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Dogwood

Dogwood

Cornus
Benthamidia
Swida The Dogwoods comprise a group of 30-50 species of deciduous woody plants (shrubs and trees) in the family Cornaceae, divided into one to nine genera or subgenera (depending on botanical interpretation). Four subgenera are enumerated here.
- Flower clusters semi-showy, usually white or yellow, in cymes without large showy bracts, fruit red, blue or white:
  - (Sub)genus Cornus. Cornels; four species of shrubs or small trees; flower clusters with a deciduous involucre.
    - Cornus chinensis (Chinese Cornel). China.
    - Cornus mas (European Cornel or Cornelian-cherry). Mediterranean.
    - Cornus officinalis (Japanese Cornel). Japan.
    - Cornus sessilis (Blackfruit Cornel). California.
  - (Sub)genus Swida. Dogwoods; about 20-30 species of shrubs; flower clusters without an involucre.
    - Cornus alba (Swida alba; Siberian Dogwood). Siberia and northern China.
    - Cornus alternifolia (Swida alternifolia; Pagoda Dogwood or Alternate-leaf Dogwood). Eastern North America north to extreme southeast Canada.
    - Cornus amomum (Swida amomum; Silky Dogwood). Eastern U.S. east of the Great Plains except for deep south, and extreme southeast Canada.
    - Cornus asperifolia (Swida asperifolia; Rough-leaf Dogwood).
    - Cornus austrosinensis (Swida austrosinensis; South China Dogwood). East Asia.
    - Cornus bretschneideri (Swida bretschneideri; Bretschneider's Dogwood). Northern China.
    - Cornus controversa (Swida controversa; Table Dogwood). East Asia.
    - Cornus coreana (Swida coreana; Korean Dogwood). Northeast Asia.
    - Cornus drummondii (Swida drummondii; Roughleaf Dogwood). U.S. between the Appalachian belt and the Great Plains, and southern Ontario.
    - Cornus glabrata (Swida glabrata; Brown Dogwood or Smooth Dogwood). Western North America.
    - Cornus hemsleyi (Swida hemsleyi; Hemsley's Dogwood). Southwest China.
    - Cornus koehneana (Swida koehneana; Koehne's Dogwood). Southwest China.
    - Cornus macrophylla (Swida macrophylla; Large-leafed Dogwood). East Asia.
    - Cornus obliqua (Swida obliqua; Pale Dogwood). Eastern North America.
    - Cornus paucinervis (Swida paucinervis). China.
    - Cornus racemosa (Swida racemosa; Northern Swamp Dogwood or Gray Dogwood). Extreme southeast Canada and northeast U.S.
    - Cornus rugosa (Swida rugosa; Round-leaf Dogwood). Southeast Canada and extreme northeast U.S.
    - Cornus sanguinea (Swida sanguinea; Common Dogwood). Europe.
    - Cornus sericea (C. stolonifera; Swida stolonifera; Red Osier Dogwood). Northern North America.
    - Cornus stricta (Swida stricta; Southern Swamp Dogwood). Southeast U.S.
    - Cornus walteri (Swida walteri; Walter's Dogwood). Central China.
    - Cornus wilsoniana (Swida wilsoniana; Wilson's Dogwood). Central China.
- Flower clusters inconspicuous, usually greenish, surrounded by large, showy petal-like bracts; fruit usually red:
  - (Sub)genus Chamaepericlymenum. Dwarf cornels; two species of creeping subshrubs growing from woody stolons.
    - Cornus canadensis (Chamaepericlymenum canadense; Canadian Dwarf Cornel or Bunchberry) Northern North America.
    - Cornus suecica (Chamaepericlymenum suecicum; Eurasian Dwarf Cornel). Northern Eurasia, locally in extreme northeast and northwest North America.
    - Cornus x unalaschkensis (hybrid C. canadensis x C. suecica). Aleutian Islands, Greenland, Labrador.
  - (Sub)genus Benthamidia (syn. subgenus Dendrobenthamia, subgenus Cynoxylon). Flowering dogwoods; five species of trees.
    - Cornus capitata (Benthamidia capitata; Himalayan Flowering Dogwood). Himalaya.
    - Cornus florida (Benthamidia florida; Flowering Dogwood). U.S. east of the Great Plains, north to southern Ontario.
    - Cornus hongkongensis (Benthamidia hongkongensis; Hongkong Dogwood). Southern China, Laos, Vietnam.
    - Cornus kousa (Benthamidia kousa; Kousa Dogwood). Japan and (as subsp. chinensis) central and northern China.
    - Cornus nuttallii (Benthamidia nuttallii; Pacific Dogwood). Western North America from British Columbia to California.
    - Cornus urbaniana (Benthamidia urbaniana; Mexican Flowering Dogwood). Mexico. Most species have opposite leaves, but alternate in a few. The fruit of all species is a drupe with one or two seeds. Flowers have four parts. Many species in subgenus Swida are stoloniferous shrubs, growing along waterways. Several of these are used for naturalizing landscape plantings, especially the species with bright red or bright yellow stems. Most of the species in subgenus Benthamidia are small trees used as ornamental plants. The name 'dogwood' is a corruption of 'dagwood', from the use of the slender stems of very hard wood for making 'dags' (daggers, skewers). The wood was also highly prized for making the shuttles of looms, for tool handles, and other small items that required a very hard and strong wood. The fruit of several species in the subgenera Cornus and Benthamidia is edible, though without much flavour. The berries of those in subgenus Swida are mildly toxic to people, though readily eaten by birds. Dogwoods are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Emperor Moth, The Engrailed and Small Angle Shades. The dogwood is the provincial flower of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The dogwood (Cornus florida) is the state flower and the state tree for the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. The term dogwood winter may be used to describe a cold snap in spring. Popular legend has it that wood from the dogwood was used to construct the cross on which Christ was crucified. God had pity upon the tree, giving it white flowers similar to the cross. The reddish center of each flower symbolizes the blood of Christ. God transformed the once towered tree into one that is small with twisted, gnarled trunks so that could never be used for the purpose of building a cross again.

External links


- [http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/china/mss/volume14/Cornaceae-AGH_coauthoring.htm Asian dogwoods] Category:Cornales

Deciduous

Deciduous means "temporary" or "tending to fall off" (deriving from the Latin word decidere, to fall off).

Botany

In botany, deciduous plants, principally trees and shrubs, are those that lose all of their foliage for part of the year. In some cases, the foliage loss coincides with the incidence of winter in temperate or polar climates, while others lose their leaves during the dry season in climates with seasonal variation in rainfall. The converse of deciduous is evergreen. Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination. The absence of leaves improves wind transmission of pollen in the case of wind-pollinated plants, and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants. This strategy is not without risks, as the flowers can be damaged by frost, or in dry season areas, result in water stress on the plant.

