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Dog Breed

Dog breed

and Great Dane show the wide range of dog breed sizes.]] Dogs have been selectively bred for thousands of years. Initially the selections would have centred on domestication and useful qualities such as hunting ability. Later, dogs were also selected to give attractive and distinctive forms resulting in a vast variety of types. The point at which a new variety becomes a breed can be difficult to decide. National kennel clubs often differ in their recognition of breeds and rare breeds might not be recognised outside their home country. Usually, only dogs recognized by a kennel club are eligible to compete in the club's dog shows and dog sports. Many traditional dog breeds recognised by the main registries are said to be "purebred". Only individuals whose parentage consists only of other purebred examples of the breed are regarded as part of that breed. This concept has caused controversy both because of the difficulty of regulation and because of the possible genetic consequences of a limited population. Recent work has been done to genetically classify the various breeds, with some surprising results regarding the estimated age and interrelations of the breeds. Generally, before a type of dog is recognized as a breed, it must be shown that mating a pair of that type always produces dogs that have the same characteristics as the parents, usually both in appearance and in behavior. This is known as breeding true. There are many issues concerning what is considered breeding true. For example, Flat-Coated Retrievers must always be black; however, yellow coats occur occasionally in some litters. Kennel clubs do not recognize the yellow dogs as legitimate members of the breed; some breeders will euthanize the puppies rather than risk having the dog grow up, breed, and produce more of the undesired yellow color; more often, today, such dogs are neutered and placed in homes as pets. As another example, a breeding pair of Belgian Shepherds of the Groenendael variety can produce puppies of the Tervueren (brown) variety; the AKC considers the varieties to be different breeds and, therefore, the brown puppies are invalid and undesireable dogs, whereas the CKC considers them simply to be different varieties. See selective breeding for a detailed discussion on open versus closed studbooks and some of the issues concerning purebreds.

External links

- [http://www.beautdogs.com/Sponenberg.htm Livestock Guard Dogs: What is a Breed and Why Does It Matter?]
- [http://www.akc.org/reg/dogreg_stats.cfm AKC Dog Registration Statistics for 2003 and 2004]
- D

Domestication

Domesticated animals, plants, and other organisms are those whose collective behavior, life cycle, or physiology has been altered as a result of their breeding and living conditions being under human control for multiple generations. Humans have brought these populations under their care for a wide range of reasons: for help with various types of work, to produce food or valuable commodities (such as wool, cotton, or silk), and to enjoy as pets or ornamental plants. In a related way the notion of domestication is used in domestication theory that describes the process of the 'taming' or appropriation of technology by its users.

Process of domestication

There is debate within the scientific community over how the process of domestication works. Some researchers give credit to natural selection, wherein mutations outside of human control make some members of a species more compatible to human cultivation or companionship. Others have shown that carefully controlled selective breeding is responsible for many of the collective changes associated with domestication. These categories are not mutually exclusive and it is likely that natural selection and selective breeding have both played some role in the processes of domestication throughout history. The domestication of wheat provides an example of how natural selection and mutation can play a key role in the process. Wild wheat falls to the ground to reseed itself when it is ripe, but domesticated wheat stays on the stem when it is ripe. There is evidence that this critical change came about as a result of a random mutation near the beginning of wheat's cultivation. Wheat with this mutation was much more useful to farmers and became the basis for the various strains of domesticated wheat that have since been developed. The example of wheat has led some to speculate that mutations may have been the basis for other early instances of domestication. It is speculated that a mutation made some wolves less wary of humans. This allowed these wolves to start following humans to scavenge for food in their garbage dumps. Presumably something like a symbiotic relationship developed between humans and this population of wolves. The wolves benefited from human food scraps, and humans may have found that the wolves could warn them of approaching enemies, help with hunting, carry loads, provide warmth, or supplement their food supply. As this relationship evolved, humans eventually began to raise the wolves and breed the types of dogs that we have today. Nonetheless, some researchers maintain that selective breeding rather than mutation or natural selection best explains how the process of domestication typically worked. Some of the most well-known evidence in support of selective breeding comes from an experiment by Russian scientist, Dmitri Belyaev, in the 1950s. His team spent many years breeding the silver fox (Vulpes vulpes) and selecting only those individuals that showed the least fear of humans. Eventually, Belyaev's team selected only those that showed the most positive response to humans. He ended up with a population of grey fox whose behavior and appearance was significantly changed. These foxes no longer showed any fear of humans and often wagged their tails and licked their human caretakers to show affection. Despite the success of this experiment, it is clear that selective breeding cannot always achieve domestication. Attempts to domesticate several kinds of wild animals in this way have failed repeatedly. The zebra is one example. The historical process of domestication cannot be fully explained by any one principle acting alone. Some combination of natural selection and selective breeding has played a role in the domestication of the various species that humans have come into close contact with throughout history.

Domestication of animals

According to physiologist Jared Diamond, animal species must meet six criteria in order to be considered for domestication: #Flexible diet — Creatures that are willing to consume a wide variety of food sources and can live off less cumulative food from the food pyramid are less expensive to keep in captivity. Most carnivores can only be fed meat, which requires the expenditure of many herbivores. #Reasonably fast growth rate — Fast maturity rate compared to the human life span allows breeding intervention and makes the animal useful within an acceptable duration of caretaking. Large animals such as elephants require many years before they reach a useful size. #Ability to be bred in captivity — Creatures that are reluctant to breed when kept in captivity do not produce useful offspring, and instead are limited to capture in their wild state. Creatures such as the panda and cheetah are difficult to breed in captivity. #Pleasant disposition — Large creatures that are aggressive toward humans are dangerous to keep in captivity. The African buffalo has an unpredictable nature and is highly dangerous to humans. #Temperament which makes it unlikely to panic — A creature with a nervous disposition is difficult to keep in captivity as they will attempt to flee whenever they are startled. The gazelle is very flighty and it has a powerful leap that allows it to escape an enclosed pen. #Modifiable social hierarchy — Social creatures that recognize a hierarchy of dominance can be raised to recognize a human as its pack leader. A herding instinct arguably aids in domesticating animals: tame one and others will follow, regardless of chiefdom.

Domestication of plants

Given agriculture's importance to humans, the domestication of plants is even more important than the domestication of animals. Plants were first domesticated around 9000 BC in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. The first plants domesticated were generally annuals with large seeds or fruits. These included certain pulses such as peas and grains such as wheat. Reflecting human cultural proclivity to alter consciousness, plants with psychoactive properties were also domesticated early, such as the opium poppy, the cannabis plant and grapes for fermenting into wine. The Middle East was especially suited to these species; the dry climate was conducive to large seeds, and the variety of elevations led to a great variety of species. As it took place humans began to move from a nomadic hunter-gatherer society to a settled agricultural society. This change would eventually lead, some 4000 to 5000 years later, to the first city states and eventually the rise of civilization itself. Domestication was gradual, a process of trial and error that occurred slowly. Over time perennials and small trees began to be domesticated including apples and olives. Some plants were not domesticated until recently such as the macadamia nut and the pecan. In different parts of the world very different species were domesticated. In the Americas squash, maize, and beans formed the core of the diet. In East Asia rice, and soy were the most important crops. Some areas of the world such as Australia never saw local species domesticated. Over the millennia many domesticated species have become utterly unlike their natural ancestors. Corn cobs are now dozens of times the size of their wild ancestors. A similar change occurred between wild strawberries and domesticated strawberries. See also: Cultigen

