:: wikimiki.org ::

Divine Grace

Divine grace

Divine grace is believed by Christians to be the sovereign favour of God exercised in the bestowment of blessings upon those who have no merit in them. Most broadly, divine grace refers to God's gifts to humankind, including life, creation, and salvation. More narrowly but more commonly, grace describes the means by which humans are saved from original sin and granted salvation. This latter concept of grace is of central importance in the theology of Christianity, as well as one of the most contentious issues in Christian sectarianism. sect.]]

Shared concepts of grace

Most Christians believe that people receive salvation through the grace of God. Most Christians of any of the major Western denominations agree that mankind is born in a state of sin. This is a consequence of original sin; a sinful nature is inherited; it is part of man's condition. Traditionally, original sin is explained as a result of the fall of man through the first sins of Adam and Eve in Eden. Some would now reject the story from Genesis as history. But even those who reject it still agree that men are born in sin. The original state of grace enjoyed by the once-good people God created has been lost, for them and for their descendants. We are born having forfeited any claim to salvation. (By contrast, Eastern Orthodoxy does not subscribe to this particular doctrine of original sin.) God's grace responds to this otherwise hopeless situation. God, at His initiative, sent prophets and other teachers to reveal His existence to mankind. He gave the Torah, the Law of Moses, to the Jews, and made them his chosen people to provide a moral example to the rest of mankind. It was also through the Jews that God's grace sent his Son, Jesus Christ, who sought to make atonement for the sins of mankind through his crucifixion and subsequent resurrection. God's grace is freely given, on behalf of the men He has called to salvation. God was not obliged to save anyone; men cannot make themselves good enough to earn their way into Heaven on their own initiative, or give rise to a duty on God's part to save them. It is only through the redemption bought by Christ's sacrifice that anyone is saved, and the path of salvation for men lies in participating in that redemption. Indeed, some denominations of Christianity paraphrase grace as "God's Rewards At Christ's Expense" to represent this. The apostle Paul's letter to the Ephesians (NT) makes this teaching clear, "For by Grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is a gift of God, not a result of works, so that no one may boast. (ESV)" It is by God's Grace (unmeritted favour), therefore, that salvation is granted to man, on the condition that we put our faith (piðstiv: meaning belief i.e trust)in Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour i.e. belief that Jesus is from God, Jesus is the Messiah (Messiðav: meaning anointed one. Also the Hebrew word for Christ) and that his death on the cross has the power to take away our sins, thus making us blameless in the sight of God. Grace, then, is God's initiative and choice to make a path of salvation available for men. On this, almost all Christians agree, though they may disagree on the meaning of some terms, or on which parts of the narrative of grace to emphasize. But from here out, it gets more contentious.

Biblical concepts of grace

Ideas of grace in the Hebrew Bible

While a single word rendered into English as grace is not strictly speaking present in the Hebrew Bible, a number of concepts used to describe God in Biblical-era Judaism are forerunners to the Christian concept of grace. One such concept is named by the Hebrew word chesed, which in one of William Tyndale's happier coinages was translated as loving-kindness. The core concept here centers around the faithfulness and forbearance needed to make the covenant relationship continue, despite the several incidents of backsliding by the covenant people to which the Hebrew Bible bears witness. Other Hebrew concepts used to describe the grace of God include a group of words whose basic element is hanam, which means the spontaneous gift of affection; and raham, which implies mercy and compassion, including the merciful restoration of a broken relationship. All of these concepts are used especially by the Hebrew prophets to describe God's choice of Israel as his chosen people, and His refusal to abandon them despite their violations of the covenant.

New Testament ideas of grace

The New Testament word that is usually translated "grace" is in Greek charis (χαρις), which literally means "gift". The word was not often used by Jesus himself; in the canonical Gospels it is attributed to Him only in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of John. However, the parables attributed to Jesus in the Gospels make clear that Jesus did in fact teach the concept of grace. More importantly, He told stories that underlined that grace was God's to give, God's sole prerogative, and that it was freely offered. Parables such as the Workers in the Vineyard, Matthew 20:1-16 [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?passage=Matthew+20%3A1-16&search=&version=KJV&language=english&optional.x=15&optional.y=11], tell of an employer (who in the traditional Christian understanding, represents God) who hires some workers early in the day, some later, and some an hour before quitting time, then pays each of them the same amount. When the workers who worked all day balk, the employer's explanation is, Is it not lawful for me to do what I will with mine own? . . . So the last shall be first, and the first last: for many are called, but few are chosen. Matt. 20:15-16 (KJV) Similarly, the well known parable of the Prodigal Son, Luke 15:11-32 [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&version=KJV&passage=Luke+15%3A11-32&x=16&y=12] is traditionally understood by most Christians as containing the teachings of Jesus on grace. A son demands the family fortune and wastes it, then returns home expecting little in the way of good treatment. The father welcomes him handsomely, over the objections of his other son who stayed at home and served dutifully. Many throughout Christian history have perceived a common thread in these parables of Jesus: the grace of God is something that upsets settled human notions about merit, about what is deserved, and what is due as recompense.

Tension between grace and works in the New Testament

The New Testament exhibits a tension between two aspects of grace: the idea that grace is from God and sufficient to cover any sin, and the idea that grace does not free Man from his responsibility to behave rightly. Many parables of Jesus preach grace broad enough to forgive any sin, and to be available regardless of the seeming unworthiness of its recipient. Examples of this included the parable of the Prodigal son and lost sheep. However, Jesus also said: :"Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them. I tell you the truth, until heaven and earth disappear, not the smallest letter, not the least stroke of a pen, will by any means disappear from the Law until everything is accomplished. Anyone who breaks one of the least of these commandments and teaches others to do the same will be called least in the kingdom of heaven, but whoever practices and teaches these commands will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. For I tell you that unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Pharisees and the teachers of the law, you will certainly not enter the kingdom of heaven." -- Matthew 5:17-20 Later, St. Paul of Tarsus wrote that For by grace ye are saved through faith: and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God: not of works, lest any man should boast. Ephesians 2:8-9 (KJV) For St Paul, salvation, like the wages of the labourers in the parable, is God's gift at God's sole prerogative. Were it achieved by works (erga; any human effort that intends earning; see Rom. 4:4), men could take pride in their efforts toward holiness, and God's gift of grace would be diminished in contrast to man's efforts. This stands in tension to his teaching in Romans 2:6: :"To them who by patient continuance in well doing seek for glory and honour and immortality, eternal life. But unto them that are contentious, and do not obey the truth, but obey unrighteousness, indignation and wrath, Tribulation and anguish, upon every soul of man that doeth evil, of the Jew first, and also of the Gentile; But glory, honour, and peace, to every man that worketh good, to the Jew first, and also to the Gentile: For there is no respect of persons with God." A more works-oriented perspective is presented by the Epistle of James 2:1-26 [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&version=KJV&passage=James+2%3A1-26&x=18&y=11], concluding that faith without works is dead. By "works," James here appears to include both acts of charity, and righteousness according to the code of laws; the preceding text mentions charity to the poor as well as sins against the law of Moses. An inward change, the forsaking of old sinful ways, and being reborn in a spirit of generosity is to James the true test of conversion. Without these things, claiming to have "faith" is a sham. Grace must be something that steels the Christian to avoid sin and practice charity. Without these signs, it seems likely that grace was never there. The First Epistle of John maintains this tension throughout. On the one hand, it repeatedly claims that those who "walk in the light" do not sin and do enjoy fellowship with God, while those who "walk in darkness" have no fellowship with God. However, it also describes receiving forgiveness of sins through confession and God's grace. However, a true study of Biblical teaching will show that in reality, there was no tension. The contrast between "faith" and "works" is really a contrast between Grace and the Law for salvation. Paul was dedicated to stamping out the efforts of the Judaizers, who taught that Gentile believers must follow the Law of Moses to achieve Salvation. It was in this context that Paul spread the truth about Salvation being achieved through grace, not works. However, Paul, as well as Peter, John and James, make it clear that believers are to continue doing good works, and following the laws of Christ, out of love and obedience to God, who has written the law on the hearts of believers. Whilst works and keeping the Law are no longer the basis for salvation, they are still essential for living a Christian life and obeying the commands of God. Thus, the teachings and writing of all the apostles are not in tension, but rather harmony, with each other.

