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Drag Racing

Drag racing

Drag racing is a form of auto racing in which cars or motorcycles attempt to complete a fairly short, straight and level course in the shortest amount of time, starting from a dead stop. Drag racing originated in the United States and is still the most popular there. The most common distance is one quarter of a mile (1320ft/402m), although one-eighth of a mile (201 m) tracks are also popular. The dragstrip extends well beyond the finish line to allow cars to slow down and return to the pit area. While usually thought of as an American and Canadian pastime, drag racing is also very popular in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, the Caribbean, England, Mexico, Greece, Malta, South Africa and most European and Scandinavian countries. At any given time there are over 325 drag strips operating world-wide.

History

The origins of the sport lie in illegal street racing in the United States. The format of the sport shows these origins: two cars line up next to each other, and await a green light as the signal to start, just as if they were sitting next to each other at a stoplight. The straight course mimics the straight streets of most American cities. By the 1930s, hot-rodders had begun to race away from the roads, on Southern California's dry lake beds, and by the late 1940s, attempts to codify the sport were underway. The first drag strip opened on a Santa Ana, California airfield in 1950. Southern California was the hot bed for development of the sport in the 1950s as various clubs organized races. Hot Rod magazine and its editor, Wally Parks began to promote racing safety and standardization. The magazine sponsored national "Safety Safari" tours to spread drag racing to other parts of the country. The NHRA was founded as a national sanctioning body and Parks eventually left the magazine to head the organization. Initially contests were between modified street vehicles, but over time racers got more innovative and classes proliferated to reflect the different approaches.

Racing organization

Most (although not all) drag racing involves two cars racing each other to the end of the measured distance. The elapsed time from the light turning green to the car's front end passing through the "traps" at the other end ("far end") of the track determines the winner; this is the "E.T." or "time". In practice, it is necessary for the driver to "jump the gun" by a faction of a second, starting the car during the split-second interval between when the yellow light goes out and the green light goes on. However, if the car crosses the electric eye ("the beam") in front of it before the green light comes on, the driver has "red-lighted" and is disqualified. (If both cars "red-light", only the first car to cross is disqualified.) A driver who gets a substantial lead at the start is said to have gotten a "holeshot". The driver's reaction time and the car's top speed are also recorded, in addition to the e.t., on the "timeslip". The car that crosses the finish line first wins. A car can actually blow an engine part way down the strip and coast to the end of the track at a (relatively) lower top speed than the competitor, and still win with a lower elapsed time. This is called "heads-up racing", and is used in all professional ("pro") classes. In the common Eliminator racing format, the losing car and driver are removed from the contest, while the winner goes on to race other winners, until only one is left. There are some instances where there are 3 cars remaining, and in this case one car, either chosen at random or the car with the fastest elapsed time thus far, gets a "bye run" where his or her car goes down the track by itself (in order to at least partially eliminate the advantage that would otherwise come from the engine having one less run on it), and then awaits the winner of the other two for the title. However, in most Eliminator formats, the bye runs take place only in the first round. Drivers are about equally divided between making a nice easy pass on the bye run so as not to stress the car unduly, or making a real effort for the benefit of the spectators. The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) oversees the majority of drag racing events in North America. The next largest organization, the International Hot Rod Association, (IHRA), is about one-third the size of NHRA. Nearly all drag strips will select one or the other of these sanctioning bodies to be associated with. The NHRA is more popular with large, 1/4 mile nationally-recognized tracks, while the IHRA is a favorite of smaller 1/8th mile local tracks. One reason for this (among others) is the IHRA is less restrictive in its rules and less expensive to be associated with. There are literally hundreds of different classes in drag racing, each with different requirements and restrictions on things such as weight, engine size, body style, modifications, and many others. The NHRA and IHRA share some of these classes, but many are solely used by one sanctioning body or the other. The NHRA boasts over 200 classes, while the IHRA has fewer. There is even a class for aspiring youngsters - Junior Dragster. In 1997, the FIA began sanctioning drag racing in Europe with a fully established European Drag Racing Championship, in cooperation with the NHRA with rules established from the NHRA. The major European drag strips include Santa Pod Raceway in Podington, England and the Hockenheimring in Germany. However, there are only 5 pro classes (4 NHRA, 4 IHRA), which are:
- Top Fuel Dragster (TF/D) The rail dragsters, or "diggers", the fastest class. (NHRA and IHRA both). There are also a Top Alcohol and Top Gas Dragster.
- Top Fuel Funny Car (TF/FC) Nearly as fast as the rails, the "floppers" (marginally) resemble actual cars. IHRA will be bringing back Top Fuel Funny Car in 2006, and Alcohol Funny Car is already a pro category in IHRA. (NHRA and IHRA both)
- Pro Modified (Pro Mod) Some engine restrictions, very high power. Cars can run superchargers or nitrous oxide. Cars running blowers are limited to 527 cubic inches (8.6 L) while cars with nitrous oxide can run up to 740 cubic inches (12.1 L).
- Pro Stock Must maintain stock appearance. NHRA cars can run no more than 500 cubic inches (8.2 L) while IHRA cars can run a maximum of 820 cubic inches (13.1 L) ("Mountain Motors"). (NHRA and IHRA both)
- Pro Stock Bike Heavily modified motorcycles. (NHRA only) In addition to the above professional classes, these are some other popular classes:
- Top Alcohol Dragster
- Top Alcohol Funny Car
- Super Comp/Quick Rod
- Super Gas/Super Rod
- Super Street/Hot Rod
- Super Stock
- Stock
- Sport Compact (Smaller cars, with smaller engines)
- Top Sportsman (IHRA only, but at NHRA Divisional Races)
- Top Dragster (IHRA only) A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites (see external links). To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the start line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car. This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor's chosen "dial-in" in bracket racing. A "dial-in" is a time the driver estimates it will take his or her car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the "Christmas tree" (commonly just "tree") accordingly. The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial-ins, so that if both cars perform perfectly, they would cross the finish line dead even. If either car goes faster than its dial-in (called breaking out), it is disqualified regardless of who has the lowest elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins. This eliminates any advantage from putting a slower time on the windshield to get a head start. The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow. This in turn makes victory much less dependent on large infusions of money, and more dependent on skill. Therefore, bracket racing is popular with casual weekend racers. Many of these recreational racers will drive their vehicles to the track, race them, and then simply drive them home. Most tracks do not host national events every week, and on the interim weekends host local casual and weekend racers. Organizationally, however, the tracks are run according to the rules of either the NHRA or the IHRA (for the most part). Even street vehicles must pass a safety inspection prior to being allowed to race. Besides NHRA and IHRA, there are niche organizations for muscle cars and nostalgia vehichles. There is even an organization called the National Electric Drag Racing Association, (NEDRA), which races electric vehicles against high performance gasoline-powered vehicles such as Dodge Vipers or classic muscle cars in 1/4 and 1/8 mile races.