Anatomy

In anatomy, deciduous teeth, also called milk teeth, are those that fall out during the course of normal development. Other body parts that are shed, such as antlers, are also described as deciduous. Category:Botany Category:Mouth

Woody plant

A woody plant is any vascular plant that has a perennial stem that is above ground and covered by bark, that is, one that supports continued vegetative growth above ground from year to year. A perennial plant with true woody stems contain wood, which is primarily composed of structures of cellulose and lignin which provide support and a vascular system used to move water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves and sugars from the leaves to the rest of the plant. Most woody plants form new layers of woody tissue each year, and so increase their stem diameter from year to year. Woody plants are usually either trees, shrubs, or vines. Many annual plants appear to form woody stems in their first year, but die at the end of the growing season. They are herbaceous stems without wood. Category:Botany

Shrub

:"Shrub" is also a derogatory nickname for United States President George W Bush. George W Bush A shrub or bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of woody plant, distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and lower height, usually less than 6 m tall. A large number of plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. A natural plant community dominated by shrubs is called a shrubland. The word bush can also refer to a type of plant community, as in the Australian bush. This is often characterised by scrubby, open woodland and is a generic term for Eucalyptus dominated woodland in particular. An area of cultivated shrubs in a park or garden is known as a shrubbery. When clipped as topiary, shrubs generally have dense foliage and many small leafy branches growing close together. Many shrubs respond well to renewal pruning, in which hard cutting back to a 'stool' results in long new stems known as "canes". Other shrubs respond better to selective pruning to reveal their structure and character. Shrubs in common garden practice are generally broad-leaved plants, though some smaller conifers such as Mountain Pine and Common Juniper are also shrubby in structure. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.

List of Shrubs

Incomplete! Those marked
- can also develop into tree form. ;A
- Abelia (Abelia)
- Actinidia (Actinidia)
- Aralia (Angelica Tree, Hercules' Club)
-
- Arctostaphylos (Bearberry, Manzanita)
-
- Aronia (Chokeberry)
- Artemisia (Sagebrush)
- Aucuba (Aucuba) ;B
- Berberis (Barberry)
- Buddleja (Butterfly bush)
- Buxus (Box)
- ;C
- Calia (Mescalbean)
- Callicarpa (Beautyberry)
-
- Callistemon (Bottlebrush)
-
- Calluna (Heather)
- Calycanthus (Sweetshrub)
- Camellia (Camellia, Tea)
-
- Caragana (Pea-tree)
-
- Carpenteria (Carpenteria)
- Caryopteris (Blue Spiraea)
- Cassiope (Moss-heather)
- Ceanothus (Ceanothus)
-
- Celastrus (Staff vine)
-
- Ceratostigma (Hardy Plumbago)
- Cercocarpus (Mountain-mahogany)
-
- Chaenomeles (Japanese Quince)
- Chamaebatiaria (Fernbush)
- Chamaedaphne (Leatherleaf)
- Chimonanthus (Wintersweet)
- Chionanthus (Fringe-tree)
-
- Choisya (Mexican-orange Blossom)
-
- Cistus (Rockrose)
- Clerodendrum (Clerodendrum)
- Clethra (Summersweet, Pepperbush)
-
- Clianthus (Glory Pea)
- Colletia (Colletia)
- Colutea (Bladder Senna)
- Comptonia (Sweetfern)
- Cornus (Dogwood)
-
- Corylopsis (Winter-hazel)
-
- Cotinus (Smoketree)
-
- Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster)
-
- Cowania (Cliffrose)
- Crataegus (Hawthorn)
-
- Crinodendron (Crinodendron)
-
- Cytisus and allied genera (Broom)
- ;D
- Daboecia (Heath)
- Danae (Alexandrian Laurel)
- Daphne (Daphne)
- Decaisnea (Decaisnea)
- Dasiphora (Shrubby Cinquefoil)
- Dendromecon (Tree Poppy)
- Desfontainea (Desfontainea)
- Deutzia (Deutzia)
- Diervilla (Bush Honeysuckle)
- Dipelta (Dipelta)
- Dirca (Leatherwood)
- Drimys (Winter's Bark)
-
- Dryas (Mountain Avens) ;E
- Elaeagnus (Elaeagnus)
-
- Embothrium (Chilean Firebush)
-
- Empetrum (Crowberry)
- Enkianthus (Pagoda Bush)
- Ephedra (Ephedra)
- Epigaea (Trailing Arbutus)
- Erica (Heath)
- Eriobotrya (Loquat)
-
- Escallonia (Escallonia)
- Eucryphia (Eucryphia)
-
- Euonymus (Spindle)
-
- Exochorda (Pearl Bush) ;F
- Fabiana (Fabiana)
- Fallugia (Apache Plume)
- Fatsia (Fatsia)
- Forsythia (Forsythia)
- Fothergilla (Fothergilla)
- Franklinia (Franklinia)
-
- Fremontodendron (Flannelbush)
- Fuchsia (Fuchsia)
- ;G
- Garrya (Silk-tassel)
-
- Gaultheria (Salal)
- Gaylussacia (Huckleberry)
- Genista (Broom)
-
- Gordonia (Loblolly-bay)
-
- Grevillea (Grevillea)
- Griselinia (Griselinia)
- ;H
- Hakea (Hakea)
-
- Halesia (Silverbell)
-
- Halimium (Rockrose)
- Hamamelis (Witch-hazel)
-
- Hebe (Hebe)
- Hedera (Ivy)
- Helianthemum (Rockrose)
- Hibiscus (Hibiscus)
-
- Hippophae (Sea-buckthorn)
-
- Hoheria (Lacebark)
-
- Holodiscus (Creambush)
- Hudsonia (Hudsonia)
- Hydrangea (Hydrangea)
- Hypericum (Rose of Sharon)
- Hyssopus (Hyssop) ;I
- Ilex (Holly)
-
- Illicium (Star Anise)
-
- Indigofera (Indigo)
- Itea (Sweetspire) ;J
- Jamesia (Cliffbush)
- Jasminum (Jasmine)
- Juniperus (Juniper)
- ;K
- Kalmia (Mountain-laurel)
- Kerria (Kerria)
- Kolkwitzia (Beauty-bush) ;L
- Lagerstroemia (Crape-myrtle)
-
- Lapageria (Copihue)
- Lavandula (Lavender)
- Lavatera (Tree Mallow)
- Ledum (Ledum)
- Leitneria (Corkwood)
-
- Lespedeza (Bush Clover)
-
- Leptospermum (Manuka)
-
- Leucothoe (Doghobble)
- Leycesteria (Leycesteria)
- Ligustrum (Privet)
-
- Lindera (Spicebush)
-
- Linnaea (Twinflower)
- Lonicera (Honeysuckle)
- Lupinus (Tree Lupin)
- Lycium (Boxthorn) ;M
- Magnolia (Magnolia)
- Mahonia (Mahonia)
- Malpighia (Acerola)
- Menispermum (Moonseed)
- Menziesia (Menziesia)
- Mespilus (Medlar)
-
- Microcachrys (Microcachrys)
- Myrica (Bayberry)
-
- Myricaria (Myricaria)
- Myrtus and allied genera (Myrtle)
- ;N
- Neillia (Neillia)
- Nerium (Oleander) ;O
- Olearia (Daisy Bush)
- Osmanthus (Osmanthus) ;P
- Pachysandra (Pachysandra)
- Paeonia (Tree-peony)
- Perovskia (Russian Sage)
- Philadelphus (Mock-orange)
-
- Phlomis (Jerusalem Sage)
- Photinia (Photinia)
-
- Physocarpus (Ninebark)
-
- Pieris (Pieris)
- Pistacia (Pistachio, Mastic)
-
- Pittosporum (Pittosporum)
-
- Polygala (Milkwort)
- Poncirus
-
- Prunus (Cherry)
-
- Purshia (Antelope Bush)
- Pyracantha (Firethorn) ;Q
- Quassia (Quassia)
-
- Quercus (Oak)
-
- Quillaja (Quillay)
- Quintinia (Tawheowheo)
- ;R
- Rhamnus (Buckthorn)
-
- Rhododendron (Rhododendron, Azalea)
-
- Rhus (Sumac)
-
- Ribes (Currant)
- Romneya (Tree Poppy)
- Rosa (Rose)
- Rosmarinus (Rosemary)
- Rubus (Bramble)
- Ruta (Rue) ;S
- Sabia
-
- Salix (Willow)
-
- Salvia (Sage)
- Sambucus (Elder)
-
- Santolina (Lavender Cotton)
- Sapindus (Soapberry)
-
- Senecio (Senecio)
- Simmondsia (Jojoba)
- Skimmia (Skimmia)
- Smilax (Smilax)
- Sophora (Kowhai)
-
- Sorbaria (Sorbaria)
- Spartium (Spanish Broom)
- Spiraea (Spiraea)
-
- Staphylea (Bladdernut)
-
- Stephanandra (Stephanandra)
- Styrax (Storax)
-
- Symphoricarpos (Snowberry)
- Syringa (Lilac)
- ;T
- Tamarix (Tamarix)
-
- Taxus (Yew)
-
- Telopea (Waratah)
-
- Thymelaea
- Thymus (Thyme)
- Trochodendron
- ;U
- Ulex (Gorse)
- Ungnadia (Mexican Buckeye) ;V
- Vaccinium (Bilberry, Blueberry, Cranberry)
- Verbena (Vervain)
- Viburnum (Viburnum)
-
- Vinca (Periwinkle)
- Viscum (Mistletoe) ;W
- Weigela (Weigela) ;X
- Xanthoceras
- Xanthorhiza (Yellowroot)
- Xylosma ;Y
- Yucca (Yucca, Joshua tree)
- ;Z
- Zanthoxylum
-
- Zauschneria
- Zenobia
- Ziziphus
- Category:Plants Category: plant morphology