Degrees of domestication

The boundaries between surviving wild populations and domestic clades of elephants, for example, can become vague. This is due to their slow growth. Similar problems of definition arise when, for example, domesticated cats go feral. A classification system that can help solve this confusion might be set up on a spectrum of increasing domestication:
- Wild: These species experience their full life cycles without deliberate human intervention.
- Raised at zoos or botanical gardens: These species are nurtured and sometimes bred under human control, but remain as a group essentially indistinguishable in appearance or behavior from their wild counterparts. (It should be noted that zoos and botanical gardens sometimes exhibit domesticated or feral animals and plants such as camels, dingoes, mustangs, and some orchids.)
- Raised commercially: These species are ranched or farmed in large numbers for food, commodities, or the pet trade, but as a group they are not substantially altered in appearance or behavior. Examples include the ostrich, deer, alligator, cricket, pearl oyster, and ball python. (These species are sometimes referred to as partially domesticated.)
- Domesticated: These species or varieties are bred and raised under human control for many generations and are substantially altered as a group in appearance or behavior. Examples include dogs, sheep, cattle, chickens, guinea pigs and laboratory mice. This classification system does not account for several complicating factors: genetically modified organisms, feral populations, and hybridization. Many species that are farmed or ranched are now being genetically modified. This creates a unique category because it alters the organisms as a group but in ways unlike traditional domestication. Feral organisms are members of a population that was once raised under human control, but is now living and multiplying outside of human control. Examples include mustangs and probably the Australian dingo. Hybrids can be wild, domesticated, or both: a liger is a hybrid of two wild animals, a mule is a hybrid of two domesticated animals, and a beefalo is a cross between a wild and a domestic animal. A great difference exists between a tame animal and a domesticated animal. The term "domesticated" refers to an entire species or variety while the term "tame" can refer to just one individual within a species or variety. Humans have tamed many thousands of animals that have never been truly domesticated. These include the elephant, giraffes, and bears. There is debate over whether some species have been domesticated or just tamed. Some state that the elephant has been domesticated, while others argue the cat has never been. One dividing line is whether a specimen born to wild parents would differ in behavior from one born to domesticated parents. For instance a dog is certainly domesticated because even a wolf (genetically the origin of all dogs) raised from a pup would be very different from a dog.

History of domestication

The earliest known domestic animal seems to probably have been the dog, possibly as early as 10000 BC in the Natufian culture of the Levant. However there is evidence of an association between humans and wolves going back 150000 years. Also some early evidence of beekeeping, in the form of rock paintings, dates to 13,000 BC. The next three - the goat, sheep and pig - were domesticated around 8000 BC, all in Asia. However, there is recent archaeological evidence from Cyprus of domestication of a type of cat by perhaps 7500 BC: this might make the cat second. The earliest evidence of horse domestication (probably in northern Russia) dates to near 4000 BC. Local equivalents and smaller species were domesticated from the 2500s BC. The processes of domestication and the distribution of domesticated species were both radically affected by the establishment of regular contact between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres following the voyages of Christopher Columbus. This sudden increase in the transmission of organisms between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres is referred to as the Columbian Exchange.

Approximate dates and locations of first domestication
Species	Date	Location
Dog	10000 BC to 150000 BC	Asia
Sheep	8000 BC	Middle East
Goat	8000 BC	Middle East
Pig	8000 BC	China
Cow	8000 BC	Egypt or Sub-sahara [http://www.comp-archaeology.org/WendorfSAA98.html]
Horse	4000 BC	Ukraine
Donkey	4000 BC	Egypt
Water buffalo	4000 BC	China
Honeybee	4000 BC	Southern Asia
Chicken	3500 BC	Southeast Asia
Cat	3500 BC to 7500 BC	Egypt or Cyprus
Llama	3500 BC	Peru
Alpaca	3500 BC?	Peru?
Silkworm	3000 BC	China
Bactrian camel	2500 BC	Central Asia
Dromedary (Arabian camel)	2500 BC	Arabia
Turkey	100	Mexico
Guinea pig	900	Peru
Rabbit	1500	Europe
Fox	1800s	Europe
Mink	1800s	Europe
Hamster	1930s	United States
Deer	1970s	New Zealand

Obviously, these are not dates that are set in stone. In fact, these dates are possibly far from being accurate due to scanty evidence. The earliest estimates, however, are that animals started to be domesticated approximately 10,000 years ago (8000 B.C).

Limits of domestication

Despite long enthusiasm about revolutionary progress in farming, few crops and probably even fewer animals ever became domesticated. While the process continues with plants (berryfruits, for example), it appears to have ceased with animals. Domesticated species, when bred for tractability, companionship or ornamentation rather than for survival, can often fall prey to disease: several sub-species of apples or cattle, for example, face extinction; and many dogs with very respectable pedigrees appear prone to genetic problems. One side-effect of domestication has been disease. For example, cattle have given humanity various viral poxes, measles, and tuberculosis; pigs gave influenza; and horses the rhinoviruses. Humans share over sixty diseases with dogs. Many parasites also have their origins in domestic animals.

External links

- [http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1499.htm Discussion of animal domestication]
- Guns, Germs and Steel by Jared Diamond (ISBN 0393038912)
- [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2004/0408cats.shtml News story] about an early domesticated cat find
- [http://www.devbio.com/article.php?ch=23&id=223 Belyaev experiment] with the domestic fox
- [http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/domestic.htm Use of Domestic Animals in Zoo Education]
- [http://www.primitivism.com/future-primitive.htm An essay on the effects of domestication on ecology and civilization] Category:Agriculture Category:Biology Category:Domesticated animals Category:Prehistory

Hunting

Category:NPOV disputes :This article is about the hunting of prey by human society. For other uses of the word "hunting", see Hunting (disambiguation). "Hunter" and "huntress" redirect here; for other uses of these words, see Hunter (disambiguation) and Huntress (disambiguation). Hunting is most commonly applied to the practice of pursuing animals to capture or kill them for food, sport, or trade in their products. Hunting should be distinguished from poaching which is the killing, trapping or capture of game animals contrary to law. Animals so hunted are referred to as game animals. By definition, hunting excludes the killing of individual animals that have become dangerous to humans and the killing of vermin as a means of pest control. Although hunting also technically excludes wildlife management to maintain a population of animals within an environment's carrying capacity, regulatory and licensing bodies may restrict the bag limit such that only animals in excess of the environment's carrying capacity may be harvested.

History

wildlife management

Old roots

In ancient societies, before the widespread domestication of animals, hunting was generally vital for survival as part of the hunter-gatherer way of life. For most humans before the development of agriculture, hunting would have provided an important source of protein to augment the foraged plants and vegetables that made up the majority of their diet. In addition, animal hides were used for clothing and shelters. The earliest hunting weapons would have included rocks, the Atlatl and bow and arrows. Even when animal domestication became relatively widespread, hunting was usually a significant contributor to the food supply available to a population. In addition, animal parts such as hides and horns were utilized in clothing and tools, and not all of these products could be provided from the domestication of animals. The importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the Greek Artemis alias the Roman Diana (both lunar goddesses, among the twelve major divinities with an equivalent in nearly every ancient Mediterranean culture) or Cernunnos, the Horned God. The mythological association of a prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions, often a 'reserve' surrounding its temple(s). Hunter-gathering cultures existed along-side agrarian societies with whom they traded. This did not always result in a cultural transition from hunting-gathering to agrarian domestication. Also, in chilly climates, the hides or furs of animals would be used as clothing (see trapping). The Inuit peoples in the Arctic could produce complicated parkas consisting of up to 60 stitched pieces capable of with-standing sub-zero temperatures. From the skins of sea mammals they produced, and still produce, water-proof kayaks, clothing, gloves and footwear. With domestication of the dog, birds of prey and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided hunting developed including venery (scent hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight hound hunting), falconry and ferreting. These are all associated with medieval hunting; in time various dog breeds were selected for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as pointer and setter. As hunting moved from a strictly necessary activity for survival to one of many staples of society, two trends emerged. One was that of the specialist hunter - a position previously held by just about every able-bodied male (usually) in the society. As domesticated farming and herding took hold, hunting became one of many trades to be pursued by those with the necessary training. The other trend was the emergence of hunting as a sport. As game became more of a luxury than a dietary necessity, the pursuit of it could equally well be considered a luxury pursuit. Still dangerous hunting, as for lions or wild boars, usually on horseback (or from a chariot, as in Pharaonic Egypt and Mesopotamia) also had a similar function as tournaments and various manly sports: an honourable, often somewhat competetive passtime helping the aristocracy in peace time to practice in the skills of warfare. warfare warfare In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper-class (aristocracy and higher clergy) obtained as proud privilege the sole rights to hunt (and sometimes fish) in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was certainly used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen; but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer".