Drag racing performance facts

The fastest top fuelers can attain terminal speeds of over 330 mph (530 km/h) while covering the quarter mile (402 m) distance in roughly 4.45 seconds. It is often related that Top Fuel dragsters are the fastest accelerating vehicles on Earth; quicker even than the space shuttle launch vehicle or catapult-assisted jet fighter (however this ignores the rocket dragsters). In fact, if you take a vehicle traveling at a steady 200 mph (322 km/h) as it is crossing the start line, a top fuel dragster starting from a dead stop at the same moment will beat it to the finish line one quarter of a mile (402 m) away. Additionally, through the use of large multiple braking parachutes, the astounding performance of 0 to 330 mph (531 km/h) and then back to 0 in 20 seconds can be obtained. Deceleration of up to five "gee" can be attained, enough to cause separated retinae in TF drivers. The faster categories of drag racing are an impressive spectacle, with engines of over 7000 horsepower (4.5 MW) and noise outputs to match, cars that look like bizarre parodies of standard street cars (funny cars), and the ritual of burnouts where, prior to the actual timed run, the competitors cause their wheels to spin while stationary or moving slowly, thus heating up the tires and laying down a sticky coat of rubber on the track surface ( which may have been coated with VHT Trackbite or similar to increase traction) to get optimum grip on the all-important launch. The Blown Alcohol and Nitrous Oxide injected Pro Modifieds with their 2000 horsepower motors are capable of running in the low six second range at over 230 miles per hour. The IHRA Pro Stocks are just behind, running in the 6.3 second range at over 210 miles per hour, while the NHRA Pro Stocks run in the high sixes at over 200 miles per hour. Top Sportsman and Top Dragster, the two fastest sportsman classes, run a bracket style race and can range from the 6.4 second range at 210 miles per hour to the high sevens at over 170 miles per hour. Cars in Super Comp/Quick Rod are either dragsters or doorcars, but run with a throttle stop. Some cars can run as low as a 7.50 at around 180 miles per hour without a throttle stop, but use it in order to hit the 8.90 index. Super Gas/Super Rod and Super Street/Hot Rod run with a 9.90 and 10.90 index respectfully, but they both run with a throttle stop. Drag racing has traditionally been the domain of big - usually American - cars with high capacity engines. However, the power to weight ratio of lighter, usually imported, cars has allowed them to be successful when their engines are modified and bodies lightened. The VW Beetle was one of the first to be exploited this way. Recently there has been an increase in Sport Compact racing, where smaller cars, especially Japanese, but recently some American and European, are raced. Use of a turbocharger or supercharger is very common, and often necessary to break through the 12-second quarter-mile barrier. In 2001, the NHRA formed the Sport Compact category featuring such cars, and while Toyota, Honda, Nissan, and Subaru are very popular, the NHRA has also permitted General Motors, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler cars to participate in Sport Compact. With NHRA rule changes in recent years making Pro Stock cars more compact, a change from a 500 cubic inch (8.2 L) V8 engine to a modified factory four or six cylinder double overhead camshaft engine can easily convert a Pro Stock car to Sport Compact Pro Rear Wheel Drive car. The cars are separated by performance, and since 2003 categories have been split based on the car's drive wheels. Ironically, most NHRA Sport Compact records for elapsed time and speed are held by General Motors cars, rather than the imports. One of the negative side-effects of sport compact drag racing is that the cheaper cars involved are often raced (illegally) on the street, where they cause trouble, with many drivers making a public nuisance of themselves. Illegal street racing was glamorised in the movie The Fast and the Furious. This phenomenon is just a resurgence of the problem, which has existed ever since there have been cars and "hot rodders" (cf. American Graffiti, Rebel Without a Cause, etc.). Closure of many dragstrips has contributed to its resurgence; many drag racers and fans consider street racing a plague.