Efforts to resolve the tension

People have attempted to describe and resolve the tension in a number of ways. One potential resolution revolves around Jesus's parable of the talents in Matthew 25. In this parable, the Master decides to leave town on a journey. He left five coins with one servant, two coins with another servant, and one coin with a third servant. While the master was gone, the servants given five coins and two coins invested their coins, and doubled the money. The servant given one coin, however, buried it in the ground, and made no money. When the Master returned, the servants who had invested gave their master the money they had earned. The Master said: :"Well done, good and faithful servant; you have been faithful over a little, I will set you over much; enter into the joy of your master.' However, when he came to the last servant, who had hidden the money, the Master became angry, shouting: :'You wicked and slothful servant! You knew that I reap where I have not sowed, and gather where I have not winnowed? Then you ought to have invested my money with the bankers, and at my coming I should have received what was my own with interest. So take the talent from him, and give it to him who has the ten talents. For unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance: but from him that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath. And cast ye the unprofitable servant into outer darkness: there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth." According to proponents of this idea, this parable illustrates how grace and works can coexist. All the servants owed their money to their master, because the master had given them the money. Therefore, they could not take any pride in their money, just as Paul argued that we are saved by grace and not works, so that no man should boast. However, all the servants were still responsible to use their gifts and grace to the glory of God. Failure to do so is sin, just as to James, "Faith without works is dead."

Concepts of grace in the history of Christianity

Sociologists of religion, analysing the functioning of religious faiths and institutions as social structures without specific regard to their doctrines, have observed that religions operate differently, require different institutional forms, depending on how integrated they are with the surrounding society. Labels that have been given to some of these relationships include cult, sect, denomination, and ecclesia. In roughly ascending order, these terms relate to the integration of a religious institution with the society that surrounds it. After the close of the New Testament period, the Christian church underwent a number of dramatic changes in its relationship with the surrounding society, and with the Roman Empire, the principal government of the area where the Christian movement operated. To simplify greatly, these changes took the church from a period where the persecution of Christians was an ever-present threat, to a time when the Emperor Constantine ended all persecutions of Christianity and made its practice legal. The Roman Emperor, moreover, took an active interest in the way the Christian church was run, calling the first Council of Nicaea to resolve a dispute in church doctrine over Arianism. Many historians believe that he was motivated to encourage unity in the Church as a way of preserving unity in his Empire. The history of Christianity at this point is of a remarkable reversal of fortune. No longer a rejected minority, Christians enjoyed political clout. The rulers took an active interest in who the church leaders were. Cæsar acted to settle disagreements between them. Former pagans, seeing that their emperor now favoured the Christians, lined up to join. At this time, the Roman Empire's days as a unified political entity were already numbered. There were cultural divisions between the Greek speaking Eastern Roman Empire and the Latin Empire in the West. There were also substantial economic and military discrepancies between the relatively prosperous East and the relatively exposed West. This division would lead to the collapse of the Latin Empire in less than two hundred years. This, too, affected the fortunes of Christianity as an institution. These changing relationships with the Roman Empire and civil authority in general likely changed the focus of the church's teachings. When the Church was an outlawed society, its writings often focused on legalism, since a large issue was the permitted scope of Christian liberty within the context of the larger pagan society outside its boundaries. When the Church became a powerful institution enjoying the favour of the imperial state, and indeed an arm of the Empire, it seemed more important to focus on the danger of antinomianism, in order to bolster its authority in a crumbling Empire.

Grace in Western Christianity

In Western Christianity, and especially in the view of the Catholic Church, grace is God’s benevolence toward men. The essence of grace is that it is a freely offered gift. We do not earn or deserve or merit grace. We cannot claim it as our right. Grace in general, is a supernatural gift of God to men and angels for their eternal salvation. Eternal salvation itself consists in heavenly bliss resulting from being in the presence of God. Christian grace is a fundamental idea of the Christian religion, the pillar on which, by a special ordination of God, the edifice of Christianity rests in its entirety. Among the three fundamental ideas -- sin, redemption, and grace -- grace plays the part of the means, indispensable and Divinely ordained, to effect the redemption from sin through Christ and to lead men to their eternal destiny in heaven. First and foremost, grace is God’s supernatural gift of all that we need to reach eternal salvation, including sanctifying grace, the infused virtues, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and actual grace, all of which we need to be in the Divine prescience. Second, grace includes miraculous gifts of healing or prophecy. Grace is divided into two forms, Actual Grace and Sanctifying Grace. Actual Grace is God’s temporary enlightenment of our mind or strengthening of our will to perform supernatural actions that help us obtain, retain, or grow in sanctifying grace. Sanctifying grace is a supernatural state of being infused by God into our soul that gives us participation in the divine life. The participation in the divine life is the indwelling presence of the Holy Spirit. Sanctifying grace is a permanent part of our soul as long as we cooperate with its beatific effects. When we have sanctifying grace in our soul we are said to be in the state of grace. When we commit a mortal sin, the Holy Spirit departs from us and we lose our sanctifying grace. Sanctifying grace is sometimes called habitual grace or justifying grace.

Pelagius vs. St Augustine

In the fifth century, a debate that affected the understanding of grace in Western Christianity, and that was to have long reaching effects on subsequent developments in the doctrine, took place between Pelagius and St Augustine of Hippo. Pelagius, a British monk, was concerned about the retention of man's moral accountability in the face of God's omnipotence. He strongly affirmed that men had free will and were able to choose good as well as evil. Pelagius denied that original sin had extinguished God's grace in Adam's heirs, and that consequently mankind had the power to do good, to convert themselves from sin by their own power, and the ability to work out their own salvation. Religion's purpose is to teach us virtue, from which we can expect reward from God. By great efforts, it is possible for those in the flesh to achieve moral perfection. Pelagius's seemingly optimistic creed in fact burdens weak mortals with a burden too great to bear; or at least this was part of the response of St Augustine. More importantly, it does not clearly explain why Jesus Christ had to die for anyone's sins; if men can redeem themselves by their own efforts, atonement by Jesus on the Cross was at best a vague sort of moral example. The taint of original sin in fact did extinguish God's grace in men's souls; no matter how righteously they conducted themselves, their virtues could never make them worthy of the infinite holiness of God. Men are massa peccati, a mess of sin; they can no more endow themselves with grace than an empty glass can fill itself. While we may have "free will" (liberum arbitrium) in the sense that we can choose our course of conduct, we nevertheless lack true freedom (libertas) to avoid sin, for sin is inherent in each choice we make. It is only by God's sovereign choice to extend His grace to us that salvation is possible. Pelagianism was repudiated by the Council of Carthage in 417, largely at Augustine's insistence. Some still hold to Semi-Pelagianism, which holds that though grace is required for men to save themselves at the beginning, there remains a trace of moral ability within men that is unaffected by original sin.

Grace and merit

According to Eusebius, the Roman emperor Constantine I was not baptised until shortly before his death in the year 337. To some this might suggest that his commitment to Christianity was lukewarm; in an attempt to rebut this suggestion, a contrary suggestion was made. Christians at the time of Constantine, or at least at the time this explanation was devised, believed that the performance of the ritual itself conferred forgiveness of sins. This, however, was a one shot deal; post-baptism sins cannot be forgiven in a second ritual, and could only be resolved by penance. By postponing baptism until the last illness, it made it unlikely that the believer committed a serious sin between baptism and death. Another explanation is that many men at that time followed a very strict interpretation of the passages in 1 John that said Christians do not sin; since they thought themselves unlikely to stop sinning upon their conversion, they put off their conversion and baptisms until shortly before death. Thus, postponing their baptisms was understood as an act of humility. From a contemporary perspective, it is impossible to tell what Constantine intended. But the theology assumed in this explanation suggests that the concept of grace as understood by Constantine may have been altered into something Protestants find hard to fit into the New Testament's treatment of the concept. Rather than God's property to be offered at His sole discretion, in Western Christianity at least, grace had become a sort of spiritual currency, and the Church was its banker. Believers acquired grace by participating in the Church's sacraments. The sacraments were effective in conferring God's grace by virtue of their being performed, provided that the liturgist was authorised by the Church to perform them. The grace offered through the sacraments enabled Christians to lead better lives and to deepen their faith. In addition to sanctifying grace, merit was earned by good works; by this merit, believers can earn the right to rewards from God. Conversely, sins reduce your merit before God and incur a debt to Him in the divine economy. Sufficiently serious sins not only remove merit, but also extinguish sanctifying grace in the baptized believer's soul, which can be restored by the sacrament of penance. These sins are mortal sins or deadly sins. Less serious sins, venial sins, incur loss of merit. Believers whose accounts were overdrawn at the final accounting went to Hell; believers without enough merit for Heaven went to Purgatory, where they could work off the debt they owed to God. Fortunately, some saints achieved so much merit in their lifetimes on Earth that they got into Heaven with some to spare. This surplus was called works of supererogation, the Church's treasury of surplus merit. The Church can offer the excess merit in its treasury to be applied to the deficits in merit suffered by its penitent sinners. Pope Clement VI proclaimed this to be a doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church in 1343.