Tree

, the tallest tree species on earth]] A tree can be defined as a large, perennial, woody plant. Though there is no set definition regarding minimum size, the term generally applies to plants at least 6 m (20 ft) high at maturity and, more importantly, having secondary branches supported on a single main stem or trunk (see shrub for comparison). Compared with most other plant forms, trees are long-lived. A few species of trees grow to 100 m tall, and some can live for several thousand years. Trees are important components of the natural landscape and significant elements in landscaping, and in agriculture supplying orchard crops (such as apples). Trees also play an important role in many of the world's mythologies (see Tree (mythology)).

Classifications

Tree (mythology)]] A tree is a plant form and trees occur in many different orders and families of plants. Trees thus show a wide variety of growth form, leaf type and shape, bark characteristics, reproductive structures, etc. The earliest trees were tree ferns and horsetails, which grew in vast forests in the Carboniferous Period; tree ferns still survive, but the only surviving horsetails are not of tree form. Later, in the Triassic Period, conifers, ginkgos, cycads and other gymnosperms appeared, and subsequently flowering plants in the Cretaceous Period. Most species of trees today are flowering plants and conifers. The listing below gives examples of many well-known trees and how they are typically classified. A small group of trees growing together is called a grove or copse, and a landscape covered by a dense growth of trees is called a forest. Several biotopes are defined largely by the trees that inhabit them; examples are rainforest and taiga (see ecozones). A landscape of trees scattered or spaced across grassland (usually grazed or burned over periodically) is called a savanna.

Morphology

The basic parts of a tree are the roots, trunk(s), branches, twigs and leaves. Tree stems consist mainly of support and transport tissues (xylem and phloem). Wood consists of xylem cells, and bark is made of phloem and other tissues external to the vascular cambium. Trees may be broadly grouped into exogenous and endogenous trees according to the way in which their stem diameter increases. Exogenous trees, which comprise the great majority of modern trees (all conifers, and all broadleaf trees), grow by the addition of new wood outwards, immediately under the bark. Endogenous trees, mainly in the monocotyledons (e.g. palms), grow by addition of new material inwards. As an exogenous tree grows, it creates growth rings. In temperate climates, these are commonly visible due to changes in the rate of growth with temperature variation over an annual cycle. These rings can be counted to determine the age of the tree, and used to date cores or even wood taken from trees in the past; this practice is known as the science of dendrochronology. In some tropical regions with constant year-round climate, growth is continuous and distinct rings are not formed, so age determination is impossible. Age determination is also impossible in endogenous trees. dendrochronology, Chile]] The roots of a tree are generally embedded in earth, providing anchorage for the above-ground biomass and absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the trunk gives height to the leaf-bearing branches, aiding in competition with other plant species for sunlight. In many trees, the arrangement of the branches optimizes exposure of the leaves to sunlight. Not all trees have all the plant organs or parts mentioned above. For example, most palm trees are not branched, the saguaro cactus of North America has no functional leaves, tree ferns do not produce bark, etc. Based on their general shape and size, all of these are nonetheless generally regarded as trees. Indeed, sometimes size is the more important consideration. A plant form that is similar to a tree, but generally having smaller, multiple trunks and/or branches that arise near the ground, is called a shrub. However, no sharp differentiation between shrubs and trees is possible. Given their small size, bonsai plants would not technically be 'trees', but one should not confuse reference to the form of a species with the size or shape of individual specimens. A spruce seedling does not fit the definition of a tree, but all spruces are trees. Bamboos by contrast, do show most of the characteristics of trees, yet are rarely called trees.