Modern Hunting for Sport

In time, this aristocratic type of hunting lost its roots as a source of food and supplies, while retaining its prestigious nature as a sport, eagerly adopted by the rising bourgeoisie. Hunting in North America in the 1800s was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies. The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists, but is frowned upon by some when it involves rare or endangered species of animal. Other people also object to trophy hunting in general because it is seen as a senseless act of killing another living thing for recreation, rather than food. Advocates of trophy hunting disagree. They state that the vast majority of the edible portions of the animal are consumed by the hunters themselves or given to local inhabitants. This along with fees paid to hunt contribute to the local economy and provide value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/10/06/MNG1UF392D1.DTL]. In Tanzania it is estimated that safari hunter spends 50-100 times that of the average eco-tourist and at a lower environmental impact. The average photo tourist demands luxury accommodations and at a higher number of visitors to make the endeavor financially viable. In contrast the average safari hunter travels on foot, staying in tented camps and in vastly smaller numbers. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the average eco-tourist. Having these hunters there allows for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1076/is_5_41/ai_54895821/pg_5]. In the 1800s southern and central European hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, to be displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was often wasted. In contrast, in relatively scarcely populated northern Europe, hunting has remained the tradition of the common people, and still serves a purpose as a means of acquiring meat, although the standard of living does not require it; Eating game is generally considered a healthier and more ethical alternative to the exploitation of farmed animals. In the Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was, and still is frowned upon, but an impressive trophy is considered a bonus. This is perhaps the most common practice of modern hunters worldwide.

Specific hunting traditions

Shikar (India)

During the feudal and colonial epoch on the Indian continent, hunting was a true 'kingly sport' in the numerous princely states, as many (maha)rajas etc. maintained a whole corps, attached to their court, of shikaris, i.e. native professional hunterssince these had to be armed (not unlike he common lancer units; both could be mounted), they might also double as a supplementary police corps or military contingent. Often these were recruited from the normally low-ranking local pre-Aryan tribes (e.g. Bhils in Rajasthan's premier kingdom Mewar), because of their traditional knowledge of environment, techniques etc., but thus could be closer then most subjects to the ruler, who would often hunt big game (preferably the emperor of Asians wildlife, the (Bengal) tiger) in majestic style: on the back of an elephant, often commandeering extra helpers as drivers to scare the game out of the grass or jungle till it came within gun reach. As hunting was an important princely pass-time, worthy hunting lodges were constructed (not unlike feudal Europe) After European guests of these princes had enjoyed the honour of talking part in these elephant hunts, some colonial Sahibs started organizing their own, and tiger numbers especially dwindled alarmingly. Fortunately, the independent republics (and neighbouring Himalayan monarchies, as Nepal) became wise enough to curb such massively disturbing 'expeditions', for the threat of poching may still mean the unnecessary end of more species and habitats then have already been lost forever.

Safari

A safari (from Swahili word meaning a long journey) is an overland journey (especially in Africa). Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by US author Ernest Hemingway and president Theodore Roosevelt. It is a several days or even weeks-lasting journey and camping in the bush or jungle, while pursuing big game. Nowadays, it's often used to describe tours through African national parks to watch or hunt wildlife. Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by professional local guide, skinners and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type is the solo-safari where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation and outfitting is done by the hunter himself. Among trophy hunters, those who outfitted the safaris themselves would receive the greatest admiration. On the rise, even before integral ecotourism was, is the animal-friendly version known as photo-safari, where the only shots aimed at wildlife come from camera lenses. The synonym Bloodless hunt for hunting with the use of film and a still photo camera was first used by the Polish photographer Włodzimierz Puchalski Category: Hunting Category:Photography by genre

United Kingdom

The practice of British fox hunting is a prime example of sport hunting; the fox is not eaten, and the skin is rarely preserved afterwards. Fox hunting originally developed as a means of vermin control to protect livestock. In Victorian times it also became a popular sport of the upper classes. It now attracts followers from all walks of life. Mounted followers join in on horseback and foot-followers walk or cycle, others follow by car, stopping to view the hunt from suitable vantage points. Fox hunting attract strong feelings. Some animal rights supporters feel it causes suffering to the fox and is both cruel and unnecessary, but no cruelty evidence was forthcoming when the legislation was drawn up. Most members of the farming and rural communities in which it takes place feel it is an integral and useful part of rural life, providing an important contribution to prevent vermin from killing farm animals especially at lambing time and providing an important contribution to social life for local people. In 2002 the Scottish Parliament passed an act banning fox hunting and other forms of hunting with hounds. On September 15th 2004 the British Parliament followed Scotland's lead and passed a similar ban for England and Wales under the Hunting Act 2004, which took effect from February 18 2005. The British Government forced the ban into law using the Parliament Act. Some hunting activists have declared their intention to break the law and continue hunting with hounds, and others are 'hunting within the law' and thereby showing the law to be flawed, illogical and unenforcable.

Hunting in the United States

In the United States, hunting is a sport not associated with any particular class or culture. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over 13 million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport. Modern North American hunting has been strongly influenced by organizations such as the Boone and Crocket Club, founded in 1887 to discourage commercial hunting, promote conservation and the "fair chase" ethic of hunting "individual animals in a manner that conserves, protects, and perpetuates the hunted population." In the United States, hunters are encouraged to take a hunters safety course. There are many good courses taught by hunters and they teach the responsibilities of a good sportsman. On television there is a show on OLN called Hunters Handbook that shows hunting safety and new hunting products. Modern hunters see themselves as conservationists. Each year, nearly $200 million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to State agencies to support wildlife management programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Proceeds from the Federal Duck Stamp, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters, have purchased more than 5 million acres (20,000 km²) of habitat for the refuge system lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species, and are often open to hunting. The $200 million is the federal portion only and does not include monies collected by the states for hunting licenses. Local hunting clubs and national conservation organizations protect the future of wildlife by setting aside millions of acres of habitat and speaking up for conservation in Washington and State capitals [http://www.fws.gov/hunting/whatdo.html]. Two such private organizations are Ducks Unlimited [http://www.ducks.org] and Delta Waterfowl [http://www.deltawaterfowl.org]. Hunting of mammals such as deer, elk and small game is regulated by the states. Hunting of migratory waterfowl (ducks, geese, and others) is regulated by the Federal government under treaties with Canada and Mexico since the birds do not recognize international political boundaries. The states usually adminster the federally-set regulations. One task of Federal and state park rangers and game wardens is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting, included species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans. Hunting can be an important tool for wildlife management. Hunting gives resource managers a valuable tool to control populations of some species that might otherwise exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other wildlife species, and in some instances, that of human health and safety [http://www.fws.gov/hunting/]. Hunting reduces the annual crop of new animals and birds to allow the remaining animals sufficient feed and shelter to survive. An example of using hunters in wildlife management can be found in the "Snow, Blue and Ross' Goose Conservation Order 2005." [http://www.agfc.com/rules_regs/hunting_regs_migratory_conservation_order.html] The Conservation Order allows hunters, after all other waterfowl seasons are closed, to shoot an unlimited number of these species of geese. The reason for the Conservation Order is that these species have grown so numerous that they are destroying the Arctic environment which many species of animals use as breeding grounds. Many Native American hunters claim subsistence hunting rights as a traditional part of their culture. In certain cases (such as the Marine Mammal Protection Act), Federal law provides protection for Native Americans. This is particularly true in Alaska, where people still feed on sea and land mammals as well as fish and birds. It is common for rural Alaska Native communities to obtain 50-90% of their daily protein from hunting. Varmint hunting is the killing of animals seen as pests and animals that are not normally considered as game species. While not an efficient form of pest control (poisoning and trapping are much more effective), it does provide recreation and is currently the fastest growing area of hunting. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Animals may be utilized for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are "varmints" depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, and feral hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves. Animal management authorities sometimes rely on hunting to control certain animal populations. These hunts are sometimes carried out by professional hunters although other hunts include amateurs. Overpopulations of deer in urban parks and bears which have attacked humans might be hunted by animal management authorities. Modern hunting is done with a plethora of weapons. The three most common being:guns, bows, and muzzleloaders. Some prefer bowhunting and bowfishing, as they may consider such hunting methods more challenging.