Grace in Eastern Christianity

In Eastern Christianity, grace is an energy of God, or a description of how God acts in forgiving and spiritually healing others. The sacraments are seen as a "means of grace" because God works through his Church, not just because specific legalistic rules are followed; and Grace is the working of God himself, not a created substance of any kind that can be treated like a commodity. There is no distinction made between mortal and venial sins, no doctrine of Purgatory (this was a post-Great Schism innovation in the West), and no "treasury of surplus merit". Instead, the Eastern Church has emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit in the Christian's life and has maintained ascetical disciplines such as fasting and almsgiving, not as a way to make penance for past sins or to build up merit, but as a means of spiritual discipline to help reduce sin in the future, to exercise self control, and to avoid being enslaved to one's passions and desires.

Grace in the Protestant Reformation:

Before considering criticisms that characterised the Protestant Reformation, of the notion of grace as a sort of spiritual currency, it may be worth a moment to pause to consider its virtues. It built up the Church, by providing men with a clear sense that their acts of service to the Church would be rewarded by God. It stressed the dire consequences of sin. It reassured men that the rituals of the Church effectively pardoned their sins committed after baptism and restored them to the state of grace. It was open to serious question, though, whether the notion of grace as spiritual currency was authentic to the teachings of the New Testament. The doctrine also proved subject to a number of abuses. Martin Luther's posting of his ninety-five theses to the church door in Wittenberg in 1517 was a direct consequence of the mechanical sacramentalism and treasury doctrines of the mediæval church. The act was precipitated by the arrival of Johann Tetzel, authorised by the Vatican to sell indulgences. The effectiveness of these indulgences was predicated on the doctrine of the treasury of grace proclaimed by Pope Clement VI. The theory was that merit earned by acts of piety could augment the believer's store of sanctifying grace. Gifts to the Church were acts of piety. The Church, moreover, had a treasury full of grace above and beyond what was needed to get its faithful into Heaven. The Church was willing to part with some of its surplus in exchange for earthly gold. Martin Luther's anger against this practice, which seemed to him to involve the purchase of salvation, began a swing of the pendulum back towards the Pauline vision of grace, as opposed to St James's. Luther taught that men were helpless and without a plea before God's justice, and their acts of piety were utterly inadequate before His infinite holiness. Were God only just, and not merciful, everyone would go to Hell, because everyone, even the best of us, deserves to go to Hell. Our inability to achieve salvation by our own effort suggests that even our best intention is somehow tainted by our sinful nature. This doctrine is sometimes called total depravity. It is by faith alone (sola fide) and by grace alone (sola gratia) that men are saved. Good works are something the believers should undertake out of gratitude towards their Saviour; but they are not necessary for salvation and cannot earn anyone salvation; there is no room for the notion of "merit" in Luther's doctrine of redemption. (There may, however, be degrees of reward for the redeemed in Heaven.) Only the unearned, unmerited grace of God can save anyone. No one can have a claim of entitlement to God's grace, and it is only by His generosity that salvation is even possible. As opposed to the treasury of grace which believers can make withdrawals from, in Lutheranism salvation becomes a declaration of spiritual bankruptcy, in which the penitents acknowledge the inadequacy of their own resources and trust only in God to save them. Accepting Augustine's concern for legal justification as the base metaphor for salvation, the believers are not so much made righteous in Lutheranism as they are considered covered by Christ's righteousness. Acknowledging that they have no power to make themselves righteous, the penalty for their sins is discharged because Jesus has already paid for it with His blood.

Calvinism and Arminianism

Eager to give all the credit to God's mercy, Lutheranism therefore downplays the role of man in achieving their own salvation. John Calvin expanded these themes in his Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. The logical structure of Calvinism depends on a syllogism:
- God knows the end from the beginning, because God in the beginning freely caused all things to exist for His sake, and their existence is sustained in fulfillment of His will and
- all variety is the result of God's will.
- The covenant of life is variously, and not equally preached to all, and
- those to whom it is preached variously either receive it or not, and therefore
- salvation is ultimately obtained from no other source than by the mere willingness of God to grant it to some, although it is not obtained by others. The notion that God has foreordained who will be saved is called predestination, generally; the Calvinist concept of predestination is its most controversial expression, largely because it is the most unflinching statement of the doctrine. The good news that God has freely granted the gift of salvation to those who believe has here been darkened by the thought that what He can freely grant to some, He can withhold from others. Calvin sought to provide assurance to the faithful that God would actually save them. His teaching implied what came to be known as the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints, the notion that God would actually save those who were his Elect. The actual status and ultimate state of any man's soul were unknown save to God. When assurance of election was rigorously pressed as an experience to be sought, especially by the Puritans, this led to a legalism as rigid as the one Protestantism sought to reject, as men were eager to demonstrate that they were among the chosen by the conspicuous works-righteousness of their lives. Calvin's extreme position provoked a reaction. In 1547, the Council of Trent, which sought to purify Roman Catholicism from the Protestant controversy, established Catholic teaching on grace and justification as distinguished from Protestantism. It taught that justification and sanctification were parts of the same process. Grace actually enables believers to become more righteous through the power of the Holy Spirit.[http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ195.HTM] Various actual Protestant doctrines were stated in extreme forms and mixed with older heresies and generally condemned by the Council, whose work formed the basis for the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation. In 1618 James Arminius put forth a contrary position that sought to reaffirm man's free will as opposed to the eternal decrees of Calvinism. Arminius taught that God's grace was offered to all, and that it could be rejected by a man's will. It was possible for a believer to lose faith and backslide, losing the salvation that believer once possessed. These positions came to be known as Arminianism. With respect to the Calvinist Reformed churches, they were rejected by the Synod of Dordrecht (1618 - 1619). Later, John Wesley also rejected the Calvinist doctrine of predestination. His most comprehensive pronouncement on the subject was his sermon "Free Grace," [http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-128.stm] preached at Bristol in 1740. In Wesley's position, the believer who repents and accepts Christ is not "making himself righteous" by an act of his own will, such as would alter his dependency on the grace of God for his salvation. Faith and repentance, rather, are the believer's trust in God that He will make them righteous. Wesley appealed to prevenient grace as a solution to the problem, stating that God makes the initial move in salvation, but human beings are free to respond or reject God's graceful initiative. Wesley's rejection of Calvinism was more successful than Arminius', especially in the United States of America, largely because it was spread through popular preaching in a series of Great Awakenings. The churches of New England, with roots in Puritan Calvinism, tended to begin to reject their Calvinist roots, accepting Wesley's version of Arminianism, or overthrowing their historical doctrine entirely to depart into Socinianism. Arminianism is, of course, the standard teaching of Methodist churches, and the doctrine of prevenient grace remains one of Methodism's most important doctrines.

Jansenism versus the Jesuits

At about the same time that Calvinists and Arminians were debating the meaning of grace in Protestantism, in Roman Catholicism a similar debate was taking place between the Jansenists and the Jesuits. Cornelius Jansen's 1640 work Augustinus sought to refocus Roman Catholic theology on the themes of original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination, as he found them in the works of St Augustine. The Jansenists, like the Puritans, believed themselves to be members of a gathered church called out of worldly society, and banded together in institutions like the Port-Royal convents seeking to lead lives of greater spiritual intensity. Blaise Pascal attacked what he called moral laxity in the casuistry of the Jesuits. Jansenist theology remained a minority party within Roman Catholicism, and during the second half of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was condemned as a heresy, though its style remained influential in ascetic circles.

The Protestant Reformation and ecclesiology

Protestantism in either variety, Calvinist or Arminian, emphasize God's initiative in the work of salvation, which is achieved by grace alone through faith alone, in either stream of thinking - although these terms are understood differently, according to the differences in systems. The Protestant teachings on grace suggest a question, however: what is the role of the Church in the work of grace? The Reformation churches taught that salvation is not ordinarily found outside of the visible Church; but with the increasing emphasis on an experience of conversion as being necessary to salvation, Sola fide began to be taken as implying that the individual's relationship with Jesus is intensely individual; we stand alone before God. Since Protestants accept that men are saved only and decisively by their belief in Christ's atonement, they often rank preaching that message more than sacraments which apply the promises of the gospel to them as members of the Church. The sermon replaces the Eucharist as the central act of Christian worship. The church's authority comes from the message it preaches, practically to the exclusion of the sacraments. This is often reflected in the arrangement of the pulpit and altar at the front the church; as preaching becomes more important, the pulpit moves from the side to the center, while the altar for the Eucharist shrinks to the size of a small coffee table or is eliminated entirely. Thus, the sacraments largely lost even the importance that Calvin and Luther attributed to them, which was already considerably less than that imputed to them by the Roman Catholic Church. This happened under the influence of ideas which first began development among the Anabaptists but spread to Calvinists through the Congregationalist and Baptist movements, and to Lutherans through Pietism. Classically, Calvinism teaches that the sacraments are "signs and seals of the covenant of grace" and "effectual means of salvation", and Lutheranism teaches that new life, faith, and union with Christ are granted by the Holy Spirit working through the sacraments. But when these older ideas are de-emphasized, the sacraments become "ordinances," acts of worship which are required by Scripture, but whose effect is limited to the voluntary effect they have on the worshipper's soul. This belief finds expression in the Baptist and Anabaptist practice of believer's baptism, given not to infants as a mark of membership in a Christian community, but to adult believers after they have achieved the age of reason and have professed their faith. These ordinances may even be considered works-righteousness, which is contrary to salvation by grace, and a hindrance to faith and, certainly not necessary to being a Christian. The ritual as interpreted in light of such ideas does not at all bring about salvation, nor does its performance bring about the forgiveness of sins; the forgiveness which the believer has received by faith is merely pictured, not effectively applied, by baptism; salvation and participation in Christ is memorialized, not imparted, by the Eucharist. Consequently, the Church loses primacy in the believer's experience, and holds only voluntary worth.