Champion trees

The world's champion trees can be considered on several factors; height, trunk diameter or girth, total size, and age. It is significant that in each case, the top position is always held by a conifer, though a different species in each case; in most measures, the second to fourth places are also held by conifers. ;Tallest trees The heights of the tallest trees in the world have been the subject of considerable dispute and much (often wild) exaggeration. Modern verified measurement with laser rangefinders combined with tape drop measurements made by tree climbers, carried out by the [http://www.uark.edu/misc/ents/home.htm U.S. Eastern Native Tree Society] has shown that most older measuring methods and measurements are unreliable, often producing exaggerations of 5% to 15% above the real height. Historical claims of trees of 114 m, 117 m, 130 m, and even 150 m, are now largely disregarded as unreliable, fantasy or outright fraud. The following are now accepted as the top five tallest reliably measured species: # Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 112.83 m, Humboldt Redwoods State Park, California ([http://www.conifers.org/cu/se/index.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Coast Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii: 100.3 m, Brummit Creek, Coos County, Oregon ([http://www.conifers.org/pi/ps/menziesii2.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Sitka Spruce Picea sitchensis: 96.7 m, Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California ([http://www.conifers.org/pi/pic/sitchensis.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 93.6 m, Redwood Mountain Grove, California ([http://www.conifers.org/cu/se2/index.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Australian Mountain-ash Eucalyptus regnans: 92.0 m, Styx Valley, Tasmania ([http://www.forestrytas.com.au/forestrytas/tasfor/tasforests_12/tasfor_12_09.pdf Forestry Tasmania] [pdf file]) ;Stoutest trees The girth (circumference) of a tree is – or at least should be – much easier to measure than the height, as it is a simple matter of stretching a tape round the trunk, and pulling it taut to find the circumference. Despite this, U.K. tree author Alan Mitchell made the following comment about measurements of yew trees in the British Isles: :"The aberrations of past measurements of yews are beyond belief. For example, the tree at Tisbury has a well-defined, clean, if irregular bole at least 1.5 m long. It has been found to have a girth which has dilated and shrunk in the following way: 11.28 m (1834 Loudon), 9.3 m (1892 Lowe), 10.67 m (1903 Elwes and Henry), 9.0 m (1924 E. Swanton), 9.45 m (1959 Mitchell) .... Earlier measurements have therefore been omitted". As a general standard, tree girth is taken at 'breast height'; this is defined differently in different situations, with most foresters measuring girth at 1.3 m above ground, while ornamental tree measurers usually measure at 1.5 m above ground; in most cases this makes little difference to the measured girth. On sloping ground, the "above ground" reference point is usually taken as the highest point on the ground touching the trunk, but some use the average between the highest and lowest points of ground. Some of the inflated old measurements may have been taken at ground level. Some past exaggerated measurements also result from measuring the complete next-to-bark measurement, pushing the tape in and out over every crevice and buttress. Modern trends are to cite the tree's diameter rather than the circumference; this is obtained by dividing the measured circumference by π; it assumes the trunk is circular in cross-section (an oval or irregular cross-section would result in a mean diameter slightly greater than the assumed circle). This is cited as dbh (diameter at breast height) in tree literature. A further problem with measuring baobabs Adansonia is that these trees store large amounts of water in the very soft wood in their trunks. This leads to marked variation in their girth over the year, swelling to a maximum at the end of the rainy season, minimum at the end of the dry season. Although baobabs have some of the highest girth measurements of any trees, no accurate measurements are currently available, but probably do not exceed 10-11 m diameter. The stoutest species in diameter, excluding baobabs, are: # Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum: 11.42 m, Árbol del Tule, Santa Maria del Tule, Oaxaca, Mexico (A. F. Mitchell, International Dendrology Society Year Book 1983: 93, 1984). # Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 8.85 m, General Grant tree, Grant Grove, California ([http://www.conifers.org/cu/se2/index.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 7.44 m, Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California ([http://www.conifers.org/cu/se/index.htm Gymnosperm Database]) ;Largest trees The largest trees in total volume are those which are both tall and of large diameter, and in particular, which hold a large diameter high up the trunk. Measurement is very complex, particularly if branch volume is to be included as well as the trunk volume, so measurements have only been made for a small number of trees, and generally only for the trunk. No attempt has ever been made to include root volume. The top four species measured so far are ([http://www.conifers.org/topics/biggest.htm Gymnosperm Database]): # Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 1489 m³, General Sherman tree # Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 1045 m³, Del Norte Titan tree # Western Redcedar Thuja plicata: 500 m³, Quinault Lake Redcedar # Kauri Agathis australis: 400 m³, Tane Mahuta tree (total volume, including branches, 516.7 m³)
However, the Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides, as yet un-measured, may well slot in at third or fourth place, and Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum is also likely to be high in the list. The largest angiosperm tree is a Australian Mountain-ash, the 'El Grande' tree of about 380 m³ in Tasmania. ;Oldest trees The oldest trees are determined by growth ring counts in cores taken from the edge to the centre of the tree or from entire cross-sections. Accurate determination is only possible for trees which produce growth rings, generally those which occur in seasonal climates; trees in uniform non-seasonal tropical climates grow continuously and do not have distinct growth rings. It is also only possible for trees which are solid to the centre of the tree; many very old trees become hollow as the dead heartwood decays away. For some of these species, age estimates have been made on the basis of extrapolating current growth rates, but the results are usually little better than guesswork or wild speculation. The verified oldest measured ages are ([http://www.conifers.org/topics/oldest.htm Gymnosperm Database]): # Great Basin Bristlecone Pine Pinus longaeva: 4844 years # Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides: 3622 years # Giant Sequoia Sequoia sempervirens: 3266 years # Huon-pine Lagarostrobos franklinii: 2500 years # Rocky Mountains Bristlecone Pine Pinus aristata: 2435 years Other species suspected of reaching exceptional age include European Yew Taxus baccata (probably over 3000 years) and Western Redcedar Thuja plicata. The oldest verified age for an angiosperm tree is 2293 years for the Sri Maha Bodhi Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa) planted in 288 BC at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; this is also the oldest human-planted tree with a known planting date.

Major tree genera

Flowering plants (Magnoliophyta; angiosperms)

Dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida; broadleaf or hardwood trees)