Depiction of hunt in Popular Culture

While there are numerous hunting shows, television programs, magazines and merchandise, some popular entertainment also condemns sport hunting. This is most obvious in animation which often depicts hunting from the hunted animal's point of view and furthermore has the audience's sympathy as the animal either usually escapes or successfully defends itself. Hence, the hunter is often presented as the antagonist. This can range from the humorous such as Bugs Bunny fighting off Elmer Fudd to the dramatic (and absurdly-inaccurate) as in Bambi. In contrast, filmed depictions of hunting by aboriginal cultures like Native American ones are treated with much more sympathy with the implied idea that they are hunting for what they need to survive and no more. (This "implied idea" actually continues to be the case in many Alaskan Bush communities today.)[http://tunt.blogspot.com/2005/03/30-hunting-for-subsistence.html] Varmint hunting of prairie dogs is depicted in John Ross' novel "Unintended Consequences". A favorable depiction of hunting is found in L.Neil Smith's science fiction novel 'Pallas'.

External links

- [http://www.justinalexander.net/huntingethics.htm Ethics of Hunting] - a philosophy thesis on the ethical arguments for and against hunting, including a section focusing on Christian ethics.
- [http://www.surviveoutdoors.com/reference/huntingsafety.asp Hunting Safety]
- [http://www.fws.gov/ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service website]
- [http://www.fws.gov/hunting/huntstat.html U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service statistics]
- [http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/ Texas Parks and Wildlife Commission as an example of state agencies]
- [http://www.booneman.com/ Michigan based grassroots hunting, fishing and habitat forum]
- [http://www.boone-crockett.org/huntingEthics/ethics_fairchase.asp?area=huntingEthics Boone and Crockett Club "Fair Chase" Statement]
- [http://www.scifirstforhunters.org/ Safari Club International] Category:Survival skills Category:Blood sports Category:Archery
- ja:狩猟

Breed

See Breed (song) for the song of the same name by Nirvana. ---- A breed is a domesticated subspecies or infrasubspecies of an animal. A breed has no close analogy for domesticated plants. An important difference is that plants are commonly propagated by striking or grafting cuttings: there is no corresponding technique for animals. Cloning may change this if it becomes more available. A breed should also be distinguished from a strain, which is simply the descendants of a single significant individual, and which in domesticated animals is also known as a bloodline. A strain may not remain entirely within a breed, nor is a breed necessarily composed of a single strain. For a type to be recognised as a breed, there should be a viable true-breeding population. See also selective breeding, genotype, phenotype.

Common animal breeds

- Cat breeds
- Cattle breeds
- Chicken breeds
- Dog breeds
- Horse breeds
- Rabbit breeds

Dog sports

Dog sports are activities that involve dogs. dog There is much discussion about what exactly defines a sport for dogs. Some issues:
- If a human companion isn't actively involved, is it actually a sport? Take greyhound racing, for example, or hunting from, say, a duck blind, from which the dog retrieves the game.
- Is any activity a sport? For example, a conformation show, where the handler and dog walk or trot around a ring for a judge to evaluate the dog's appearance and structure. This list is intended only to represent anything that anyone is likely to refer to as a dog sport, not to argue its validity as sport. Clearly, there are more sports to add to this list:
- Agility
- Bikejoring
- Canicross
- Carting
- Dog packing
- Earthdog trials (or go to ground trials; see [http://www.dirt-dog.com/awta/index.shtml American Working Terrier Association] and [http://dog-play.com/earthdog.html List of earth dog links])
- Field trials
- Flyball
- Frisbee dog
- Musical freestyle
- Mushing
- Obedience training
- Protection sports (including Schutzhund and Ring sports)
- Pulka
- Scootering
- Sled dog racing
- Skijoring
- Sheepdog trials
- Sighthound racing, including Greyhound racing, coursing, and lure coursing
- Tracking competition (see also Tracking (dog))
- Weight pulling

Flat-Coated Retriever

The Flat-Coated Retriever is a gundog breed from Britain. It is a specialist dry-land retriever.

Appearance

The breed stands 22 to 23 inches (56-58.5 cm) and weighs 60 to 70 pounds (27-32 kg). Its colour is either solid black or liver.

Coat

The coat is moderate in length, dense, and lustrous; ideally it should lie flat and straight, but the breed was initially called the Wavy-Coated Retriever. Later, the coat somehow flattened out and the name changed accordingly, but the tendency toward wavy hair still emerges occasionally.

Temperament

The flat-coat’s personality is described as outgoing, devoted, and friendly, an ideal companion with a strong bond to its owner. It is said to be a very versatile hunting dog, retrieving well on land or in the water, flushing upland game, marking downed birds, and generally doing all that can be expected of a multipurpose gundog. Although little-known and much less popular than the Labrador and Golden Retrievers, it has benefitted from that lack of popularity by enjoying more careful breeding and better maintenance of its fine working ability. Flat-coated retrievers love to please, but may be slightly more difficult to train than the popular Golden Retriever and Labrador Retriever. They exhibit a streak of willfulness at times, and don't have a really long attention span. For this reason, it's best to make training sessions fun, entertaining, and relatively short for the dog. Flat-coats are known for having a sunny optimism and a tail that's always wagging. They can get along well with children, cats, other dogs, small pets, and strangers. Still, socialization and obedience training is highly recommended. Flat-coats tend to be very rowdy when young, and need plenty of exercise throughout their life. Sometimes they are referred to as the "Peter Pan of dogs" because they never grow up, acting playful and puppy-like well into their years.