Latter-day Saint Perspective

Though often accused of adhering to the doctrine of salvation by works, the fundamental doctrines of Mormonism make clear “that there is no other way nor means whereby man can be saved, only through the atoning blood of Jesus Christ”(Helaman 5:9) Even so, most Mormons will be quick to point out that access to the grace of Christ is conditional upon making and keeping covenants with Christ, which encompasses requirements to keep the commandments as dictated by God. The Book of Mormon declares: “Yea, come unto Christ, and be perfected in him, and deny yourselves of all ungodliness; and if ye shall deny yourselves of all ungodliness, and love God with all your might, mind and strength, then is his grace sufficient for you, that by his grace ye may be perfect in Christ; and if by the grace of God ye are perfect in Christ, ye can in nowise deny the power of God,” illustrating the need for compliance with the law of God prior to the receipt of the gift of grace, which comes “after all we can do” (2 Nephi 25:23). Latter-day Saint doctrine also emphasizes Jesus’ mention of the Final Judgment, where works will be a determining factor in personal assignment to degrees of glory, such as the celestial kingdom.

For further reading

Orthodox

- Kallistos Ware, The Inner Kingdom: The Collected Works (St. Vladimir's Seminary, 2000) ISBN 0881412090
- The Way of a Pilgrim and A Pilgrim Continues on His Way, Olga Savin, trans. ISBN 1570628076

Roman Catholic

- Catholic Teaching on Sin & Grace (Center for Learning, 1997) ISBN 1560775211
- Stephen J. Duffy, The Graced Horizon: Nature and Grace in Modern Catholic Thought (HPAC, 1992) ISBN 0814657052
- George Hayward Joyce, The Catholic Doctrine of Grace (Newman, 1950) ASIN B0007E488Y
- Vincent Nguyen, The Pauline Theology of Grace from the Catholic perspective ASIN B0006S8TUY

Protestant

- Randy Maddox, Responsible Grace (Kingswood, 1994) ISBN 0687003342
- Alister McGrath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification (Cambridge, 1998) ISBN 0521624819
- R. C. Sproul, Grace Unknown: The Heart of Reformed Theology (Baker Book House, 1999) ISBN 0801011213
- Philip Yancey, What's So Amazing About Grace? (Zondervan, 1997) ISBN 0310245656

External links

- [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/grace.html Articles on Grace] from Monergism.com (Calvinist perspective)
- [http://www.lulu.com/GregoryPreston Book on Divine Guidance] from lulu.com (Seeking Divine Guidance)
- [http://www.graceforlife.com Grace After Salvation] from GraceForLife.com Category:Theology Category:Christian history Category:Christian philosophy Category:Christian theology

Life

:For other uses, see Life and Living Life is a multi-faceted concept. Life may refer to the ongoing process of which living things are a part, the period between the conception (or a point at which the entity can be considered to be an individualized being) and death of an organism, the condition of an entity that has been born (or reached the point in its existence at which it can be established to be alive) and has yet to die, and that which makes a living thing alive.

Defining the concept of life

How can one tell when an entity is a lifeform? It would be relatively straightforward to offer a practical set of guidelines if one's only concern were life on Earth as we know it (see biosphere), but as soon as one considers questions about life's origins on Earth, or the possibility of extraterrestrial life, or the concept of artificial life, it becomes clear that the question is fundamentally difficult and comparable in many respects to the problem of defining intelligence. Also, loosely speaking, some theories are grounded in the basic assumption that "ideas have a life of their own".

A conventional definition

In biology, a lifeform has traditionally been considered to be a member of a population whose members can exhibit all the following phenomena at least once during their existence: #Growth, full development, maturity #Metabolism, consuming, transforming and storing energy/mass; growing by absorbing and reorganizing mass; excreting waste #Motion, either moving itself, or having internal motion #Reproduction, the ability to create entities that are similar to, yet separate from, itself or consisting solely of entities that exhibit the quality of reproduction. #Response to stimuli - the ability to measure properties of its surrounding environment, and act upon certain conditions. This property is also called homeostasis.

Exceptions to the conventional definition

These criteria are not without their uses, but their disparate nature makes them unsatisfactory from a number of perspectives; in fact, it is not difficult to find counterexamples and examples that require further elaboration. For example, according to the above definition, one could say:
- (most) mules and people who are infertile cannot reproduce and thus would not qualify as lifeforms. Also worker bees and other organisms living in colonies would not qualify; only the queen and the drones (or the whole colony) can be considered 'alive'.
- Fire and stars could be considered lifeforms.
- A virus does not grow and cannot reproduce outside of a host cell and thus would not qualify as a lifeform. Many individual organisms are incapable of reproduction and yet are still considered to be lifeforms; see mules and ants for examples. This is because the term "lifeform" applies on the level of entire species or of individual genes. (For example, see kin selection for information about one way by which non-reproducing individuals can still enhance the spread of their genes and the survival of their species.) It is important to keep in mind the difference between a "lifeform" and "a being that is alive." One example of sterility does not render the rest of the species a non-lifeform, any more than one dead animal renders the rest of the species dead. Note also that the two cases of fire and stars fitting the definition of life can be simply remedied by defining metabolism in a more biochemically exact way. Fundamentals of Biochemistry by Donald Voet and Judith Voet (ISBN 0471586501) defines metabolism as follows: "Metabolism is the overall process through which living systems acquire and utilize the free energy they need to carry out their various functions. They do so by coupling the exergonic reactions of nutrient oxidation to the endergonic processes required to maintain the living state, such as the performance of mechanical work, the active transport of molecules against concentration gradients, and the biosynthesis of complex molecules." This definition, in use by most biochemists, makes it clear that fire is not alive, because fire releases all the oxidative energy of its fuel as heat. (Note: Actually, the definition does not help much at all, for it is circular. What we are looking for, after all, is a definition of "living entity." We agreed that part of the definition is "capable of metabolism." We then tried to define "metabolism" in order to get clear on which entities are capable of it and which not. But the definition of "metabolism" just offered is in terms of living systems, and those are exactly what we are trying to define!) This could also be remedied by adding the requirement of locality, where there is an obvious structure that delineates the spatial extension of the living being, such as a cell membrane. A conceptual problem with saying that fire is life is that it collapses the distinction between "growth" and "reproduction." It is possible to think of a spreading flame as either growing or reproducing, but what would it mean to say that the same act is both growth and reproduction? Viruses reproduce, flames grow, some software programs mutate and evolve, future software programs will probably evince (even high-order) behavior, machines move, and some form of proto-life consisting of metabolizing cells without the ability to reproduce presumably existed. Still, some would not call these entities alive. Generally, all five characteristics are required for a population to be considered a lifeform.

Other definitions

Biologists who are content to focus on terrestrial organisms often note some additional signs of life, including these: # Living organisms contain molecular components such as: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. # Living organisms require both energy and matter in order to continue living. # Living organisms are composed of at least one cell. # Living organisms maintain homeostasis for some period of time. # Species of living organisms will evolve. All life on Earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds. Some assert that this must be the case for all possible forms of life throughout the universe; others describe this position as 'carbon chauvinism'. The systemic definition is that living things are self-organizing and autopoietic (self-producing). These objects are not to be confused with dissipative structures (e.g. fire). Variations of this definition include:
- Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana's definition of life (also widely used by Lynn Margulis) as an autopoietic (self-producing), water based, lipid-protein bound, carbon metabolic, nucleic acid replicated, protein readout system
- "a system of inferior negative feedbacks subordinated to a superior positive feedback" ([http://www.mol.uj.edu.pl/~benio/cyber_def_life.pdf J. theor Biol. 2001])
- Tom Kinch's definition of life as a highly organized auto-cannibalizing system naturally emerging from conditions common on planetary bodies, and consisting of a population of replicators capable of mutation, around each set of which a homeostatic metabolizing organism, which actively helps reproduce and/or protect the replicator(s), has evolved
- Stuart Kauffman's definition of life as an autonomous agent or a multi-agent system capable of reproducing itself or themselves, and of completing at least one thermodynamic work cycle
- Robert Pirsig's definition of life, found in his book Lila: An Inquiry into Morals, as that which maximizes its range of possible futures, in other words, that which makes decisions that result in the most future choices, or that which strives to keep its options open.
- A system converting entropy to negentropy, using flow of energy. Other definitions:
- That which seeks to continue its own existence (attributed to Clifford A. Schaffer).
- A self-replicating system that evolves through mutation.