Drag racing strategies and methods

The various strategies used in drag racing begin with the car itself. Performance enhancements must comply both with NHRA/IHRA rules and restrictions based on the class the car is running in. Some common enhancements include the use of slicks (smooth, soft tires that grip the track), methods for introducing more air into the motor such as turbos, superchargers, and nitrous oxide, specialized fuels (higher octane gas, methanol, etc...), improved suspensions, and a multitude of others.

The burnout

suspension When approaching the starting line (also known as the staging area), most racers will apply water (formerly bleach) to the rear tires either by backing into a small puddle (the "water box") or having it sprayed on. The car then exits the water and does a burnout to heat the tires, making them even stickier. Some cars have a mandatory "line-lock" which prevents the rear brakes from engaging when the brake pedal is depressed (which can be toggled on and off). This allows the car to remain stationary (with the brakes applied) without burning up the rear brake pads while doing a burn-out. Cars in street classes (which must be street legal) are the only exception to this pre-race ritual, as the grooved tires tend to retain some of the water.

Staging

After the burn-out comes the "staging phase", where the cars pull up to the starting line. Each lane has its own string of lights on the "christmas tree", with two small orange lights on top. These are the "pre-staged" and "staged" lights. The two cars will slowly creep forward until the first (pre-staged) orange light is lit. This means they are very close to the actual starting line (a mere 7 inches). Then the cars will nudge forward until the second (staged) light is lit. This indicates they are at the starting line. When both cars have lit both bulbs, the starter will begin the christmas tree.

The nitrous purge

Only cars running nitrous oxide can do this. The drivers push a button that activates a solenoid called a purge valve, which clears the nitrous in the line out into the atmosphere without entering the motor. This allows compressed air that accumulates in the line out of the system and pulls the liquid nitrous towards the motor, ensuring a correct mixture of nitrous and fuel when the system is activated.

The race

Several things are important on the way down the track in drag racing. The first is not to cross into your opponent's lane, as this will result in disqualification. In case of a double disqualification in which one driver commits a foul start and the second driver crosses into his opponent's lane, the driver who committed the foul start wins. Another important consideration is when to shift gears. Most drag cars are shifted manually by the driver, and there are optimum times for shifting that vary with each car. Typically, power will increase as the engine RPMs (revolutions per minute) increase, but only up to a point before power begins to taper off. The ideal time to shift is at the peak power point. Most drag racers use a tachometer to judge shift points. In Fuel classes especially, "pedalling" the car (adjusting the throttle) to prevent loss of traction is often important, one measure of how good a driver is. Strategies for crossing the finish line usually only involve bracket racing (see above). If one car has a huge lead, it may slow down before crossing the finish line to prevent a breakout. Especially in bracket racing, it is not uncommon to see the leading vehicle's brake lights come on briefly before the finish line. If both cars break out, the car closer to their dial-in wins. In NHRA Junior Dragster racing, however, there is a maximum elapsed time where a car which is faster than the maximum permissible time is ejected from the entire race. This is faster than the official break out elapsed time.

An amateur "Day at the races"

While the professional and other faster classes get all the attention on tv and in the press, there are far more casual and weekend racers for whom it's just an enjoyable hobby. Many potential first-time amateur drag racers are put off by their lack of knowledge as to what to do. Assuming a 13.0 second or slower car (most unmodified street cars other than Corvettes, Vipers, certain Camaros/Firebirds/Mustangs), it is relatively easy to have an enjoyable Friday night, Saturday, or Sunday afternoon (differs by track). Other cars running at the sportsman race other than the street cars are Super Comp/Quick Rod cars, Top Dragster vehicles, Top Sportsman cars, Cars that run in Super Gas/Super Rod and Super Street/Hot Rod, and vehicle built specifically for bracket racing. Each track usually has three car categories and a Super Pro Bike category. The car categories are Super Pro (any electronic devices are allowed, from 7.00 to 12.99 or depending on the track), Pro (doorcars with no electronics except for a transbrake, 9.00 to 14.99), and Street (no electronics allowed, full street equipment, must be street legal, 12.00 to 17.99).