History

Originating in the late 19th century it gained popularity as a gamekeeper’s dog. Part of its ancestry is thought to have come from stock imported from North America of Newfoundland type, as was the case with the Labrador and Chesapeake Bay retrievers. After its introduction, the flatcoat began to quickly gain in popularity as a gundog, and from 1873 when the breed became a "stable type" according to the [http://www.akc.org/breeds/flat_coated_retriever/history.cfm American Kennel Club] until 1915 when it was officially recognized as a breed, the number of flatcoats grew rapidly. However, soon thereafter, the popularity of the flatcoat began to fall, eclipsed by the golden retriever, which was actually bred in part from the flatcoat, and other breeds. By the end of World War Two, there were so few flatcoats that the breed's survival was uncertain. However, beginning in the 1960s, the breed gained in popularity again, and today, the flatcoat remains a solid breed. Category:Dog breeds

Animal euthanasia

Euthanasia (Greek, "good death") is the practice of killing a person or animal, in a painless or minimally painful way, for merciful reasons, usually to end suffering. This article discusses animal euthanasia; a separate article covers euthanasia in humans. An animal is euthanized when it is killed in a manner deemed to be humane, and in the case of a pet, in accordance with the emotional needs of the owner. It can be done with inhalant agents, noninhalant pharmacologic agents (administered by a lethal injection), and physical methods. Pets are almost always euthanized via lethal injection, typically a very high dose of a barbiturate anaesthetic such as pentobarbital. Unconsciousness, respiratory and cardiac arrest follow rapidly, usually within 30 seconds to several minutes later. Pet owners generally consider it to be a quick and peaceful death. Pet and livestock owners might decide to do this when the animal is suffering significantly due to injury or terminal illness, is overly aggressive, or when the owner/guardian no longer able to keep or care for the animal and is unable or unwilling to find a new home for it. Additionally, many stray and feral animals, in particular, cats, are euthanized due to the lack of adoptive homes. In this latter case, the simple presence of the animals may be considered objectionable by those who live or work nearby, and who trap the animals (or request the assistance of animal control services to do so) and surrender them to the local animal shelter. Euthanasia is typically performed in a veterinary clinic or hospital, or in an animal shelter, and is usually carried out by a veterinarian, or a veterinary technician working under the vet's supervision. Note that euthanasia is performed at the discretion of the attending veterinarian, who may refuse an animal owner's request to euthanize if he or she feels it is not medically or ethically necessary (so-called "convenience" euthanasia). Some in the animal welfare or animal rights movements consider the use of the term "euthanasia", with its connotation of being done to ease suffering, to be a misnomer when applied to the euthanasia of homeless (or soon-to-be homeless) animals that are otherwise healthy and free of behavioral disorders. Some breeders also kill puppies that do not conform to the standard of the dog breed to prevent the perpetuation of the perceived flaws or faults. Most modern breeders simply neuter the animals and place them in homes as pets.

Morality Debate

Animal shelters often euthanize animals when they can't find a home for them, typically after a standard period of time (ranging from several days to several weeks for unclaimed stray animals). Some consider this immoral and cruel; others believe that euthanasia is a less objectionable alternative to having unwanted animals go to unsuitable homes or having them live out their lives in shelters which generally do not have the funding to give unlimited numbers of animals proper care and exercise indefinitely. Behavioral unsuitability for adoption (ie, aggression, house-breaking, etc) is a major non-clinical reason for euthanasia in animal shelters. So-called "no kill" shelters exist, some run by private animal welfare organizations while others are subsidized wholly or in part by local government agencies. These shelters make it official policy to never euthanize animals for non-medical reasons. Overcrowding, lack of adoptive homes and underfunding are recognized problems. Supporters consider these minor compared to the ethics of euthanasia they consider unnecessary.

External links

- [http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/pubs/oldbib/srb9801.htm Animal Euthanasia, US Animal Welfare Information Center]
- [http://www.avma.org/resources/euthanasia.pdf Euthanasia Report] (PDF) - American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA
- [http://www.alysion.org/euthanasia/index.html Small Animal Euthanasia at Home]
- [http://www.nokillsolutions.org/ No Kill Solutions - "no kill" shelter advocacy organization] Category:Euthanasia Category:Dogs as pets Category:Cats as pets

Sterilization (surgical procedure)

Sterilization is a surgical technique leaving a male or female unable to procreate. It is a method of birth control.
- A vasectomy in males. The vasa deferentia, the tubes which connect the testicles to the prostate, are cut and closed. This prevents sperm produced in the testicles to be in the ejaculated semen fluid (which is mostly produced in the prostate and the seminal vesicles).
- A tubal ligation in females. The Fallopian tubes, which allow the sperm to fertilize the ovum and would carry the fertilized ovum to the uterus, are closed. This is sometimes referred to as getting one's "tubes tied."
- A hysterectomy in females. The uterus is surgically removed, permanently preventing pregnancy and some diseases, such as uterine cancer. The closing of either type of tube can be done in several different ways, some of which are more permanent or guaranteed to work than others. The tube can be
- clamped off
- cut off
- tied off
- blocked

Vasectomy

Vasectomy should not be confused with castration: vasectomy does not involve removal of the testicles and it affects neither the production of male sex hormones (mainly testosterone) nor their secretion into the bloodstream. Therefore sexual desire (libido) and the ability to have an erection and an orgasm with an ejaculation are not often affected. Because the sperm itself makes up a very small proportion of the ejaculate, vasectomy does not affect the volume, appearance, texture or flavour of the ejaculate. Similarly, in females, hormone production, libido, and the menstrual cycle are not affected by a tubal ligation. When the vasectomy is complete, sperm can no longer exit the body through the penis and it seems that they enter the bloodstream by penetrating the blood-testes barrier. Normally, the barrier keeps the immune system separate from the reproductive system. When the barrier is compromised by vasectomy, injury, or even a simple puncture from a biopsy, the two systems interface. This usually results in the development of anti-sperm antibodies.

Safety and effectiveness

Early failure rates of vasectomy are below 1%, but the effectiveness of the operation and rates of complications vary with the level of experience of the surgeon performing the operation and the surgical technique used. Early complications, including hematoma, infection, sperm granulomas, epididymitis-orchitis, and congestive epididymitis, occur in 1%–6% of men undergoing vasectomy. The incidence of chronic epididymal pain is poorly documented. Animal and human data indicate that vasectomy does not increase atherosclerosis and that increases in circulating immune complexes after vasectomy are transient. The weight of the evidence regarding prostate and testicular cancer suggests that men with vasectomy are not at increased risk of these cancers. Although late failure (caused by recanalization of the vasa deferentia) is very rare, it has been documented. Vasectomy is the most effective long-term contraceptive method, and is among the safest options for family planning. The rate of vasectomies to tubal ligations worldwide is approximately 3/10, with large variations between countries. In Britain, for example, vasectomy is more popular than tubal ligation. Couples who opt for tubal ligation do so for a number of reasons, including:
- Convenience of coupling the procedure with delivery at a hospital.
- Refusal of the man to undergo vasectomy due to fear of possible side effects. Couples who choose vasectomy are motivated by, among other factors:
- Fear of surgery in the woman
- Knowing men who have had the procedure and are satisfied with the results
- A stronger motivation for sterilization in the man
- The lower cost and simplicity of vasectomy
- The lower mortality of vasectomy

Reversal

In order to allow for reproduction (via artificial insemination) after vasectomy, some men opt for cryostorage of sperm before sterilization. However, the long term viability of spermatozoa in cryostorage is questionable. Although there is a procedure to reverse vasectomies using vasovasostomy (a form of microsurgery), it is not effective in many cases, and men considering vasectomies should not think of them as reversible. Various temporary male contraceptives are being researched but not yet available, such as male oral contraceptives and the intra vas device. There has been at least one documented case of a vasectomy being reversed on a dog, which then fathered puppies after the reversal.

Sterilization of animals

In animals, castration (removal of the testes) and salpingo-oophorectomy (removal of the ovaries and fallopian tubes), called neutering or spaying when applied to pets, are used to prevent conception, heat in females, and to potentially prolong an animal's lifespan. Animal control organizations have urged owners to have their pets spayed or neutered in order to prevent an increase in the population of stray animals. These stray animals are often malnourished and euthanized in pet shelters.