Descent with modification: a "useful" characteristic

A useful characteristic upon which to base a definition of life is that of descent with modification: the ability of a life form to produce offspring that are like its parent or parents, but with the possibility of some variation due to chance. Descent with modification is sufficient by itself to allow evolution, assuming that the variations in the offspring allow for differential survival. The study of this form of heritability is called genetics. In all known life forms (assuming prions are not counted as such), the genetic material is primarily DNA or the related molecule, RNA. Another exception might be the software code of certain forms of viruses and programs created through genetic programming, but whether computer programs can be alive even by this definition is still a matter of some contention.

Origin of life

Main article: Origin of life There is no truly "standard" model of the origin of life, but most currently accepted scientific models build in one way or another on the following discoveries, which are listed roughly in order of postulated emergence: #Plausible pre-biotic conditions result in the creation of the basic small molecules of life. This was demonstrated in the Urey-Miller experiment. #Phospholipids spontaneously form lipid bilayers, the basic structure of a cell membrane. #Procedures for producing random RNA molecules can produce ribozymes, which are able to produce more of themselves under very specific conditions. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules to protocells and metabolism. Many models fall into the "genes-first" category or the "metabolism-first" category, but a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid models that do not fit into either of these categories.

The possibility of extraterrestrial life

Main articles: Extraterrestrial life, Astrobiology As of 2005, Earth is the only planet in the universe known by humans to support life. The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the universe remains open, but analyses such as the Drake equation have been used to estimate the probability of such life existing. There have been a number of claims of the discovery of life elsewhere in the universe, but none of these have yet survived scientific scrutiny. Today, the closest that scientists have come to finding extraterrestrial life is fossil evidence of possible bacterial life on Mars (via the ALH84001 meteorite). Searches for extraterrestrial life are currently focusing on planets and moons believed to possess liquid water, at present or in the past. Recent evidence from the NASA rovers Spirit and Opportunity supports the theory that Mars once had surface water. See Life on Mars for further discussion. Jupiter's moons are also considered good candidates for extraterrestrial life, especially Europa, which seems to possess oceans of liquid water. Other highly speculative and somewhat doubtful places for present or past life include the atmosphere of Venus, Titan cryovolcanoes, or even Enceladus.

References

- Kauffman, Stuart. The Adjacent Possible: A Talk with Stuart Kauffman. Retrieved Nov. 30, 2003 from [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kauffman03/kauffman_index.html]

External links

- [http://www.lifetheory.com Express your theory and meaning of life]
- [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kauffman03/kauffman_index.html "The Adjacent Possible: A Talk with Stuart Kauffman"]
- [http://www.quotesandpoem.com/poems/SelectedPoetryTopic/Life Poems and Quotes about life and living]
- [http://www.angelfire.com/linux/vjtorley/ Animals and other living things: their interests, mental capacities and moral entitlements]
- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=life Tree of Life Web Project - Life on Earth]
- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
- [http://web.archive.org/web/20041030074958/http://people.cornell.edu/pages/tg21/DHB.html The Deep Hot Biosphere Theory (Thomas Gold)] Category:Biology ja:生命 ko:생명 ms:Benda hidup simple:Life

Salvation

Salvation refers to deliverance from an undesirable state or condition. In theology, the study of salvation is called soteriology and is a vitally important concept in several religions. Christianity regards salvation as deliverance from the bondage of sin and from condemnation, resulting in eternal life with God.

Christian views of salvation

Salvation is arguably one of the most important Christian spiritual concepts, perhaps second only to the deity of Jesus Christ. Among Christians, the primary goal of religion is to attain salvation. Others maintain that the primary goal of Christians is to do the will of God, or that the two are equivalent. In many traditions, attaining salvation is synonymous with going to heaven after death, while most also emphasize that salvation represents a changed life while on Earth as well. Many elements of Christian theology explain why salvation is needed and how to attain it. The idea of salvation rests upon there being some sort of unsaved state from which the individual (or mankind) is to be redeemed. To most Protestant and Catholic Christians, this is the judgment of God upon mankind due to the guilt of original sin (inherited from the Fall of Adam) and actual committed sins, recognizing that all have sinned. Orthodox Christian churches totally reject the concept of "original sin" as unbiblical, but view salvation as a ladder of spiritual improvement and healing of a human nature that was damaged or injured in the Fall (for which see theosis). Most Christians agree that humanity was created sinless, but after the Fall, needed a Savior to restore us into a right relationship with God. This Savior redeems people from sin, and Jesus was (and is) this Savior.

Catholicism

For the Catholic Church, salvation is not just a negative deliverance from sin (original sin and actual sin) and its effects: God saves us not just from something, but for something. God’s action is a positive liberation that raises human beings to a supernatural status, to eternal life on a higher plane than earthly life, to union in a single body with Christ, one of the three Persons of the Trinity, to the dignity of not only being called but actually being adopted children of God, to seeing God "as he is" (1 John 3:2) in communion of life and love with the Trinity and all the saints (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1023-1025, 1243, 1265-1270, 2009). These blessings man could never merit. Indeed, in the strict sense, man can never merit anything from God: the creature has received everything, including abilities and potentialities, from the Creator. The possibility of meriting anything in the eyes of God derives entirely from a free gift or grace of God. Salvation or justification can by no means be merited, but once God has justified us, we can then, through the influence of the Holy Spirit and love, merit graces useful for sanctification, for growth in grace and love and for reaching the eternal life for which God destines us. We can merit even material benefits, such as health and friendship (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2006-2011). Christians receive even in this life, as it were in incipient or seed form, a pledge and a hope of what is to come, the blessings of salvation that are to be given fully and definitively in the afterlife. Thus the Catholic Church sees salvation, even for the individual, as something for which we can use both past, present and future tenses:
- Our salvation has already been achieved in principle and in hope, since Christ died for all on the cross and since we accepted Christ by faith and baptism: "When the kindness of God our Saviour, and his love towards man, appeared, not by works done in righteousness, which we did ourselves, but according to his mercy he saved us, through the washing of regeneration and renewing of the Holy Spirit, which he poured out upon us richly, through Jesus Christ our Saviour; that, being justified by his grace, we might be made heirs according to the hope of eternal life" (Titus 3:4-7).
- The process of salvation continues in God's work in those who accept the Gospel. St Paul uses the present tense in this regard: "To us who are being saved, (the word of the cross) is the power of God" (1 Corinthians 1:18). The text in Greek has present-tense (being saved) in this passage, not perfect-tense (having been saved) or past-tense (aorist-tense) (saved).
- Only on completion of our earthly life will God’s saving work in us reach its final stage. There is no magic formula or emotional experience that will definitively prevent us, as creatures whom God has endowed with free will, from ever rejecting God’s offer of salvation. Even the great Apostle Paul envisaged this eventuality for himself, considering it possible that he himself, after having preached to others, might be rejected (1 Corinthians 9:27).

Protestantism

In Western Christianity the doctrine of salvation, or soteriology, involves topics such as atonement, reconciliation, grace, justification, God's sovereignty, and the free will of human beings. Various understandings on each may be found in Catholicism and Protestantism. Especially within Protestantism, this may be seen in the differences between the theologies of Calvinism and Arminianism as well as mediating versions of the two. Among evangelical Christians, salvation means that all have sinned and are justly under God's condemnation. Atonement or reconciliation with God is possible for anyone, but only through Jesus Christ, who lived a perfect life and died as a perfect sacrifice in place of the death deserved by all humanity, by (1) confession of sin and (2) faith in Christ as Lord and Savior. The consequence of salvation is that the sinner's sins are forgiven and he/she is born again as a new person, a Christian, a believer, a child of God, and is sealed with the Holy Spirit. Evangelical Christians believe that not every individual obtains salvation (forgiveness) because not all will trust in Jesus Christ. Those who do not are subject to divine condemnation in some form of eternal separation from God. Conservative Restoration Movement churches (e.g. Churches of Christ) not only recognize the conditions of hearing the gospel and responding with faith as part of the salvation process, but also repentance, baptism and continued obedience. (Acts 2:38-39, 2 Corinthians 7:10, Hebrews 6:4-6) A third point of view, universal salvation, has existed throughout the history of Christianity and became popular in the United States with the rise of rationalism and modernism in the late 1800's. This point of view states that all people, regardless of creed or belief, will eventually be saved and go to heaven, and is the central theme of Universalism and Unitarianism. In more colloquial terms it is often stated as "God is too loving to condemn anyone". Many Christians find this view to be heretical because they claim it implies that non-Christian religions are equally valid, and that there are paths to salvation other than through the grace of Christ. This is an accurate description of some universalist beliefs, but not all. Other forms of Christian universalism do hold that Christianity is the only completely true religion, and that salvation comes only through Christ. They simply believe that Christ's death and resurrection redeemed all people, regardless of their beliefs. Religious pluralists, however, sometimes criticize this view as being patronizing toward non-Christians.