Getting ready

The first requirement is locating a nearby drag strip. Whether it's NHRA or IHRA is unimportant in the beginning, any track will do. Web searches, going to the NHRA/IHRA sites, asking friends, or even the yellow pages should locate one reasonably close. They will be able to tell you on the phone what dates/times they have races for street cars, and the cost to race (watching is cheaper, be sure to mention you'd like to race your vehicle). Also be sure to get the two most important times - the time they open, and the time actual racing starts (usually 2-3 hours later). The difference is so amateurs can have "practice runs" to determine what kinds of times their cars will achieve. Street classes are always bracket racing (see above). There are two reasons to try to arrive right as the track is opening. First, the "pit area", where all cars that will race initially congregate offers better spots (closer to the track) early on, and secondly, there is the opportunity to get more practice runs in.

What to bring

An automobile racing crash helmet, Snell Foundation approved, and white shoe polish in an applicator-type container (discussed later). Alcoholic beverages are not allowed. Snacks and some beverages are acceptable. (At many NHRA tracks, Pepsico products are prohibited, as Coca-Cola is a sponsor of the NHRA's national series.) Some people enjoy using a digital camera to capture the action. Many amateur enthusiasts enjoy bringing friends, especially in another vehicle, to enjoy the racing with and to assist with picture-taking. Earplugs are also a wise choice, as are glass cleaner and paper towels.

When you first arrive

Depending on the track, you may need to have the car "teched", which means inspected. Gate attendants (where you enter and pay) are used to this question, and know whether a street car needs to be teched or not. Two things can happen here. First, you need to have the car teched and should go to this area. Second, there is no tech requirement for street classes (mostly IHRA tracks), and so you simply head for the pit area. In the case of a tech requirement, you will have to have an official look over the car and be sure there are things such as seat belts, a correct helmet (if required), street-legal tires, a correct exhaust, and other street-legal items. The tech official (assuming the vehicle passes) will then use his white shoe-polish (or other substance) to paint an identifying number on your upper-passenger windshield, and possibly on a side window as well. The official will then give you a slip verifying you have been teched and you may then proceed to the pit area. In the case of no tech requirements, be sure to save the stub you got at the gate, since you will be asked for it before being allowed to race.

The pit area

Unlike NASCAR, the pit area in amateur drag racing is a huge parking lot. If your car didn't need to be teched, you will need a number on your windshield. Although most tracks have an official who will supply the number, not all do. Use the shoe polish up high on the passenger side, then draw a line under it (explained later). The pit area is where everyone in amateur drag racing walks around and enjoys talking to other people, seeing cars that are similar, and generally just "talking trash" with others over performance. Arriving early, as mentioned, means you can get in line to do a few practice runs down the track. During these runs, it's only practice so you could conceivably be paired up with a much faster car. The object here is not to win, but to simply get a feel for how your car performs. All tracks have a place back around the pits where you can get a "timeslip" after a run.

The timeslip

Years ago, timeslips were written out by hand, but now they are computerized. A quarter mile is a fair amount of distance, and after slowing down the car will need to turn around (not on the track - there are roads leading back to the pit area, called "return roads", as you would expect). There will be a small building or other place (just ask) where you will get a slip of paper with your number at the top (and the one you raced against as well). Aside from winning or losing, practice runs are the same as the real thing. You'll get your ET, your average speed through the final 66 feet of the track (MPH at finish, or "trap speed"), and your reaction time. Most tracks also include your time at various intervals on the way down the track. One of the most common is the "60 foot" time. The 60 foot time is a good indication of how quickly you got off the line.

Dialing in

Before actual racing begins, drag racers will need to dial-in, or put their estimated time on their windshield underneath the ID number. The time is to the hundredth, as in "14.55". After a couple of practice runs most racers have an idea of how their vehicle is going to perform. It is worth noting that the time you put up there is an estimate of the quickest time your car will achieve, since going faster than your dial-in will result in disqualification, called a breakout. You are allowed to change this number as many times as you like, right up until you actually stage for the race. Shoe polish is easily removed with windex and a few paper towels. A common ego trip for many weekend racers is to paint a ridiculous dial-in (say, 8.45) on a car that can barely do 17s and watch as people walk by and wonder what you have under the hood. Smart racers dial in more to their real times. For example, a Super Comp/Quick Rod Corvette in Super Pro ran two practice runs of 8.18 and 8.16, so the driver believes an 8.17 dial-in is good. His opponent in a 1967 Mustang ran times of 11.13 and 11.16, so he believes that an 11.14 is a good dial-in. The driver in the Mustang leaves three seconds before the Corvette, making it fair.

Time to race

talking trash Eventually, the loudspeakers will begin calling various classes to line up for the race. There will likely be 3 or 4 lanes to line up in. Be sure to know what class you are running in. For example, it is unwise to drive a stock Dodge Neon into a Top Fuel lineup. As a rule, one class at a time is called. Everyone else comes to watch, take pictures, or tweak their cars until it is their turn. When your turn comes to get in line, the adrenalin starts. A track official will point to the two cars he or she wants on the line, and the racing process (see above) begins. One or two lanes are kept empty for winners to re-line up in. After the first round, the winners race again. This goes on until someone wins the class and gets either a trophy or some money. Some tracks are generous and award trophies to anyone who simply wins a single race. Other tracks require the racer to win it all before getting anything. Most fall in between.