References

# # # # # [http://www.fhi.org/en/rh/pubs/network/v18_3/nw182ch8.htm Attracting men to vasectomy, Network: Spring 1998, Vol. 18, No. 3] #

External links

- [http://www.vasectomy-information.com Vasectomy Information] The website of newsgroup alt.support.vasectomy.]
- [http://www.my-vasectomy.com My Vasectomy in Words and Pictures] One man's personal experience.]
- [http://www.dontfixit.org Don't Fix It, Forum and Articles on Detrimental Experiences with Vasectomies.] Category:Andrology Category:Birth control

PET

PET may mean:
- Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor)
- Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1919–2000), an influential Canadian politician
- Politiets Efterretningstjeneste, the Danish Security Intelligence Service
- Polyethylene terephthalate, a common plastic material
- Positron emission tomography, a three-dimensional imaging technique in nuclear medicine
- Potential evapotranspiration, a measure of the atmospheric demand for water vapour from evaporation and transpiration
- Potentially Exempt Transfer, a concept in UK Inheritance Tax.
- Photoinduced energy transfer (or photoinduced electron transfer), a mechanism of molecular fluorescence

Belgian Shepherd

Belgian Shepherd Dog (also know as the Belgian Sheepdog or Chien de Berger Belge) can refer to any of four breeds of dog: the Groenendael, the Laekenois, the Tervueren, or the Malinois. In some regions, these are considered four different varieties of a single breed; in other regions, they are considered a single breed. The American Kennel Club (AKC) recognizes only the Groenendael under the name "Belgian Sheepdog", but also recognizes the Tervueren (with the alternative spelling "Tervuren") and the Malinois as individual breeds. The Laekenois can be registered as part of the AKC foundation stock service and should eventually be recognised fully by the AKC. The Australian National Kennel Council and the New Zealand Kennel Club recognize all four as separate breeds. The Canadian Kennel Club, Kennel Union of South Africa and the Kennel Club (UK) follow the FCI classification scheme and recognises all four as varieties of the same breed. All are hard-working, intelligent dogs of the same general size and temperament. They differ in their coats and superficially in appearance. They are so closely related that, when breeding any two dogs of the same coat colour and length (eg Groendael), it is possible for puppies of different "breeds" to be in the same litter. For example, a Groenendael litter could contain a brown-coated long-haired puppy; in countries that consider them the same breed with 4 coat variaties, this is fine and the puppy would be a valid Tervueren, but the AKC considers it to be an aberration of the all-black Belgian Shepherd and disqualifies it in the conformation ring. This dog can be breed with other Groendaels (indeed the AKC allows this because the dog is after all registered as a Groenendael!)and worked in obedience, agility and other sports venues. Likewise, a Tervueren could have a short-coated puppy; in some countries, this is merely the Malinois coat variation but the AKC again considers it to be a disqualifiable fault in the conformation ring. In years gone past, the Groenendael and Tervuren were one breed with coat variations until the Club decided to petition the AKC to make the separation into two separate breeds. Who knows what the future will bring?!

Appearance

Temperament

Belgian Shepherds are bred to be highly intelligent, alert and sensitive to everything going on around them, and to develop extremely strong relationship bonds. This means that they need significant socializing as puppies, lifelong activity outlets, and will seek to be with "their human" all the time, preferably doing something rather than waiting around. They can find it very difficult to be left alone. During their juvenile years, they can go through irrational fears (similar to the child who believes there is a monster in the closet), and can suddenly develop anxiety over some object or place which has never been a problem before, although these fade over time with a good positive lead. They tend strongly to be a "one person dog." Belgian shepherds like to please, and can over-react badly to "negative" (punishment or deterrence based) training, so they should as a rule be clicker- or reward-trained only. They can also behave as if they think that they are smarter than their owners, so it is important for the owner to know how to train dogs or to enroll in training classes. Professional training is highly recommended by trainers/acadamies specific to this type of dog, as well as continued training or development beyond the basics, such as obedience, agility and herding and other sports. This is because Belgian Shepherds as a rule require mental stimulation as much or more so then physical. Most Belgian owners know that rote or pattern-based training is not the ideal for Belgians. Nor is drilling a particular activity going to prove successful. If a Belgian does something right 3 times in a row, he, or she, does not see the sense in doing it the fourth time! All the Belgian Shepherd breeds need a lot of activity and close interaction with people. Like most herding breeds, they need a job to do (be it frisbee in the park, herding, learning tricks, dog agility). Throwing a toy endlessly for the dog to fetch works for some breeds, but the Belgian breeds are intelligent and sociable dogs who can easily become bored with such simple and undemanding repetition. Many Belgians make superb assistance dogs who thrive on knowing that their jobs are indeed necessary for their chosen person. An amusing series of humorous cartoons showing the lighter side of the Belgian Shepherd personality can be found [http://www.bsdaofgb.co.uk/bsdfaq.htm here].

Ownership

They are widely considered to be a fine looking dog, loyal, intelligent, fun, and well suited to family life. However because of their high sensitivity to criticism or to being ignored, their careful handling and socialising needs, their need for ongoing stimulation and purposeful activity, and their potential (in common with other high energy dogs such as Siberian Huskies) to develop problems or even become destructive if bored, they are not usually considered suitable for a first time or inexperienced owner, or one who cannot meet their needs.

Health

Belgians overall are fairly healthy as a breed, especially compared to many other breeds. Their main illnesses as a breed are epilepsy, hip dysplasia, thyroid conditions, and cataracts. A study at UC indicates that 17% (one in 6) will develop epilepsy, although most of these will only develop occasional petite mal and not be seriously affected by it. Their more compact form means they are less likely to develop dysplasia than German Shepherds or other breeds (around 8% or 1 in 12). Cataracts can develop around ages 2-4.

External links

- [http://www.bsdaofgb.co.uk Belgian Shepherd Dog Association of Great Britain]
- [http://www.belgiansworld.com Belgians World - site dedicated to Belgian Shepherds] Category:Dog breeds

Belgian Shepherd Dog (Tervueren)

The Belgian Shepherd Dog (Tervueren) is a breed of dog, sometimes classified as a variety of the Belgian Shepherd Dog rather than as a separate breed. The Tervueren was recognized in the United States by the AKCand the C.K.C (Canadian Kennel Club) under the name Belgian Tervuren, but has recently had an official name change to Belgian Shepherd dog, Tervueren.

Appearance

Like all Belgian Shepherds, the Tervueren is a medium-sized, hard-working, square-proportioned dog in the sheepdog family. Males stand between 23 and 25 inches, and weigh approximately 65 lbs. Females are finer and smaller. The Tervueren is recognized by its thick double coat, generally mahogany with varying degrees of black overlay, including a black mask. A small patch of white on the chest is permissable, as well as white tips on toes.

Temperament

Excellent family dogs, they have high energy and require a lot of exercise and coat care. They excel at obedience, dog agility, and flyball. flyball

External links

- [http://www.abtc.org abtc.org American Belgian Tervuren Club]
- [http://www.abtc.org/judges_ed/bitch_structure_pics.htm Terveuren pictures] Category:Dog breeds

American Kennel Club

The American Kennel Club (or AKC) is the largest registry of purebred dog pedigrees in the United States. The AKC registered just over 900,000 dogs in 2003. Beyond maintaining its pedigree registry, it also promotes events for purebred dogs, including the prestigious Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show, an annual event which predates the official forming of the AKC, and the AKC/Eukanuba National Championship.