- Anacardiaceae (Cashew family)
  - Cashew, Anacardium occidentale
  - Mango, Mangifera indica
  - Pistachio, Pistacia vera
  - Sumac, Rhus species
  - Lacquer tree, Toxicodendron verniciflua
- Annonaceae (Custard apple family)
  - Cherimoya Annona cherimola
  - Custard apple Annona reticulata
  - Pawpaw Asimina triloba
  - Soursop Annona muricata
- Apocynaceae (Dogbane family)
  - Pachypodium Pachypodium species
- Aquifoliaceae (Holly family)
  - Holly, Ilex species
- Araliaceae (Ivy family)
  - Kalopanax, Kalopanax pictus Kalopanax tree (background) in fall]]
- Betulaceae (Birch family)
  - Alder, Alnus species
  - Birch, Betula species
  - Hornbeam, Carpinus species
  - Hazel, Corylus species
- Bignoniaceae (family)
  - Catalpa, Catalpa species
- Cactaceae (Cactus family)
  - Saguaro, Carnegiea gigantea
- Cannabaceae (Cannabis family)
  - Hackberry, Celtis species
- Cornaceae (Dogwood family)
  - Dogwood, Cornus species
- Dipterocarpaceae family
  - Garjan Dipterocarpus species
  - Sal Shorea species
- Ericaceae (Heath family)
  - Arbutus, Arbutus species
- Eucommiaceae (Eucommia family)
  - Eucommia Eucommia ulmoides
- Fabaceae (Pea family)
  - Acacia, Acacia species
  - Honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos
  - Black locust, Robinia pseudoacacia
  - Laburnum, Laburnum species
  - Pau Brasil, Brazilwood, Caesalpinia echinata
- Fagaceae (Beech family )
  - Chestnut, Castanea species
  - Beech, Fagus species
  - Southern beech, Nothofagus species
  - Tanoak, Lithocarpus densiflorus
  - Oak, Quercus species
- Fouquieriaceae (Boojum family)
  - Boojum, Fouquieria columnaris
- Hamamelidaceae (Witch-hazel family)
  - Sweetgum, Liquidambar species
  - Persian Ironwood, Parrotia persica
- Juglandaceae (Walnut family)
  - Walnut, Juglans species
  - Hickory, Carya species
  - Wingnut, Pterocarya species
- Lauraceae (Laurel family)
  - Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum
  - Bay Laurel Laurus nobilis
  - Avocado Persea americana
- Lecythidaceae (Paradise nut family)
  - Brazil Nut Bertholletia excelsa
- Lythraceae Loosestrife family
  - Crape-myrtle Lagerstroemia species
- Magnoliaceae (Magnolia family)
  - Tulip tree, Liriodendron species
  - Magnolia, Magnolia species
- Malvaceae (Mallow family; including Tiliaceae and Bombacaceae) Bombacaceae
  - Baobab, Adansonia species
  - Silk-cotton tree, Bombax species
  - Bottletrees, Brachychiton species
  - Kapok, Ceiba pentandra
  - Durian, Durio zibethinus
  - Balsa, Ochroma lagopus
  - Cacao (cocoa), Theobroma cacao
  - Linden (Basswood, Lime), Tilia species
- Meliaceae (Mahogany family)
  - Neem, Azadirachta indica
  - Bead tree, Melia azedarach
  - Mahogany, Swietenia mahagoni
- Moraceae (Mulberry family)
  - Fig, Ficus species
  - Mulberry, Morus species
- Myristicaceae (Nutmeg family)
  - Nutmeg, Mysristica fragrans
- Myrtaceae (Myrtle family)
  - Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus species
  - Myrtle, Myrtus species
  - Guava, Psidium guajavaGuava in flower]]
- Nyssaceae (Tupelo family; sometimes included in Cornaceae)
  - Tupelo, Nyssa species
  - Dove tree, Davidia involucrata
- Oleaceae (Olive family)
  - Olive, Olea europaea
  - Ash, Fraxinus species
- Paulowniaceae (Paulownia family)
  - Foxglove Tree, Paulownia species
- Platanaceae (Plane family)
  - Plane, Platanus species
- Rhizophoraceae (Mangrove family)
  - Red Mangrove, Rhizophora mangle
- Rosaceae (Rose family)
  - Rowans, Whitebeams, Service Trees Sorbus species
  - Hawthorn, Crataegus species
  - Pear, Pyrus species
  - Apple, Malus species
  - Almond, Prunus dulcis
  - Peach, Prunus persica
  - Plum, Prunus domestica
  - Cherry, Prunus species
- Rubiaceae (Bedstraw family)
  - Coffee, Coffea species
- Rutaceae (Rue family)
  - Citrus, Citrus species
  - Cork-tree, Phellodendron species
  - Euodia, Tetradium species
- Salicaceae (Willow family)
  - Aspen, Populus species
  - Poplar, Populus species
  - Willow, Salix species Willow
- Sapindaceae (including Aceraceae, Hippocastanaceae) (Soapberry family)
  - Maple, Acer species
  - Buckeye, Horse-chestnut, Aesculus species
  - Mexican Buckeye, Ungnadia speciosa
  - Lychee, Litchi sinensis
  - Golden rain tree, Koelreuteria paniculata
- Sapotaceae (Sapodilla family)
  - Gutta-percha, Palaquium species
  - Tambalacoque, or "dodo tree", Sideroxylon grandiflorum, previously Calvaria major
- Simaroubaceae family
  - Tree of heaven, Ailanthus species
- Theaceae (Camellia family)
  - Gordonia, Gordonia species
  - Stuartia, Stuartia species
- Thymelaeaceae (Thymelaea family)
  - Ramin, Gonystylus species
- Ulmaceae (Elm family)
  - Elm, Ulmus species
  - Zelkova, Zelkova species
- Verbenaceae family
  - Teak, Tectona species

Monocotyledons (Liliopsida)

Monocotyledon
- Agavaceae (Agave family)
  - Cabbage tree, Cordyline australis
  - Dragon tree, Dracaena draco
  - Joshua tree, Yucca brevifolia
- Arecaceae (Palmae) (Palm family)
  - Areca Nut, Areca catechu
  - Coconut Cocos nucifera
  - Date Palm, Phoenix dactylifera
  - Chusan Palm, Trachycarpus fortunei
- Poaceae (grass family)
  - Bamboos Poaceae subfamily Bambusoideae
- Note that banana 'trees' are not actually trees; they are not woody nor is the stalk perennial.

Conifers (Pinophyta; softwood trees)


- Araucariaceae (Araucaria family)
  - Araucaria, Araucaria species
  - Kauri, Agathis species
- Cupressaceae (Cypress family)
  - Cypress, Cupressus species
  - Cypress, Chamaecyparis species
  - Juniper, Juniperus species
  - Alerce or Patagonian cypress, Fitzroya cupressoides
  - Sugi, Cryptomeria japonica
  - Coast Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens
  - Giant Sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum
  - Dawn Redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides
  - Bald Cypress, Taxodium distichum
- Pinaceae (Pine family)
  - White pine, Pinus species
  - Pinyon pine, Pinus species
  - Pine, Pinus species
  - Spruce, Picea species
  - Larch, Larix species
  - Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga species
  - Fir, Abies species
  - Cedar, Cedrus species
- Podocarpaceae (Yellowwood family)
  - African Yellowwood, Afrocarpus falcatus
  - Totara, Podocarpus totara
- Sciadopityaceae
  - Kusamaki, Sciadopitys species
- Taxaceae (Yew family)
  - Yew, Taxus species

Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta)


- Ginkgoaceae (Ginkgo family)
  - Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba

Cycads (Cycadophyta)


- Cycadaceae family
  - Ngathu cycad, Cycas angulata
- Zamiaceae family
  - Wunu cycad, Lepidozamia hopei

Ferns (Pterophyta)


- Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae families
  - Tree ferns, Cyathea, Alsophila, Dicksonia (not a monophyletic group)

Life stages

The life cycles of trees, especially conifers, are divided into the following stages in forestry for survey and documentation purposes: # Seed # Seedling: the above ground part of the embryo that sprout from the seed # Sapling: After the seedling reaches 1m tall, and until it reaches 7cm in stem diameter # Pole: young trees from 7-30cm diameter # Mature tree: over 30cm diameter, reproductive years begin # Old tree: dominate old growth forest; height growth slows greatly, with majority of productivity in seed production # Overmature: dieback and decay become common # Snag: standing dead wood # Log/debris: fallen dead wood Tree diameters are measured at height of between 1.3-1.5m above the highest point on the ground at its base. The 7cm diameter definition is economically based, from the smallest saleable stem size (for paper production, etc), and the 30cm diameter is the smallest base diameter for sawlogs. Each stage may be uniquely perceptive to different pathogens and suitable for especially adapted arboreal animals.