After the race

If you wait until the very end, the pit area will likely be almost empty, since most people just leave after they lose. Many ego types will re-paint a wild time on their cars and head for the local 7-11 to brag. Others will simply go home. Either way, casual drag racing is fun and millions do it each and every weekend. =Glossary=
- Beam—starting line electric eye controlling "pre-staged" and "staged" lights
- Blow—supercharge; wreck. Said of an engine.
- Blown—supercharged; wrecked. Said of an engine.
- Blower—supercharger (occasionally turbocharger); in '90s, generally grouped as "power adder" with turbocharger and nitrous
- Breakout—running quicker than dial-in; also "breaking out". This is grounds for disqualification if opponent does not commit a foul start or cross boundary lines.
- Christmas Tree (or tree)—the Chrondek timing lights
- Digger—dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper)
- Doorslammer—Pro Stock car, Pro Mod car or any car with doors, from the requirement to have working doors.
- Flopper—Funny Car, from the flip-up fiberglass bodies; does not apply to the early FCs.
- Fuel—mix of methanol and nitromethane ("pop", nitro)
- Holeshot—getting a significant advantage off the starting line. The other driver gets "holeshotted" or "left at the tree"
- Grenade—wreck an engine (the engine "grenaded") due to internal failure. Distinct from "popping a blower".
- Lit the tires—lost traction, causing smoke
- Nitro—nitromethane
- Pedalling—working the throttle to avoid lighting the tires; "pedalled" it, had to "pedal" it
- Pop—nitromethane
- Pop a blower—suffer a backfire through the supercharger, causing a spectacular explosion. Usually results in loss of engine and race.
- Pro tree—timing lights which flash all three yellow lights simultaneously, and after four tenths of a second, turns green.
- Put on the trailer—lost (got "put on the trailer") or won (put the other driver on the trailer). From the obvious, losing drivers trailer their cars home
- Rail—dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper). From the exposed frame rails of early cars.
- Redlight(ed)—jump(ed) the start
- Slicks—rear tires with no grooves, for increased traction
- Slingshot—early front-engined dragster, named for the driving position behind the rear wheels. Erroneously attributed to the launch speed.
- Standard tree - timing lights which flash five-tenths of a second between each yellow light before turning green.

A few famous names of drag racing

- Joe Amato
- Art Arfons
- Walt Arfons
- Raymond Beadle
- Gary Beck
- Kenny Bernstein
- Brandon Bernstein
- Arnie "Farmer" Beswick
- "Dyno Don" Nicholson
- Al Eckstrand
- Erica Enders
- John Force
- Mendy ("mindy") Frey
- "Big Daddy" Don Garlits
- Bob Glidden
- "TV Tommy" Ivo
- Lori Johns
- Warren Johnson
- Kurt Johnson
- Conrad "Connie" ("Bounty Hunter") Kalitta
- Scott Kalitta
- Tom "Mongoose" McEwen
- Shirley Muldowney
- Danny Ongais
- Hayden Proffitt
- Don "The Snake" Prudhomme
- Angelle Sampey
- Gary Scelzi
- Tony Schumacher
- Mickey Thompson

External links

- [http://www.nitroflames.com NitroFlames.com] - Drag Racing Message Board and Resource Center
- [http://www.suped-up-cars.com Suped Up Cars] - Modified Cars
- [http://www.dragracecanada.com/ www.dragracecanada.com] news and infos about Drag Racing
- [http://www.nhra.com/ www.nhra.com] Official site of the NHRA
- [http://www.ihra.com/ www.ihra.com] Official site of the IHRA
- [http://www.dragracecentral.com Dragracecentral.com] News, photos, and live timing of drag races.
- [http://www.eurodragster.com/ www.eurodragster.com] Guide to drag racing in Europe.
- [http://www.vwdrc.com/ www.vwdrc.com] Home of VW drag racing in the UK.
- [http://www.werner-habermann-racing.com Werner Habermann Racing Team] - german Top Methanol Dragster team, competing in the FIA Championship.
- [http://www.wediditforlove.com www.wediditforlove.com] Site dedicated to the 'golden age' of drag racing. Category:Drag racing
- [http://www.rinehartsracing.com drag racing photos]
- [http://www.usenet-replayer.com/webrings/drag-racing.html Pictures of drag racing] published on USENET stored with an search function.
- [https://secure.nhra.powerade.com/contest/podcast.asp Drag Racing Podcasts] POWERade NHRA Podcasts from the races with Bob Frey Erica Enders

Auto racing

Auto racing (also known as automobile racing, autosport or motorsport) is a sport involving racing automobiles. Motor racing or motorsport may also mean motorcycle racing, and can include motorboat racing and air racing. It is one of the world's most popular spectator sports and perhaps the most thoroughly commercialized.

History

The Start

Auto racing began almost immediately after the construction of the first successful petrol-fuelled autos. In 1894, the first contest was organized by Paris magazine Le Petit Journal, a reliability test to determine best performance. A year later the first real race was staged, from Paris, France to Bordeaux, France. First over the line was Émile Levassor but he was disqualified because his car was not a required four-seater. An international competition began with the Gordon Bennett Cup in auto racing. The first auto race in the United States, over a 54.36 mile (87.48 km) course, took place in Chicago, Illinois on November 2, 1895, Frank Duryea winning in 10 h and 23 min, beating three petrol-fuelled cars and two electric. The first trophy awarded was the Vanderbilt Cup.