Dog registration

The AKC is not the only registry of purebred dogs, but it is the one with which most Americans are familiar. For a dog to be registered with the AKC, the dog's parents must be registered with the AKC as the same breed, and the litter in which the dog is born must be registered with the AKC. Once these criteria are met, the dog can be registered as purebred by the AKC. Registration indicates only that the dog is purely of one recognized breed; it does not necessarily indicate that the dog comes from healthy or show-quality blood lines. Nor is registration necessarily a reflection on the quality of the breeder or how the puppy was raised. Registration is necessary only for breeders (so they can sell registered puppies) or for purebred dog show or purebred dog sports participation (similar to the medieval requirement of nobility for jousting competitions). If you have a purebred dog that cannot be registered with the AKC and have a desire to see what your dog can do in real competition, an ILP number is your ticket to the world of AKC events and clubs! Indefinite Listing Privilege Program (ILP): The program that provides purebred dogs a second chance. There are various reasons why a purebred dog might not be eligible for registration. The dog may the product of an unregistered litter, or have unregistered parents. The dog's papers may have been withheld by its breeder or lost by its owner. Sometimes, it is the dog itself that was "lost." There are many dogs enrolled in the ILP program after they have been surrendered or abandoned, then adopted by new owners from animal shelters or purebred rescue groups. The ILP program allows the dog and owner a second chance at discovering the rewards of participating in AKC events. What AKC events may an ILP dog Participate in? The Indefinite Listing Privilege Program (ILP) is designed to allow dogs to participate in AKC Companion and Performance Events. The AKC Events that an ILP dog can participate in are: Agility Trials (All Breeds) Earthdog Trials (Small Terriers and Dachshunds) Herding Tests and Trials( Herding Breeds, Rottweilers and Samoyeds) Hunt Tests (Most Sporting Breeds and Standard Poodles) Junior Showmanship (All Breeds) Lure Coursing (Sighthounds) Obedience Trials (All Breeds) Rally Trials (All Breeds) Tracking Tests (All Breeds)

Recognized breeds

As of October 2004, the AKC recognizes only 157 of the hundreds of dog breeds known around the world, and another 51 rare breeds can be registered in its Foundation Stock Service. The AKC divides dog breeds into seven groups, one class, and the Foundation Stock Service, consisting of the following as of October, 2004:
- Sporting Group: 26 breeds[http://www.akc.org/breeds/sporting_group.cfm] developed as bird dogs. Includes Pointers, Retrievers, Setters, and Spaniels.
- Hound Group: 22 breeds[http://www.akc.org/breeds/hound_group.cfm] developed to hunt using sight (sighthounds) or scent (scent hounds).
- Working Group: 24 large breeds[http://www.akc.org/breeds/working_group.cfm] developed for a variety of jobs, including guarding property, guarding lifestock, or pulling carts.
- Terrier Group: 27 feisty breeds[http://www.akc.org/breeds/terrier_group.cfm] developed to hunt vermin and to dig them from their burrows or lairs. Size ranges from the tiny Cairn Terrier to the large Airedale Terrier.
- Toy Group: 21 small companion breeds[http://www.akc.org/breeds/toy_group.cfm].
- Non-sporting Group: 17 breeds[http://www.akc.org/breeds/non-sporting_group.cfm] that do not fit into any of the preceding categories, usually larger than Toy dogs.
- Herding Group: 18 breeds[http://www.akc.org/breeds/herding_group.cfm] developed to herd livestock.
- Miscellaneous Class: 4 breeds[http://www.akc.org/breeds/miscellaneous_class.cfm] that have advanced from FSS but that are not yet fully recognized. After a period of time that ensures that good breeding practices are in effect and that the gene pool for the breed is ample, the breed is moved to one of the seven preceding classes.
- Foundation Stock Service (FSS) program: 51 breeds[http://www.akc.org/breeds/fss_breeds.cfm]. This is a breed registry in which breeders of rare breeds can record the birth and parentage of a breed that they are trying to establish in the United States; these dogs provide the foundation stock from which eventually a fully recognized breed might result. These breeds cannot participate in AKC events until at least 150 individual dogs are registered; thereafter, competition in various events is then provisional.

Other AKC programs

The AKC also offers the Canine Good Citizen program.

External links

- [http://www.akc.org/ American Kennel Club web site]
- [http://www.akc.org/reg/dogreg_stats.cfm AKC Dog Registration Statistics for 2003 and 2004] Category:Kennel clubs

Selective breeding

Selective breeding in domesticated animals is the process of developing a cultivated breed over time.

Selective Breeding Methods

In general, the owners of the animals use three strategies to refine local populations: #Isolation. There must be a period in which the members of the group are relatively fixed, so that no new genetic material comes in. Without genetic isolation of the group, the differentiation that creates a new breed cannot take place. #Artificial selection. Breeders must prevent random mating from coming about, and limit mating to those individuals who exhibit desired characteristics. One logical consequence of this isolation is the next characteristic: inbreeding. #Inbreeding. Ordinarily those who are controlling the artificial breeding will find it necessary at some stage to employ a degree of linebreeding (mating within one bloodline, or strain) or inbreeding (mating closely related individuals), to facilitate the weeding-out of undesired characteristics and the fixation of desired traits. Inbreeding and linebreeding are controversial aspects of artificial selection, but have been practiced for centuries. The Appaloosa horse, which was developed by the Nez Percé Indians in the Northwest United States, provides an example. The Spanish colonists had established horse breeding in what is now New Mexico by about 1600, and the Spaniards of that era were known to have horses with spotted coats. By 1806 (when they are mentioned in journals kept by the Lewis and Clark expedition) the Nez Percé were observed to have developed strong, hardy, spotted horses. It is not known if the Nez Percé practiced inbreeding, but they were reputed to geld stallions judged unsuitable for breeding, and to trade away mares likewise unsuitable for breeding, which accomplishes the goals of isolation and artificial selection. In Europe, the first use of this process was recorded in mid 18th century England, by Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke

Closed vs. open studbook

A studbook is the official registry of approved individuals of a given breed kept by a breed association. It is said to be "closed" if individuals can be added only if their parents were both registered. It is said to be "open" if individuals can be added without their parents being registered, such as by inspection. Studbooks have been kept for centuries; the concept of the breed associations and clubs is more recent. Most of the "purebred horses" have open studbooks. For example, a "purebred" Arabian mare can be "examined" by the Trakehner authorities; if she is found acceptable, her offspring can be registered as Trakehner. By contrast, the studbooks of purebred dogs only remain open if the breed is under development or if there is deemed to be an insufficient genepool.

Crossbreeding and backbreeding

In some registries, breeders may apply for permission to crossbreed other breeds into the line to emphasize certain traits, to keep the breed from extinction or to alleviate problems caused in the breed by inbreeding from a limited set of animals. A related preservation method is backbreeding, used by some equine and canine registries, in which crossbred individuals are mated back to purebreds to eliminate undesirable traits acquired through the crossbreeding. Some horse societies accept crossbreds who meet certain criteria onto the breed registry.