See also


- Arboretum
  - Pinetum
- Arboriculture (the care of trees)
- Bonsai
- Christmas tree
- Dendrology (the study of trees)
  - Dendrochronology
  - Dendroclimatology
- Ecology
  - Tree-line
- Forestry
  - Deforestation
  - Plantation
  - Urban Forestry
  - Woodland management
- Fruit trees
- List of famous trees
- List of garden plants
- Plants
- Prehistoric plants
- Tree climbing
- Trees in mythology
- Trees of the world
  - Trees of Britain and Ireland
  - Trees of Canada
  - List of U.S. state trees
  - Trees of The Caribbean Basin
  - Trees of Iran
  - List of trees of New Zealand
- Wood
  - List of woods

External links


- [http://www.globaltrees.org/default.asp GLOBAL TREES .org] Campaigning to save the world's most threatened trees
- [http://www.fssca.net/romero/ Romero Memorial Tree Project] Plant a tree in El Salvador

Bibliography


- Pakenham, T. (2002). Remarkable Trees of the World. ISBN 0297843001
- Pakenham, T. (1996). Meetings with Remarkable Trees. ISBN 0297832557 Category:Plants
-
- Category:Botany Category: plant morphology ms:Pokok ja:木 simple:Tree th:ต้นไม้

European Cornel

The European Cornel (Cornus mas) is a species of dogwood native to southern Europe and southwest Asia. It is a medium to deciduous large shrub or small tree growing to 5-12 m tall, with dark brown branches and greenish twigs. The leaves are opposite, 4-10 cm long and 2-4 cm broad, with an ovate to oblong shape and an entire margin. The flowers are small (5-10 mm diameter), with four yellow petals, produced in clusters of 10-25 together in the late winter, well before the leaves appear. The fruit is an oblong red drupe 2 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, containing a single seed. The fruit is edible, with an acidic flavour; it is mainly used for making jam. Cultivars selected for fruit production in Ukraine have fruit up to 4 cm long. The species is also grown as an ornamental plant for its late winter flowers. Cornel, European

Korean Dogwood

The Korean Dogwood (Cornus coreana or Swida coreana) is a deciduous shrub or small tree 8-16 m tall, native to eastern Asia in Korea and adjacent northeastern China. It has opposite, simple leaves, 5-12 cm long. The flowers are produced in inflorescences 6-8 cm diameter, each flower individually small and whitish. The flowering is in spring, after it leafs out. The fruit is a small black berry 6-7 mm diameter. It is closely related to the Chinese Walter's Dogwood (C. walteri) and the European Common Dogwood (C. sanguinea). Dogwood, Korean

Appalachian Mountains

The Appalachian Mountains are a vast system of North American mountains, partly in Canada, but mostly in the United States, extending as a zone, from 100 to 300 miles wide, running from Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, 1500 miles south-westward to central Alabama in the United States, although the northernmost mainland portion ends at the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec. The system is divided into a series of ranges, with the individual mountains averaging around 3000 ft. The highest of the group is Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina (2,040m, 6,684 ft.), which is the highest point in the United States east of the Mississippi River as well as the second highest point in eastern North America.

Regions

North America North America North America The whole system may be divided into three great sections: the Northern, from Newfoundland to the Hudson river; the Central, from the Hudson Valley to that of New river (Great Kanawha), in Virginia and West Virginia; and the Southern, from New river onwards. The northern section includes the Shickshock Mountains and Notre Dame Range in Quebec, scattered elevations in Maine, the White Mountains and the Green Mountains; the central comprises, besides various minor groups, the Valley Ridges between the Front of the Allegheny Plateau and the Great Appalachian Valley, the New York-New Jersey Highlands and a large portion of the Blue Ridge; and the southern consists of the prolongation of the Blue Ridge, the Unaka Range, and the Valley Ridges adjoining the Cumberland Plateau, with some lesser ranges. The major ranges comprising the Appalachian system include the Long Range Mountains and Annieopsquotch Mountains in Newfoundland, the Notre Dame Mountains in New Brunswick and Quebec, the Longfellow Mountains in Maine, the White Mountains in New Hampshire, the Green Mountains in Vermont, the Taconic Mountains in New York and Massachusetts, the Berkshire Hills in Massachusetts, the Allegheny Mountains in Pennsylvania, Maryland and West Virginia, the Ridge-and-valley Appalachians in The Poconos Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia and Virginia, and the Blue Ridge Mountains that run from southern Pennsylvania to North Georgia. The Adirondack Mountains are sometimes considered part of the Appalachian chain but, geologically speaking, are a southern extension of the Laurentian Mountains of Canada. In addition to the true folded mountains, known as the ridge and valley province, the area of dissected plateau Blue Mountain (Pennsylvania) to the north and west of the mountains is usually grouped with them. This includes the Catskill Mountains of southeastern New York, and the Allegheny Plateau of southwestern New York, western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio and northern West Virginia. The plateau does not change character but changes name to the Cumberland Plateau in southern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, western Virginia, eastern Tennessee. The dissected plateau area is popularly called mountains, especially in eastern Kentucky and West Virginia, and while the ridges are not high, the terrain is extremely rugged. In Ohio and New York, some of the plateau has been glaciated, which has rounded off the sharp ridges, and filled the valleys to some extent. The glaciated regions are usually referred to as hill country rather than mountains. The Appalachian region is generally considered the geographical dividing line between the eastern seaboard of the United States and the Midwest region of the country. The Eastern Continental Divide follows the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania to Georgia. Before the French and Indian War, the Appalachian Mountains lay on the indeterminate boundary between Britain's colonies along the Atlantic and French areas centered in the Mississippi basin. After the French and Indian War, the Proclamation of 1763 limited settlement for Great Britain's thirteen original colonies in North America to east of the summit line of the mountains (except in the northern regions where the Great Lakes formed the boundary). This was highly disliked by the colonists and formed one of the grievances which led to the American Revolutionary War. With the formation of the United States of America, an important first phase of westward expansion in the late 18th century and early 19th century consisted of the migration of European-descended settlers westward across the mountains into the Ohio Valley through the Cumberland Gap and other mountain passes. The Erie Canal, finished in 1825, formed the first route through the Appalachians that was capable of large amounts of commerce. The Appalachian Trail is a 2,175 mile hiking trail that runs all the way from Mt. Katahdin in Maine to Springer Mountain in Georgia, passing over or past a large part of the Appalachian system.