City to city racing

Vanderbilt Cup With auto construction and racing dominated by France, the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city in Europe or France. These very successful races ended in 1903 when Marcel Renault was involved in a fatal accident near Angouleme in the Paris-Madrid race. Eight fatalities caused the French government to stop the race in Bordeaux and ban open-road racing.

1910-1950

The 1930s saw the radical differentiation of racing vehicles from high-priced road cars, with Delage, Auto Union, Mercedes-Benz, Delahaye and Bugatti constructing streamlined vehicles with engines producing up to 450 kW(612HP) with the aid of multiple superchargers. From 1928-1930 and again in 1934-1936, the maximum weight permitted was 750 kg(1654Lbs), a rule diametrically opposed to current racing regulations. Extensive use of aluminium alloys was required to achieve light weight, and in the case of the Mercedes, the paint was removed to satisfy the weight limitation, producing the famous Silver Arrows. :See: Grand Prix motor racing

Use of flags

Main article: Racing flags In open-wheel, stock-car and other types of circuit auto races, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of a race and to communicate instructions to competitors in a race. While the flags have changed from the first years (e.g. red used to start a race), these are generally accepted for today.

Accidents

For the worst accident in racing history see Pierre Levegh.

External links

- [http://www.grandamerican.com The official web site of the Grand American Road Racing Association]
- http://www.trackbytes.com Full coverage of SPEED World Challenge and American Le Mans Series
- [http://www.street-racing-car.com Information About Street Racing Cars]
- http://www.autosport.com AutoSport Magazine
- http://www.speedtv.com SPEED TV Network
- http://www.motorstv.com Motors TV Network
- [http://www.sportscarcup.com Sports Cars] Sports car pictures and specifications
- http://www.rennleitung.de: Rennleitung
- http://www.motorsport.com: Covering All Forms of Auto Racing
- [http://NHRA.com NHRA]
- [http://IHRA.com IHRA]
- [http://www.automotive.com/features/36/auto-racing/ Auto Racing News]
- http://www.racerweek.com: F1, NASCAR & Rally racing forums
- http://www.formula1review.com: F1 news, results, statistics, motorsports forum
-
- [http://www.rinehartsracing.com Drag Racing Photos]
- [http://www.inforally.sibiul.ro Rally News and Photo]
- [http://www.racinnation.com RacinNation.com: Current NASCAR News and Information] ja:モータースポーツ

Automobile

An automobile is a wheeled vehicle that carries its own motor. Different types of automobiles include cars, buses, trucks, jeeps, and vans, with cars being the most popular. The term is derived from Greek 'autos' (self) and Latin 'movére' (move), referring to the fact that it 'moves by itself'. Earlier terms for automobile include 'horseless carriage' and 'motor car'. An automobile has seats for the driver and, almost without exception, one or more passengers. It is the main source of transportation across the world. In 2005 there are 500 million cars worldwide (0.07 per capita), of which 220 million are located in the United States (0.75 per capita).

History

:Main article: History of the automobile Steam-powered self-propelled vehicles were devised in the late 18th century. The first self-propelled car was built by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1769—it could attain speeds of up to 6 km/h. In 1771 he designed another steam-driven engine, which ran so fast that it rammed into a wall, producing the world’s first car accident. In 1807 Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed the first internal combustion engine (sometimes abbreviated "ICE" today). He subsequently used it to develop the world’s first vehicle to run on such an engine, one that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen to generate energy. This spawned the birth of a number of designs based on the internal combustion engine in the early nineteenth century with little or no degree of commercial success. In 1860 thereafter, Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir built the first successful two-stroke gas driven engine. In 1862 he again built an experimental vehicle driven by his gas-engine, which ran at a speed of 3 km/h. These cars became popular and by 1865 could be frequently seen on the roads. The first American automobiles with gasoline-powered internal combustion engines were completed in 1877 by George Baldwin Selden of Rochester, New York, who applied for a patent on the automobile in 1879. Selden received his patent and later sued the Ford Motor company for infringing his patent. Henry Ford was notoriously against the American patent system, and Selden's case against Ford went all the way to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Ford had to pay a penalty to Selden, but could continue manufacturing automobiles, because the technology had changed quite a bit by that time. Later on, in Germany, automobiles were developed almost simultaneously in 1886 by German inventors working independently: Carl Benz on 3 July 1886 in Mannheim, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart (also inventors of the first motor bike) and in 1888/89 German - Austrian inventor Siegfried Marcus in Vienna. Meanwhile, notable advances in steam power evolved in Birmingham, England by the Lunar Society. It was here that the term horsepower was first used. It was in Birmingham also that the first British four wheel petrol-driven automobiles were built in 1895 by Frederick William Lanchester who also patented the disc brake in the city. Electric vehicles were produced by a small number of manufacturers.