Purebred Cats, Dogs and the Debate over 'Breed Purity'

Most purebred cats and dogs of breeds recognized by all-breed club registries are controlled by "closed studbooks". In a number of modern breeds recognized by the kennel clubs, there are high incidences of specific genetic diseases or disorders and sometimes increased susceptibility to other diseases, reduced litter sizes, reduced lifespan, inability to conceive naturally, etc. This came about because: #Many breeds have been established with too few foundation dogs or ones that were already too closely related, or both #There was artificial isolation: the registries (stud books) are closed for most breeds; therefore one cannot introduce diversity from outside the existing population. #Most selective breeding practices have the effect of reducing the diversity further. In addition, in the show world, breeding specimens are often selected on the basis of aesthetic criteria only, without regard for soundness. #Even if the foundation dogs were sufficiently diverse genetically, almost no one knows how their genetic contributions are distributed among the present day population, consequently, breeding is done without regard to conserving these contributions, which may be of value to the general health and survival of the breed. Similar problems affect purebred cats, however to a lesser extent since selective breeding in cats has not been practiced for nearly the length of time that it has been in dogs. The purebred cat is a relatively new creature, in fact some breeds of cats have been in existence less than fifty years and most do not have closed stud

Purebreds

The very idea of 'breed purity' often strikes an unpleasant chord with modern animal fanciers because it is reminiscent of nineteenth-century eugenics notions of the "superior strain" which were supposedly exemplified by human aristocracies and thoroughbred horses. The application of theories of eugenics has had far-reaching consequences for human beings, and the observable phenomenon of hybrid vigor stands in sharp contrast. The idea of the superior strain was that by "breeding the best to the best," employing sustained inbreeding and selection for "superior" qualities, one would develop a bloodline superior in every way to the unrefined, base stock which was the best that nature could produce. Naturally the purified line must then be preserved from dilution and debasement by base-born stock. This theory was never completely borne out. It can be said that when the ideal of the purified lineage or aesthetic type is seen as an end in itself, the breed suffers over time. The same issues are raised in the world of purebred cats. His claim that selective breeding had been successful in producing change over time was one of the key arguments proposed by Charles Darwin to support his theory of natural selection in his acclaimed yet controversial work Origin of Species. Here, the “selective” does not mean breeding selected in a humanly controlled fashion.

Wikipedia:List of images/Dogs

This is a collection of photos on Wikipedia containing dogs, although not necessarily all dog photos are listed here. The photos on these pages might or might not already be used in existing articles. Add photos here only if their license is free-distribution, such as GFDL. See also: List of dog breeds.
- Breeds A-B
- Breeds C-G
- Breeds H-O
- Breeds P-S
- Breeds T-Z, tentative breed identification
- Dogs in action, famous dogs, miscellaneous dog images

Photos not clearly available for free use

The photos listed on this page's subpage Photos in question might not be or are not available for free use according to Wikipedia's standards. They are listed there only as a resource for trying to resolve the licensing agreements, as a warning to not use the images in articles until such a time as their use has been cleared, or as a reminder that their license allows use on Wikipedia but not general free use (such as noncommercial-use-only copyrights). Dogs List of images/Dogs

Landrace

Landrace refers to a race of animals or plants ideally suited for the land (environment) in which they live and, in some cases, work; they often develop naturally with minimal assistance or guidance from humans (or from humans using traditional rather than modern breeding methods), hence are usually older, less modern races.

Example: Landrace dogs

For example, landrace dogs are very different depending on their origins and purpose; Border Collies were a landrace breed in Scotland, where their primary characteristics had to do with how they herded sheep in the borderlands, and Salukis were a landrace breed in the Middle East where they chased game across open tracts of land. A landrace does not imply so much a breed as a type; for example, Border Collies traditionally have had a variation in appearance, from upright prick ears to nearly drop ears, different fullnesses of coat, and so on, although the general appearance was such that they could still be recognized as Border Collies and their performance around sheep most accurately represented their membership in that race. Often, when people move to create a highly consistent breed, such as dogs for the show ring, focus is placed more on consistency of appearance rather than on consistency of behavior or adaptability to the environment, and much of what made the animals a landrace is lost. For example, show Border Collies might not be particularly good at herding sheep and might not have a coat that is appropriate for the Scottish borderlands; show Salukis might not be able to chase or catch hares in the desert.

Other species

Landrace sheep were originally a breed of sheep ideally suited for their environment. Several breeds of swine use "landrace" in the breed names.

External links

- [http://biodiversity-chm.eea.eu.int/CHMIndexTerms/Glossary/L/landrace Definition of landrace]
- [http://www.lhasa-apso.org/articles/landrace.htm What is Landrace]
- [http://www.beautdogs.com/Sponenberg.htm Livestock Guard Dogs: What is a Breed and Why Does It Matter?]
- [http://www.sa-breeders.co.za/news/africanis.htm Description of the AFRICANIS land race dog]
- [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/swine/danishlandrace/index.htm Danish landrace swine]
- [http://www.rala.is/beta/13%20Danish%20landrace%20sheep.htm Danish landrace sheep]
- [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/projects/projects.htm?ACCN_NO=404411 Recreation of landrace maize] Category:Selection Category:Dogs

Category:Dog breeds

This is set of existing article titles about dog breeds and of other categories related to dog breeds that contain the notation Category:Dog breeds. Main articles:
- Dog breed, for information about what a dog breed is.
- List of dog breeds, for a complete list of breed names, including many known variants, whether or not there are existing articles. See also:
- :Category:Dog types for groups of breeds such as collies, fox terriers, working dogs, hounds, and so on. Breeds ko:분류:개의 품종 ja:Category:犬の品種

Moto

Una motocicleta és un vehicle automòbil, generalment de dues rodes (disposades en línia recta), i impulsat per un motor de dos temps o de quatre temps, amb capacitat per a transportar una o dues persones. Per ciclomotor, s'entèn una moto de poca cilindrada, que pot incorporar pedals, per poder circular en cas de necessitat, sense encendre el motor.

Història

L'origen de la motocicleta o també anomenada moto va ser la bicicleta. Això és així, no només perquè sembla lògic, sinó perquè l'alemany Gottlieb Daimler, l'any 1885, va instal·lar un motor de combustió a una bicicleta de fusta. Una bicicleta motoritzada, doncs, va ser la primera motocicleta de la història.

Competicions

S'organitzen diferents competicions relacionades amb les motocicletes;
- Campionat de motociclisme; Sobre pista asfaltada. Amb categories de 125 cc, 250 cc i 500 cc
- Campionats de trial;
- Campionats de motocròs;
- ... Categoria:Transport ja:オートバイ

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Biographie

Will Oldham est un auteur, compositeur, interprète et acteur américain né en 1969 à Louisville, dans le Kentucky. Très jeune, il découvre le théâtre, le cinéma et la Catégorie:Rosidae La famille des Cornacées est une famille de plantes dicotylédones aux contours assez discutés, elle comprendrait 85 espèces répartie en 2 genres Cornus et Alangium. Ce sont des arbres ou des arbustes, quelques plantes herbacées, des régions tempérées, sub-tropicales et des montagnes tropicales. C'est la famille du grec ancien Χαλκίς / Khalkis) est la principale ville de l'Eubée, en Grèce, située sur le détroit d'Euripe. Son nom vient de ses fabriques d'armes en airain (en grec χαλκός / khalkos). Dès le c'est une cité puissante et dont partent de nombreux colons lesquels fondent des cités à

Cynique
Le terme « cynisme » provient du grec ancien κύων / kuôn, qui signifie « chien », en référence à l'attitude d'Antisthène, le fondateur du cynisme, puis de celle de Diogène de Sinope, qui souhaitait être enterré « comme un chien ». Selon d'autres sources, le nom viendrait du gymnase dans lequel Antisthène enseignait, le Cynosarge (littéralement « chien agile »).

Mémoire
La mémoire est le stockage de l'information. Il existes plusieurs page wikipédia qui separent des modes de stockage et des types d'informations:
- La mémoire, faculté humaine, est étudiée en neurosciences et en psychologie.
- Certains matériaux à mémoire de forme donne aux objets qui en sont constitués la faculté de reprendre leur forme de

Mémoire (électronique)
Une mémoire analogique est un système électrotechnique destiné à conserver pendant un certain temps un signal. Depuis les débuts de l'électricité les phénomènes électriques étant généralement très rapides à l'échelle humaine, les ingénieurs ont cherché à conserver certaines informations pendant un temps suffisant afin de les analyser. Une multitude de systèmes

Venarey-les-Laumes
Catégorie:Commune de la Côte-d'Or Venarey-Les Laumes est une commune française, située dans le département de la Côte-d'Or et la région Bourgogne. Ses