Evangelical Christians

Evangelical Christians believe all have sinned and atonement or reconciliation with God is possible for anyone through Jesus Christ by 1.) confession of sin and 2.) acceptance of Jesus as Lord and Savior. His/her sins are forgiven and he/she is born again as a new person, Christian, a believer, a child of God, and is sealed by the Holy Spirit. Some who do not understand this ideology may abuse this privilege by thinking that if sin is forgiven, the process of salvation can be repeated over and over again. In practice it does not work that way. Believers typically would not consider themselves and their lifestyle as being religious or ceremonial. Salvation reconciled man (or woman) to God; therefore, a personal relationship connects that individual to God. Evangelical Christians also understand that they can face persecution by others for their faith. Among the 12 original apostles of Jesus, only one died from natural causes. In modern democratic societies, religious freedom is typcially observed; therefore, most evangelical Christians are able to worship the Lord Jesus Christ freely without fear of being put to death. Naturally, a certain amount of discrimination due to personal beliefs does occur.

Eastern Christianity

Eastern Christianity was much less influenced by Augustine, and even less so by either Calvin or Arminius. Consequently, it doesn't just have different answers, but asks different questions; it generally views salvation in less legalistic terms (grace, punishment, and so on) and in more medical terms (sickness, healing etc.), and with less exacting precision. Instead, it views salvation more along the lines of theosis, a concept that has been developed over the centuries by many different Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic Christians. It also stresses the teaching of Jesus in the Gospels, that as a prerequisite for a person's sins to be forgiven, something is definitely required of that person (Matt 6:14-15).

New Testament passages

For Christians, the Biblical approach to salvation begins in the Scriptures of the New Testament. Many of these texts are found in the Epistle to the Romans, largely because that Epistle contains the most comprehensive theological statement by Saint Paul of Tarsus. Because of this, some Protestant Christian denominations have called these texts the Romans road. Some key passages in the New Testament concerning salvation include:
- God's love: "For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him shall not perish but have everlasting life." (John 3:16) "But God commendeth his love toward us, in that, while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us. " (Romans 5:8)
- Sin separates mankind from God. "For all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God"(Romans 3:23) "Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned" (Romans 5:12)
- God gives eternal life because Jesus Christ atoned for our sin: "For the wages of sin is death; but the gift of God is eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord." (Romans 6:23)
- Saved (from sin) by our own forgiveness of others: "For if ye forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive you: But if ye forgive not men their trespasses, neither will your Father forgive your trespasses." (Matthew 6:14-15)
- Confession and believing: "That if thou shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shalt believe in thine heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved." — "For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation." (Romans 10:9-10) "For whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved." (Romans 10:13)
- Saved at Baptism: "Which sometime were disobedient, when once the longsuffering of God waited in the days of Noah, while the ark was a preparing, wherein few, that is, eight souls were saved by water. The like figure whereunto even baptism doth also now save us (not the putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the answer of a good conscience toward God,) by the resurrection of Jesus Christ: 1 Peter 3:20-21; "Know ye not, that so many of us as were baptized into Jesus Christ were baptized into his death? Therefore we are buried with him by baptism into death: that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in newness of life. For if we have been planted together in the likeness of his death, we shall be also in the likeness of his resurrection:" (Romans 6:3-5)
- Saved by God's grace: "For by grace are ye saved through faith; and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God: not of works, lest any man should boast." (Ephesians 2:8-9)
- Saved by Works: "Ye see then how that by works a man is justified, and not by faith only." (James 2:24) This passage is disputed as the meaning of the word justified. Protestants argue here the word justified is not used as "To make righteous" but to be "shown already righteous". This is meant in the sense that a person's good behaviour proves they have been saved, as God is "sanctifying" them, making them a better person, after having saved them. Catholics do not separate justification from sanctification. The Council of Trent declared that faith co-operating with good works increase that justice which Christians have received through the grace of Christ, and they are still further justified.
- Judged by Works: "And I saw the dead, small and great, stand before God; and the books were opened: and another book was opened, which is the book of life: and the dead were judged out of those things which were written in the books, according to their works. And the sea gave up the dead which were in it; and death and hell delivered up the dead which were in them: and they were judged every man according to their works." (Book of Revelation 20:12 - 20:13). All Protestants do not agree with this type of interpretation of this verse. Some believe there will be the judgement all people go through, and then the "white throne judgement", for all those who are saved. In that judgement we will get rewards based on what we do. They do not believe eternal life is a reward that is going to be given out in consequence of works done. Others understand it in the same way as the "Saved by Works" verses, in the sense that those who will not have done good proved they were not saved, because their works did not correspond to their 'saved' status.
- Christ Says...: "Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven; but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven." Matthew 7:21 Many interpet this in the same way as the "Saved by Works" and "Judged by Works" verses: those who claim to be Christians will be proved false by their actions if their good works do not back up their claim to be Christians.

Other passages

The book of Ecclesiasticus or Wisdom of Sirach, considered to be Scriptural by Catholic and Orthodox Christians, places a heavy emphasis in numerous verses on the importance of giving alms to the poor, saying that performing this act can atone for sin and lead to salvation; eg. Sir. 3:30, "Water extinguishes a blazing fire: so almsgiving atones for sin."

Islam

For a Muslim, the purpose of life is to live in a way that is pleasing to Allah so that one may gain Paradise. It is believed that at puberty, an account of each person's deeds is opened, and this will be used at the Day of Judgment to determine his eternal fate. The Qur'an also suggests a doctrine of divine predestination. Qur'an 4:49, 24:21, 57:22. The Qur'an teaches the necessity of both faith and good works for salvation. The Muslim doctrine of salvation is that unbelievers (kuffar, literally "one who rejects the truth") and sinners will be condemned, but genuine repentance results in Allah's forgiveness and entrance into Paradise upon death.

Hinduism

Salvation to the Hindu is the soul's liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth and attainment of the highest spiritual state. It is the ultimate goal of Hinduism, where even hell and heaven are considered temporary. This concept is called Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष, liberation) or Mukti (Sanskrit: विमुक्ति, release). Moksha is seen as a final release from one's worldly conception of self, the loosening of the shackle of experiential duality and a re-establishment in one's own fundamental nature, though the nature is seen as ineffable and beyond sensation. The actual state of salvation is seen differently depending on one's beliefs.
- In Advaita, a monist philosophy, it is oneness without form or being, something that essentially is without manifestation.
- In dualist Hinduism, as in Vaishnavism and Shaivism, it is union or close association with God.

Buddhism

The Four Noble Truths outline the essentials of Buddhist soteriology. Suffering (dukkha) is treated as a disease, which can be cured by understanding its causes and by following the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path includes morality and meditation. The means of achieving liberation are further developed in other Buddhist teachings. They are expressed in very different terms by Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana Buddhists.

Pagan

Concepts of salvation are markedly different in Pagan religions, even those that have been strongly influenced by (and incorporate elements of) Abrahamic mythology.

External links

- [http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-001.stm Salvation by Faith] by John Wesley (Protestant Christian - Methodist/Wesleyan)
- [http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-043.stm The Scripture Way to Salvation] by John Wesley (Protestant Christian - Methodist/Wesleyan)
- [http://www.bible.org/page.asp?page_id=276 God's Plan of Salvation] at Bible.org
- [http://www.spirithome.com/salvation.html What is salvation for?] (An 'emergent' Christian look at salvation)
- [http://theopedia.com/Salvation Salvation] (Protestant Christian - Calvinist/Reformed) Category:Theology Category:Christian theology ja:救済

Original sin

Original sin is usually understood of the condition of sinfulness (lack of holiness) in which human beings, according to Christian tradition, are born. The term is also applied, with the definite article ("the original sin"), to mankind's first sin, to which evil effects for the whole human race are attributed. Christians usually refer to this first sin as "the Fall". Usages of the term in fields like finance are mere analogies.