Innovation

Electric vehicle from the 1950s]] The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789; in 1804 Evans demonstrated his first successful self-propelled vehicle, which not only was the first automobile in the USA but was also the first amphibious vehicle, as his steam-powered vehicle was able to travel on wheels on land and via a paddle wheel in the water. On November 5, 1895, George B. Selden was granted a United States patent for a two-stroke automobile engine (). This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the USA. A major breakthrough came with the historic drive of Bertha Benz in 1888. Steam, electric, and gasoline powered autos competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. 1910s] The large scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by Oldsmobile in 1902, then greatly expanded by Henry Ford in the 1910s. Early automobiles were often referred to as 'horseless carriages', and did not stray far from the design of their predecessor. Through the period from 1900 to the mid 1920s, development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to a huge (hundreds) number of small manufacturers all competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910-1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes. By the 1930s, most of the technology used in automobiles had been invented, although it was often re-invented again at a later date and credited to someone else. For example, front-wheel drive was re-introduced by Andre Citroën with the launch of the Traction Avant in 1934, though it appeared several years earlier in road cars made by Alvis and Cord, and in racing cars by Miller (and may have appeared as early as 1897). After 1930, the number of auto manufacturers declined sharply as the industry consolidated and matured. Since 1960, the number of manufacturers has remained virtually constant, and innovation slowed. For the most part, "new" automotive technology was a refinement on earlier work, though these refinements were sometimes so extensive as to render the original work nearly unrecognizable. The chief exception to this was electronic engine management, which entered into wide use in the 1960s, when electronic parts became cheap enough to be mass-produced and rugged enough to handle the harsh environment of an automobile. Developed by Bosch, these electronic systems have enabled automobiles to drastically reduce exhaust emissions while increasing efficiency and power.

Model changeover and design change

exhaust Cars are not merely continually perfected mechanical contrivances; since the 1920s nearly all have been mass-produced to meet a market, so marketing plans and manufacture to meet them have often dominated automobile design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one firm, so that buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. The makes shared parts with one another so that the larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; the LaSalle of the 1930s, sold by Cadillac, used the cheaper mechanical parts made by the Oldsmobile division. He also conceived of the notion of the yearly model change-over, which became a three-year cycle. In the second year of the cycle, the superficial appearance of the cars changed incidentally; for the third, major changes took place, e.g., the fender dies for the 1957 Chevrolet had to be modified to produce thin, pointed fins and squarish headlamp housings. In the next cycle, the doors, roof, trunk, and often the suspension would have to be redesigned. Factories and the yearly work schedule had to be specialized to accommodate these changeovers. Such a patterns became dominant for the Big Three automakers in the US, though European firms neither amalgamated nor could afford the changeover. After the 1400s, when American firms tackled the technical problems of high-compression V8, automatic transmissions, and air conditioners, investment shifted to meeting the market for non-technical matters. This was criticized as "planned obsolescence," although by this it was meant that the car would simply be made to go out of style rather than really being technically surpassed. For example, only those few American cars of the 1960s with front-wheel drive or a rear engine had a fully independent rear suspension because the Hotchkiss drive was cheaper, and people were used to it. Such malinvestment left American firms unprepared for the Oil Crisis of the 1970s and the rise of imported luxury cars in the 1980s.

Regulation

In almost every nation, laws have been enacted governing the operation of motor vehicles. Most of this legislation, including limits on allowable speed and other rules of the road, are designed to ensure the smooth flow of traffic and simultaneously protect the safety of vehicle occupants, cyclists, and pedestrians. In 1965, in the U.S. state of California, state legislation was introduced to regulate exhaust emissions, the first such legislation in the world. Answering this new interest in environmental and public safety issues, the Department of Transportation (DOT) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) both introduced legislation in 1968 which substantially altered the course of automotive development. Since the US market was the largest in the world (and California the largest market in the US), manufacturers worldwide were forced to adapt. For the first time, safety devices were mandatory, as were controls on harmful emissions. Prior to this legislation, even seat belts were considered extra-cost options by many manufacturers. Other countries followed by introducing their own safety and environmental legislation. In time, meeting regulations became the main challenge for the engineers designing new cars. In the decade from 1975 to 1985, the world's manufacturers struggled to meet the new regulations, some producing substandard cars with reduced reliability as a result. However, by the end of this period, everyone had learned how to handle the newly regulated environment. The manufacturers discovered that safety and environmentalism sold cars, and some began introducing environmental and safety advances on their own initiative.

