jesus Christ established a new covenent relationship between God and his people (Hebrews 8; Jeremiah 31:31-34) and this makes the Mosaic covenant in some senses obsolete (Hebrews 8:13). A change of covenant can imply a change of law. Many have interpreted Mark's statement, "thus he declared all foods clean" (Mark 7:19) to mean that Jesus taught that the pentateuchal food laws were no longer applicable to Christians. The writer of Hebrews indicates that the sacrifices and the Levitical priesthood foreshadowed Jesus Christ's offering of himself as the sacrifice for sin on the Cross and many have interpreted this to mean that once the reality of Christ has come, the shadows of the ritual laws cease to be obligatory (Heb 8:5; 9:23-26; 10:1). On the other hand, the New Testament repeats and applies to Christians a number of Old Testament laws, including "Love your neighbor as yourself" (Leviticus 19:18; compare the Golden Rule), "Love the LORD your God with all your heart, soul and strength" (Deuteronomy 6:4, the Shema) as well as every commandment of the Decalogue or Ten Commandments (Exod 20:1-17), except for most, the Sabbath commandment. See also Matthew 5:17. This has led to a variety of theological systems to explain which laws do and which do not apply to Christians. While some Christians from time to time have deduced from statements about the law in the writings of the apostle Paul that Christians are under grace to the exclusion of all law (see antinomianism), this is not the usual viewpoint of Christians. One common approach is found in the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646) which divides the Mosaic laws into three categories: moral, civil, and ceremonial. In the view of the Westminster divines, only the moral law such as most of the Ten Commandments directly applies to Christians today. Others limit the application of the Mosaic laws to those commands repeated in the New Testament. In the 1970s and 1980s a movement known as Christian Reconstructionism (Theonomy) argued that the civil laws as well as the moral laws should be applied in today's society as part of establishing a modern, theocratic state. Others are content to grant that none of the Mosaic laws apply as such and that the penalties attached to the laws were limited to the particular historical and theological setting of the Old Testament, and yet still seek to find moral and religious principles applicable for today in all parts of the law. The topic of Paul and the law is still frequently debated among New Testament scholars, for example see New Perspective on Paul. In the late 20th century some Christian groups, primarily those found in or influenced by Messianic Judaism, have asserted that Torah laws should be followed by Christians. Due to a different understanding of Biblical passages such as those referenced above, dietary laws, seventh day Sabbath, and Biblical festival days are observed in some way within such segments of Christianity. As with Orthodox Judaism, capital punishment and sacrifice are not practiced because there are strict Biblical conditions on how these are to be practiced. Christians who attempt to follow Torah law do not do such works in order to achieve salvation, but rather because they wish to more fully obey God (see Sermon on the Mount). See sources below (Lancaster and Berkowitz).

Dispensationalism

History

Dispensationalist theology

The seven dispensational periods

The four basic tenets

Hyper-dispensationalism

Influence of dispensationalist beliefs

Dispensationalism and Messianic Judaism

Dispensationalism and world politics

Dispensationalism and United States politics

Dispensationalism and fiction

Biblical arguments in favor of dispensationalism

Biblical arguments in opposition to dispensationalism

People

References

See also

External links

Dispensationalist sites

Critics of Dispensationalism

Bible

The Hebrew Bible

Torah

The Two Torahs

The Four Sources

Nevi'im

Ketuvim

Translations and editions

The Christian Bible

The Old Testament

The New Testament

Original language

Historic editions

The canonization of Scripture

Biblical versions and translations

The Introduction of chapters and verses

See also

References

External links

Old Testament

Canon of the Old Testament

Historicity of the Old Testament

Naming of the Old Testament

Christian use of the Old Testament

Christian view of the Law

See also

Further reading