The original sin (the Fall)

Classical Biblical and Orthodox Jewish view

Adam's sin, as recounted in the Book of Genesis is sometimes called in Hebrew החטא הקדמון (the original sin), on the basis of the traditional Christian term. But the term used in classical Jewish literature is חטא אדם הראשׁון), (the first sin of man, or of Adam). The account in Genesis 2–3 implies that Adam and Eve initially lived in a state of intimate communion with God. God warned Adam not to eat of the fruit of "the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil" (Genesis 2:15–17).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=2] The serpent persuaded Eve, who in turn persuaded Adam, to disobey this commandment. After eating of the fruit, they immediately recognized their mistake, and became ashamed of their nakedness (Genesis 3:1–7).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=3] God cursed the serpent, apparently changing its physical form, and setting up eternal enmity between mankind and serpents (Genesis 3:9–15).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=3] God pronounced judgements on both Eve and Adam. Eve's judgement was the difficulties of pregnancy and subjection to her husband. Adam's was toil and struggle for his sustenance (Genesis 3:16–21).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=3] Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden and doomed to die (Genesis 3:22–24).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=3] According to Jewish tradition, the divine prohibition was to give them free choice and allow them to earn, as opposed to receive, absolute perfection and intimate communion with God, a higher level than the one on which they were created. The consequences affected Adam and Eve's descendants. People are not intrinsically condemned and sinful, but nevertheless begin life at a spiritual and metaphysical level inherited from Adam and Eve, far lower than Adam's original level. The course of history is meant to return humanity to Adam's original level, and then allow it to surpass that level by completing the task that Adam failed to complete. The curses and changes imposed on mankind and womankind following their sin are meant to facilitate this return to glory. According to this tradition, Adam and Eve would have attained absolute perfection and retained immortality had they succeeded in withstanding the temptation to eat from the Tree. After failing at this task, they were condemned to a period of toil to rectify the fallen universe. In Jewish tradition, this is a 6,000 year period. Jewish tradition views the serpent, and sometimes the Tree of Knowledge itself, as representatives of evil. Evil's job was and is to mislead Mankind and give the appearance that God does not actually control all elements of Creation. Adam's task was to see through this veil. After his failure, this became humanity's task through history.

Reform and Conservative Judaism's views

The more modern liberal branches of Judaism, such as Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism, which see no "evil" other than the evil actions of human beings, disagree with traditions that identify the serpent with Satan. Eve's only transgression was that she disobeyed God's order. Adam was with her the entire time and at no time stopped her. Therefore, it is incorrect to blame Eve alone. Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden and had to live ordinary, human lives. In other words, they had to "leave home" and grow up and live as responsible human beings. If they had never eaten from the forbidden tree, they would never have discovered their capacity to act with free will in the world. God doesn't want human beings who have no choice but to always do what is good and right.

The original sin in Gnosticism

Gnostics saw the figure of the serpent as a divine benefactor and liberator of humanity, rather than as Satan, Lucifer, or any other ill-intentioned figure. They held that the world was created by the Demiurge, an imperfect creator who wished to rule it as a tyrant. However, the spirit of Christ interfered by possessing the serpent and telling Eve to eat the fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. The fact that Adam and Eve ate from this tree allowed them to have free will and thus defy, if need be, their Demiurge creator. Therefore, according to the Gnostics, what Christians call the Fall was really the freeing of humanity's minds and souls,.

The original sin in the Unification Church

When Adam and Eve ate the fruit, they did not "die" immediately (in the physical sense); but, according to the Unification Church interpretation, they "died" in a spiritual sense: their relationship with God was cut off. According to Unification theology, Adam and Eve sinned by having a sexual relationship before they had reached perfection. The "fruit of knowledge" was a symbol of Eve's sexual love, which could be either good (if centered on God) or evil (if not). Eve was initially tempted into sin by the Archangel Lucifer, who seduced her. The reason why Adam and Eve hid their "lower parts" after the original sin is similar to the reason why children, having swiped cookies, might hide their hands ("I have concealed my transgressions like Adam, by hiding my iniquity in my bosom." -- Job 31:33).

The original sin in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as the LDS Church, and the "Mormons") teaches a doctrine, known as the Fall of Adam, that the actions of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden brought about spiritual and physical death. Latter-day Saints believe that separation from God (spiritual death) was an intended part of the plan of God. The main objective of the plan was that mankind should be tested (see Abraham). Because separation from God was necessary, Latter-day Saints see the transgression of Adam and Eve as a great and necessary sacrifice, rather than a "mistake". Adam and Eve were cast out of God's presence and suffered physical pain and death after committing the transgression. Their choice to enter that fallen state willingly meant that the God's "Plan of Happiness" could proceed as intended, and was in line with his will. Mormons do not believe that the transgression in Eden was of a sexual nature - nor could it have been, they hold, as God commanded Adam and Eve to multiply and replenish the Earth, implying that sexual relations between our progenitors were sanctioned by Him, and that they were de facto married by God in Eden. Likewise, they do not blame Eve for being the first to partake of the fruit, but rather celebrate her wisdom in recognizing that her descendants would have to be born, live, and make righteous choices on Earth, learn to repent through the Atonement of Jesus Christ, and pass through death, in order eventually to be fully redeemed and return to live with God again. The idea is that it is better to pass through the sorrow of this life, in order to know the Good from the Evil, rather than to exist in a perpetual state of innocence and stagnant ignorance. (see [http://scriptures.lds.org/2_ne/2/11#10 2nd Nephi 2:11])

The original sin according to Muslims

The Qur'an recounts the story of Adam and Eve in a similar way to that of the Bible. However, the blame of disobedience is either put squarely on Adam, or both are blamed for the sin, but Eve is never mentioned to have convinced Adam of the sin. Adam and Eve are forgiven by God after they repent. The idea that the sin propagates to their offspring is categorically refused by the majority of Sunni and Shia muslims, citing ayahs such as: [6:164] "Every soul draws the meed of its acts on none but itself: no bearer of burdens can bear the burden of another," and [2:286] "On no soul doth Allah place a burden greater than it can bear. It gets every good that it earns, and it suffers every ill that it earns." There are minor factions, such as the Quran Alone Muslims, who accept a concept of original sin according to which every single human has sinned individually before coming to this earth.

Original sin (Christian doctrine)

There are wide-ranging disagreements among Christian groups as to the exact understanding of the doctrine about a state of sinfulness or absence of holiness affecting all human beings, even children, with some Christian groups denying it altogether.

Original sin in the New Testament

The New Testament teaching on original sin is thought by some to be summarized by the Apostle Paul: "Therefore as sin came into the world through one man and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all men sinned." (Rom 5:12 NRSV). The experience of original sin, and the spiritual pain it produces in the one who wishes to please God, is thought by some to be summed up by Paul: "I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate. Now if I do what I do not want, I agree that the law is good. So then it is no longer I that do it, but sin which dwells within me. For I know that nothing good dwells within me, that is, in my flesh. I can will what is right, but I cannot do it. For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I do. Now if I do what I do not want, it is no longer I that do it, but sin which dwells within me. So I find it to be a law that when I want to do right, evil lies close at hand. For I delight in the law of God, in my inmost self, but I see in my members another law at war with the law of my mind and making me captive to the law of sin which dwells in my members. Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death?" (Romans 7:15–24). Yet here there is no mention of inherited sin or guilt, but rather the reality of sin in the life of every person. The solution to this dilemma is stated by Paul in these terms: "For God has done what the law, weakened by the flesh, could not do: sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and for sin, he condemned sin in the flesh, in order that the just requirement of the law might be fulfilled in us, who walk not according to the flesh but according to the Spirit" (Romans 8:3-4). The reference to “sinful flesh” is not necessarily a statement about inherited guilt, but rather a reference to the identification of mortal human life and sin. Though the New Testament doctrine of original sin is thought by some to be expressed by Paul, it is also thought to be implicit in the teachings of Jesus: for example in such words as: "I am the vine, you are the branches. He who abides in me, and I in him, he it is that bears much fruit, for apart from me you can do nothing" (John 15:5). This passage speaks of the lack of spiritual life in one who is outside of Christ, which is thought to be a consequence of sin. The episode in Matthew 18 in which Jesus says children are not to be despised, for "their angels in heaven do always behold the face of my Father who is in heaven," is thought by opponents of the doctrine of original sin to be evidence of the innocence of children.