The chief summits

The Appalachian belt includes, with the ranges enumerated above, the plateaus sloping southward to the Atlantic Ocean in New England, and south-eastward to the border of the coastal plain through the central and southern Atlantic states; and on the north-west, the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus declining toward the Great Lakes and the interior plains. A remarkable feature of the belt is the longitudinal chain of broad valleys--the Great Appalachian Valley--which, in the southerly sections divides the mountain system into two subequal portions, but in the northernmost lies west of all the ranges possessing typical Appalachian features, and separates them from the Adirondack group. The mountain system has no axis of dominating altitudes, but in every portion the summits rise to rather uniform heights, and, especially in the central section, the various ridges and intermontane valleys have the same trend as the system itself. None of the summits reaches the region of perpetual snow. Mountains of the Long Range in Newfoundland reach heights of nearly 2000 ft. In the Shickshocks the higher summits rise to about 4000 ft. elevation. In Maine four peaks exceed 3000 ft., including Katahdin (5200 ft.). In New Hampshire, many summits rise above 4000 feet, including Mount Washington, in the White Mountains (6298 ft.), Adams (5805), Jefferson (5725), Clay (5554), Monroe (5390), Madison (5380), Lafayette (5269. In the Green Mountains the highest point, Mansfield, is 4364 ft.; Lincoln (4078), Killington (4241), Camel Hump (4088); and a number of other heights exceed 3000 ft. The Catskills are not properly included in the system. The Blue Ridge, rising in southern Pennsylvania and there known as South Mountain, attains in that state elevations of about 2000 ft.; southward to the Potomac its altitudes diminish, but 30 m. beyond again reach 2000 ft. In the Virginia Blue Ridge the following are the highest peaks east of New river: Mount Weather (about 1850 ft.), Mary's Rock (3523), Peaks of Otter (4001 and 3875), Stony Man (4031), Hawks Bill (4066). In Pennsylvania the summits of the Valley Ridges rise generally to about 2000 ft., and in Maryland Eagle Rock and Dans Rock are conspicuous points reaching 3162 ft. and 2882 ft. above the sea. On the same side of the Great Valley, south of the Potomac, are the Pinnacle (3007 ft.) and Pidgeon Roost (3400 ft.). In the southern section of the Blue Ridge are Grandfather Mountain (5964 ft.), with three other summits above 5000, and a dozen more above 4000. The Unaka Ranges (including the Black and Smoky Mountains) have eighteen peaks higher than 5000 ft., and eight surpassing 6000 ft. In the Black Mountains, Mitchell (the culminating point of the whole system) attains an altitude of 6711 ft., Balsam Cone, 6645, Black Brothers, 6690, and 6620, and Hallback, 6403. In the Smoky Mountains we have Clingman's Peak (6611), Guyot (6636), Alexander (6447), Leconte (6612), Curtis (6588), with several others above 6000 and many higher than 5000. In spite of the existence of the Great Appalachian Valley, the master streams are transverse to the axis of the system. The main watershed follows a tortuous course which crosses the mountainous belt just north of New river in Virginia; south of this the rivers head in the Blue Ridge, cross the higher Unakas, receive important tributaries from the Great Valley, and traversing the Cumberland Plateau in spreading gorges, escape by way of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers to the Ohio and Mississippi, and thus to the Gulf of Mexico; in the central section the rivers, rising in or beyond the Valley Ridges, flow through great gorges (water gaps) to the Great Valley, and by south-easterly courses across the Blue Ridge to tidal estuaries penetrating the coastal plain; in the northern section the water-parting lies on the inland side of the mountainous belt, the main lines of drainage running from north to south.

Geology

Main article: Geology of the Appalachians The Appalachians are old mountains. A look at rocks exposed in today's Appalachian mountains reveals elongated belts of folded and thrust faulted marine sedimentary rocks, volcanic rocks and slivers of ancient ocean floor, which provides strong evidence that these rocks were deformed during plate collision. The birth of the Appalachian ranges, some 680 million years ago, marks the first of several mountain building plate collisions that culminated in the construction of the supercontinent Pangea with the Appalachians near the center. Because North America and Africa were connected, the Appalachians form part of the same mountain chain as the Atlas mountains in Morocco. Morocco During the middle Ordovician Period (about 495-440 million years ago), a change in plate motions set the stage for the first Paleozoic mountain building event (Taconic orogeny) in North America. The once-quiet Appalachian passive margin changed to a very active plate boundary when a neighboring oceanic plate, the Iapetus, collided with and began sinking beneath the North American craton. With the birth of this new subduction zone, the early Appalachians were born. Along the continental margin, volcanoes grew, coincident with the initiation of subduction. Thrust faulting uplifted and warped older sedimentary rock laid down on the passive margin. As mountains rose, erosion began to wear them down. Streams carried rock debris downslope to be deposited in nearby lowlands. The Taconic Orogeny was just the first of a series of mountain building plate collisions that contributed to the formation of the Appalachians (see Appalachian orogeny). By the end of the Mesozoic era, the Appalachian Mountains had been eroded to an almost flat plain. It was not until the region was uplifted during the Cenozoic Era that the distinctive topography of the present formed. Uplift rejuvenated the streams, which rapidly responded by cutting downward into the ancient bedrock. Some streams flowed along weak layers that define the folds and faults created many millions of years earlier. Other streams downcut so rapidly that they cut right across the resistant folded rocks of the mountain core, carving canyons across rock layers and geologic structures. The Appalachian Mountains contain major deposits of Anthracite coal as well as Bituminous coal. In the folded mountains the coal is in metamorphosed form as anthracite represented by the Coal Region of northeastern Pennsylvania and discovered by Necho Allen. The Bituminous coal fields of western Pennsylvania, southeastern Ohio, eastern Kentucky, and West Virginia is the sedimentary form.

Flora and fauna

Much of the region is covered with forest yielding quantities of valuable timber, especially in Canada and northern New England. The most valuable trees for lumber are spruce, white pine, hemlock, cedar, white birch, ash, maple and basswood; all excepting pine and hemlock and poplar in addition are ground into wood pulp for the manufacture of paper. In the central and southern parts of the belt oak and hickory constitute valuable hard woods, and certain varieties of the former furnish quantities of tan bark. The tulip tree produces a good clear lumber known as white wood or poplar, and is also a source of pulp. In the south both white and yellow pine abounds. Many flowering and fruit-bearing shrubs of the heath family add to the beauty of the mountainous districts, rhododendron and kalmia often forming impenetrable thickets. Bears, mountain lions (pumas), wild cats (lynx) and wolves haunt the more remote fastnesses of the mountains; foxes abound; deer are found in many districts and moose in the north.

Influence on History

For a century the Appalachians were a barrier to the westward expansion of the British colonies; the continuity of the system, the bewildering multiplicity of its succeeding ridges, the tortuous courses and roughness of its transverse passes, a heavy forest and dense undergrowth all conspired to hold the settlers on the seaward-sloping plateaus and coastal plains. Only by way of the Hudson and Mohawk valleys, and round about the southern termination of the system were there easy routes to the interior of the country, and these were long closed by hostile aborigines and jealous French or Spanish colonists. In eastern Pennsylvania the Great Valley was accessible by reason of a broad gateway between the end of South Mountain and the Highlands, and here in the Lebanon Valley settled German Moravians, whose descendants even now retain the peculiar patois known as "Pennsylvania Dutch." These were late comers to the New World forced to the frontier to find unclaimed lands. With their followers of both German and Scotch-Irish origin, they worked their way southward and soon occupied all of the Virginia Valley and the upper reaches of the Great Valley tributaries of the Tennessee. By 1755 the obstacle to westward expansion had been thus reduced by half; outposts of the English colonists had penetrated the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus, threatening French monopoly in the transmontane region, and a conflict became inevitable. Making common cause against the French to determine the control of the Ohio valley, the unsuspected strength of the colonists was revealed, and the successful ending of the French and Indian War extended England's territory to the Mississippi. To this strength the geographic isolation enforced by the Appalachian mountains had been a prime contributor. The confinement of the colonies between an ocean and a mountain wall led to the fullest occupation of the coastal border of the continent, which was possible under existing conditions of agriculture, conducing to a community of purpose, a political and commercial solidarity, which would not otherwise have been developed. As early as 1700 it was possible to ride from Portland, Maine, to southern Virginia, sleeping each night at some considerable village. In contrast to this complete industrial occupation, the French territory was held by a small and very scattered population, its extent and openness adding materially to the difficulties of a disputed tenure. Bearing the brunt of this contest as they did, the colonies were undergoing preparation for the subsequent struggle with the home government. Unsupported by shipping, the American armies fought toward the sea with the mountains at their back protecting them against Indians leagued with the British. The few settlements beyond the Great Valley were free for self-defence because debarred from general participation in the conflict by reason of their position.

Name pronunciation and origin

The primary standard pronunciation of the range is with a long-A, as "app-uh-LAY-chan". The alternative pronunciation, with a short-A, "app-uh-LATCH-an" is often used east of the range in the Piedmont region, such as in North Carolina. The short-A pronunciation is used for Appalachian State University of Boone, North Carolina. It turns out that the short-A version, used by a minority, is arguably the correct way to say it. When the Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his crew were exploring the Florida coast in 1528, they found a Native American town which they transliterated as Apalachen (ah-pah-LAH-chen). This name and its short-A pronunciation were applied to a nearby body of water, now spelled Apalachee Bay, to the Apalachicola River and the Apalachicola Bay, and to the city known as Apalachicola, Florida. The word "Apalachen" was also applied to an inland mountain range, and through the course of time it became applied to the entire range and its spelling was changed. Although the long-A pronunciation for the mountain range is standard, it is at odds with its origin.

See also


- Appalachian Trail
- Appalachia
- International Appalachian Trail
- Appalachian Mountain Club

References


- Topographic maps and Geologic Folios of the United States Geological Survey
- Bailey Willis, "The Northern Appalachians," and C. W. Hayes, "The Southern Appalachians," both in National Geographic Monographs, vol. i.
- chaps, iii., iv. and v. of Miss E. C. Semple's American History and its Geographic Conditions (Boston, 1903).
-

Further reading


- Weidensaul, Scott.; 2000, Mountains of the Heart: A Natural History of the Appalachians, Fulcrum Publishing, 288 pages, ISBN 1555911390 Category:Mountain ranges of Canada Category:Mountain ranges of the United States Category:Appalachian culture Category:Mountain ranges of Maine Category:Mountain ranges of New Hampshire Category:Mountain ranges of Vermont Category:Mountain ranges of Massachusetts Category:Mountain ranges of New York Category:Mountain ranges of New Jersey Category:Mountain ranges of Pennsylvania Category:Mountain ranges of Maryland Category:Mountain ranges of West Virginia Category:Mountain ranges of Virginia Category:Mountain ranges of Kentucky Category:Mountain ranges of North Carolina ja:アパラチア山脈

Northern Swamp Dogwood

Northern Swamp Dogwood (also Gray Dogwood), Cornus racemosa, is a northern dogwood species found in southeastern Canada and northeastern United States. It is a member of family Cornaceae, and is a shrub growing to 5 m tall. A synonymous name for the species is Swida racemosa.

External links


- [http://www.hort.uconn.edu/plants/c/corrac/corrac1.html Cornus racemosa description with pictures]
- [http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/corrac USDA Description]
- [http://www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/Syllabus2/factsheet.cfm?ID=821 Brief description and pictures] Dogwood, Northern Swamp

Common Dogwood

The Common Dogwood (Cornus sanguinea, syn. Swida sanguinea) is a species of dogwood native to most of Europe and western Asia, occurring north to southern England and southern Scandinavia, and east to the Caspian Sea. It is a medium to large deciduous shrub, growing 2-6 m tall, with dark greenish-brown branches and twigs. The leaves are opposite, 4-8 cm long and 2-4 cm broad, with an ovate to oblong shape and an entire margin; they are green above, slightly paler below, and rough with short stiff pubescence. The flowers are small (5-10 mm diameter), with four creamy white petals, produced in clusters 3-5 cm diameter. The fruit is a globose black berry 5-8 mm diameter, containing a single seed. Dogwood, Common

Stolon

A stolon is an aerial shoot from a plant with the ability to produce adventitious roots and new offshoots of the same plant. The complex formed by a mother plant and all its offshoot connected by stolons are considered to form a single individual. A stolon is a propagation strategy akin to a rhizome. Note that some species of crawling plants can also sprout adventitious roots, but these are not considered stoloniferous: a stolon is sprouted from an existing stem. Examples of plants that extend through stolons include some species from the Fragaria, Hieracium genera, Silverweed and Bermuda Grass.

See also


- Root
- Vegetative reproduction Category:Plant morphology

Canadian Dwarf Cornel

The Canadian Dwarf Cornel or Canadian Bunchberry (Cornus canadensis) is a herbaceous member of the dogwood family. It grows about 20-30 cm tall and bears tiny flowers a few millimeters across that form an inflorescence at the center of four white, petal-like bracts 3-4 cm diameter. bract Each flower has highly elastic petals that flip backward and release springy filaments that are cocked underneath the petals. The filaments snap upward flinging pollen out of containers hinged to the filaments. This motion takes place in less than half a millisecond and the pollen experiences 800 times the force that the space shuttle does during liftoff. The bunchberry has the fastest plant action found so far requiring a camera that takes 10,000 frames per second to catch the action (Edwards et al., 2005).

References


- PMID 15889081 Cornel, Canadian Dwarf

Hybrid

:This article is about a biological term. See hybrid (disambiguation) for other meanings. In biology, hybrid has three meanings.
- The first meaning is either the offspring of two different species, or of two different genera.
  - Hybrids between different species within the same genus are sometimes known as interspecific hybrids or crosses.
  - Hybrids between different sub-species within a species are known as intra-specific hybrids.
  - Hybrids between different genera are sometimes known as intergeneric hybrids.
- The second meaning of "hybrid" is crosses between populations, breeds or cultivars ("cultivated varieties") of a single species. This second meaning is often used in plant breeding.
- The third meaning is in molecular biology, see Hybridization (molecular biology). Ernst Mayr wrote of Gregor Mendel, "He was uncertain about the nature of the kinds of peas he crossed, and, like most plant breeders, he called heterozygotes "hybrids". When he tried to confirm the laws he had found by using "other hybrids" that were actually real species hybrids, he failed. The use of the same term "hybrid" for two entirely different biological phenomena thwarted his later efforts." (This