Original sin in Catholicism

After quoting Saint Paul's letter to the Romans 5:12, 18, the Catechism of the Catholic Church says: "By the 'unity of the human race', all men are implicated in Adam's sin, as all are implicated in Christ's justice. Still, the transmission of original sin is a mystery that we cannot fully understand" (404). The Catholic Church teaches that original sin, in which human beings are born, is "the state of deprivation of the original holiness and justice ... it is transmitted to the descendants of Adam along with human nature" (Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 76). Being a state, not an act, it involves no personal responsibility (cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 405). It is a state that gives rise to other consequences: "Human nature, without being entirely corrupted, has been harmed in its natural powers, is subject to ignorance, suffering and the power of death, and has a tendency to sin. This tendency is called concupiscence" (Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 77). The already existing doctrine of original sin was developed especially by Saint Augustine of Hippo in reaction to Pelagianism. The Church had always held baptism to be "for the remission of sins". Infants too were baptized, and were thus treated as inheriting the guilt of Adam's transgression, which, as St Paul taught, brought death upon the whole human race. In insisting that human beings have of themselves full freedom to choose between good and evil and so can achieve justification by their own efforts, Pelagianism denied both the importance of baptism and the teaching that God is the giver of all that is good. The Catholic Church did not accept all of Augustine's ideas, in particular the opinion that involvement in Adam's guilt and punishment takes effect through the dependence of human procreation on the sexual passion, in which the spirit's inability to control flesh is evident. There is a close link between the notion of original sin and the Catholic doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of Mary, namely the Church's teaching that, in view of the saving power of the future death and resurrection of her son Jesus, she was preserved from this "stain" (i.e. deprivation of holiness), which affects others. Those who deny the existence of inherited original sin implicitly profess belief in the immaculate conception not only of Mary but of every human being.

Original sin in mainstream Protestantism

The notion of original sin as interpreted by Augustine of Hippo was affirmed by the Protestant Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin. Both Luther and Calvin agreed that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state of sin from the moment of conception. This inherently sinful nature (the basis for the Calvinistic doctrine of "total depravity") results in a complete alienation from God and the total inability of humans to achieve reconciliation with God based on their own abilities. Not only do individuals inherit a sinful nature due to Adam's fall, but since he was the federal head and representative of the human race, all whom he represented inherit the guilt of his sin by imputation. Because of this conundrum, Protestants believe that God the Father sent Jesus into the world. The personhood, life, ministry, suffering, and death of Jesus, as God incarnate in human flesh, is meant to be the atonement for original sin as well as actual sins; this atonement is according to some rendered fully effective by the Resurrection of Jesus.

Original sin in Restoration Movement

Most Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement Churches, such as the Churches of Christ, Christian Churches, and other Congregational Churches of the same origin, reject the notion of original sin, believing only in the sins for which men and women are personally responsible. Adam and Eve did bring sin into the world by introducing disobedience, and as a result the concept spread; however, sin itself is an action, and not something that one can inherit.

Original sin in Eastern Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodoxy acknowledges that the introduction of sin into the human race affected the subsequent environment for mankind, but tends to deny any inherited guilt (such as is involved in what Orthodox consider to be a very common Western concept of original sin) or any necessary corruption of man's nature. The act of Adam is not the responsibility of all humanity. but the consequences of that act exist and plague the world. The act created an environment within which it is simply not possible, without direct Divine intervention, for a human being to avoid some sort of actual committed sin some time in his or her life. In essence, it is a type of combined "spiritual environmental pollution" and "spiritual illness".

External links

- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm Article "Original Sin" in Catholic Encyclopedia]
- [http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/index.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church]
- [http://www.bookofconcord.org/augsburgdefense/2_originalsin.html The Book of Concord (www.bookofconcord.org):] The Defense of the Augsburg Confession, Article II: Of Original Sin
- [http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-044.stm Sermon #44: Original Sin] by John Wesley
- [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-63 Dictionary of the History of Ideas:] Cosmic Fall
- [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/21-25/22-14.htm Original Sin as Privation: An Inquiry into a Theology of Sin and Sanctification] by Leon Hynson
- [http://www.tenbiggestmyths.net/spirituality/original.sin Original Sin Myths] category:Christian philosophy category:Islamic philosophy Category:Christian theology Category:Jewish mysticism Category:Theology Category:Torah events ja:原罪

Theology

Theology is reasoned discourse concerning God (Greek θεος, theos, "God", + λογος, logos, "word" or "reason"). It can also refer to the study of other religious topics. A theologian is a person learned in theology. religious topics

History of the term

The word "Theology" is derived from Hellenistic Greek, but its meaning has changed significantly through its use in the European Christian thought of the Middle ages and Enlightenment The term theologia is used in Classical Greek literature, with the meaning "discourse on the gods or cosmology" (see Lidell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon for references). Since the authority of Hellenistic city states was partly based on religious observance, those who first sought to ask difficult questions about the gods were often viewed as heretics, or in the language of the day "atheists". Socrates is famous for having been condemned to death for teaching youths atheism (though in fact he had not). Plato, his pupil, wrote several discourses on the gods, though his doctrine of forms and emanations would be more significant for later Theology. Aristotle divided theoretical philosophy into mathematice, phusike and theologike, with the latter corresponding roughly to metaphysics, which for Aristotle included discussion of the nature of the divine. The term has since been appropriated by a number of Eastern and Western religious traditions. Drawing on Greek sources, the Latin writer Varro influentially distinguished three forms of such discourse: mythical (concerning the myths of the Greek gods), rational (philosophical analysis of the gods and of cosmology) and civil (concerning the rites and duties of public religious observance). Christian writers, working within the Hellenistic mould, began to use the term to describe their studies. It appears once in some biblical manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation: apokalupsis ioannou tou theologou, "the revelation of John the theologos". There, however, we are probably dealing with a slightly different sense of the root logos, to mean not "rational discourse" but "word" or "message": ho theologos here is probably meant to tell us that the author of Revelation has presented God's revealed messages – words of God, logoi tou theou – not that he was a "theologian" in the modern English sense of the word. Other Christian writers used the term with several different ranges of meaning. # Some Latin authors, such as Tertullian and Augustine followed Varro's threefold usage, described above. # In patristic Greek sources, theologia could refer narrowly to the discussion of the nature and attributes of God. # In other patristic Greek sources, theologia could also refer narrowly to the discussion of the attribution of divine nature to Jesus. (It is in this sense that Gregory Nazianzus was nicknamed "the theologian": he was a staunch defender of the divinity of Christ.) # In medieval Greek and Latin sources, theologia (in the sense of "an account or record of the ways of God") could refer simply to the Bible. # In scholastic Latin sources, the term came to denote the rational study of the doctrines of the Christian religion, or (more precisely) the academic discipline which investigated the coherence and implications of the language and claims of the Bible and of the theological tradition (the latter often as represented in Peter Lombard's Sentences, a book of extracts from the Church Fathers). It is the last of these senses which lies behind most modern uses (though the second is also found in some academic and ecclesiastical contexts), and while the term "theology" can refer to any discussion of the nature of God or the gods, or indeed the discussion of any religious topic, it is also regularly used to denote the academic study (in Universities, seminaries and elsewhere) of the doctrines of Christianity, or of any other religion, or of the relationships and contrasts between various different religions, although the latter is a field more usually termed "comparative religion."

A brief history of "Theologies"

::Main article: History of theology Classical Greek theology (c.700 BC to 323 BC). Various forms of systematic and philosophical reflection on Ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology arose in the classical period - from Hesiod's attempts to organise the diverse materials of mythology into a unified Theogony to the more properly philosophical analysis reportedly carried out by Socrates. Plato's Timaeus and Aristotle's Metaphysics Book Lambda are two of the most influential writings of Classical Greek theology. Hellenistic theology (323 BC to 529 AD). Philosophical reflection on the gods, on religion, and on the origins and governance of the Universe, flourished in the Hellenistic period amongst both Greek- and Latin-speaking thinkers. Amongst the very diverse movements of Hellenistic philosophy in which theological reflection could be found were Cynicism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Middle Platonism, and Neoplatonism. Influential texts include Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus, Cicero's de Natura Deorum, Lucretius' de Rerum Natura, Epictetus' Enchiridion, and Plotinus' Enneads. Hellenistic theology, which could be deemed to last until the suppression of the Athenian Academy in 529 by Justinian I, overlaps with early Jewish and early Christian theology (see below), and several strands of thought important particularly to early Christian thought arise within Hellenistic circles: attempts to explain the apparent caprice of the gods, Atheism, the development of monotheism, the idea of God as first cause or form of the Good, the dualism of spirit and matter in humanity, and redemption (the release of the spirit from its material prison to a higher spiritual world) through knowledge. See also Greek mythology - Hellenistic rationalism and Ancient Greek religion - Theology Early Jewish theology (to c.200 AD). Two strands of Jewish theology develop in this period. On the one hand, there are those oral traditions of Rabbinic exegesis (Midrash) and legal discussion (Mishnah) that eventually began to be written down towards the end of the 2nd Century AD. Important figures include Gamliel I, Yohanan ben Zakkai, Gamliel II, Rabbi Akiva, and Rabbi Judah haNasi. On the other hand, there is the attempt to accommodate traditional Jewish exegesis of the Jewish Scriptures and tradition with Greek philosophy - a strand of thought of which Philo is the best known proponent. The destruction of the Jerusalem temple in 70 AD and the dispersion of many Jews from Israel had a profound effect on Jewish Theology. Early Christian theology, coming partly from