Environmental improvements

The automobile was hailed as an environmental improvement over horses when it was first introduced. Before its introduction, in New York City, over 10,000 tons of manure had to be removed from the streets daily. Among the first environmental advances are the so-called alternative fuels for the internal combustion engine, which have been around for many years. Early in automotive history, before gasoline was widely available at corner pumps, cars ran on many fuels, including kerosene (paraffin) and coal gas. Alcohol fuels were used in racing cars before and just after World War II. Today, methanol and ethanol are used as petrol extenders in some countries, notably in Australia and the United States. In countries with warmer climates, such as Brazil, alcohol derived from sugar cane is often used as a substitute fuel. In many countries, plentiful supplies of natural gas have seen methane sold as compressed natural gas (CNG) and propane sold as liquified petroleum gas (LPG) alongside petrol and diesel fuels since the 1970s. While a standard automotive engine will run on these fuels with very low exhaust emissions, there are some performance differences, notably a loss of power due to the lower energy content of the alternative fuels. The need to equip filling stations and vehicles with pressurized vessels to hold these gaseous fuels and more stringent safety inspections, means that they are only economical when used for a long distance, or if there are installation incentives. They are most economical where petrol has high taxes and the alternative fuels do not.

Alternative fuels and batteries

With heavy taxes on fuel, particularly in Europe and tightening environmental laws, particularly in California, and the possibility of further restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions, work on alternative power systems for vehicles continues. Diesel-powered cars can run with little or no modification on 100% pure biodiesel, a fuel that can be made from vegetable oils. Many cars that currently use gasoline can run on ethanol, a fuel made from plant sugars. Most cars that are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with 15% ethanol mixed in, and with a small amout of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. All petrol fueled cars can run on LPG. There has been some concern that the ethanol-gasoline mixtures prematurely wear down seals and gaskets. Further, the use of higher levels of alcohol require that the automobile carry/use twice as much. Therefore, if your vehicle is capable of 300 miles on a 15-gallon tank, the efficiency is reduced to approximately 150 miles. Of course, certain measures are available to increase this efficiency, such as different camshaft configurations, altering the timing/spark output of the ignition, or simply, using a larger fuel tank. In the United States, alcohol fuel was produced in corn-alcohol stills until Prohibition criminalized the production of alcohol in 1919. Brazil is the only country which produces ethanol-running cars, since the late 1970s. Attempts at building viable battery-powered electric vehicles continued throughout the 1990s (notably General Motors with the EV1), but cost, speed and inadequate driving range made them uneconomical. Battery powered cars have used lead-acid batteries which are greatly damaged in their recharge capacity if discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis and NiMH batteries. Current research and development is centered on "hybrid" vehicles that use both electric power and internal combustion. The first hybrid vehicle available for sale in the USA was the Honda Insight. As of 2005, The car is still in production and achieves around 60 mpg. Other R&D efforts in alternative forms of power focus on developing fuel cells, alternative forms of combustion such as GDI and HCCI, and even the stored energy of compressed air (see Air Engine).

Safety

Automobiles were a significant improvement in safety on a per passenger mile basis, over the horse based travel that they replaced. Millions have been able to reach medical care much more quickly when transported by ambulance. Accidents seem as old as automobile vehicles themselves. Joseph Cugnot crashed his steam-powered "Fardier" against a wall in 1770. The first recorded automobile fatality was Bridget Driscoll on August 17, 1896 in London and the first in the United States was Henry Bliss on September 13, 1899 in New York City. Worldwide, every year more than a million people are killed and about 50 million people are wounded in collisions (according to WHO estimates). Cars also cause innumerable injuries and deaths among millions of animals (see roadkill). Major factors in accidents include the use of alcohol or other drugs, inattentiveness, the use of handheld mobile phones, tiredness, road hazards such as snow, potholes, and animals, and recklessness. Special safety features have been built into cars for years, some for the safety of car's occupants only, some for the safety of others. Cars have two basic safety problems: They have human drivers who make mistakes, and the wheels lose traction near a half gravity of deceleration. Automated control has been seriously proposed and successfully prototyped. Shoulder-belted passengers could tolerate a 32G emergency stop (reducing the safe intervehicle gap 64-fold) if high-speed roads incorporated a steel rail for emergency braking. Both safety modifications of the roadway are thought to be too expensive by most funding authorities, although these modifications could dramatically increase the number of vehicles that could safely use a high-speed highway. Early safety research focused on increasing the reliability of brakes and reducing the flammability of fuel systems. For example, modern engine compartments are open at the bottom so that fuel vapors, which are heavier than air, vent to the open air. Brakes are hydraulic so that failures are slow leaks, rather than abrupt cable breaks. Systematic research on crash safety started in 1958 at Ford Motor Company. Since then, most research has focused on absorbing external crash energy with crushable panels and reducing the motion of human bodies in the passenger compartment. There are standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the EuroNCAP and the [http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/testing/ncap/ US NCAP] tests. There are also tests run by organizations such as [http://www.hwysafety.org/ IIHS] and backed by the insurance industry. Despite technological advances, there is still significant loss of life from car accidents: About 40,000 people die every year in the US, with similar trends in Europe. This figure increases annually in step with rising population and increasing travel, but the rate per capita and per mile travelled decreases steadily. The death toll is expected to nearly double worldwide by 2020. A much higher number of accidents result in injury or permanent disability.

Future of the car

There will always be a strong demand for the door-to-door, on-demand service but there are likely to be radical changes in the cars of the future.

Major possible subsystems

- engine
- carburetor or fuel injection
- fuel pump
- engine configuration: Wankel or reciprocating (V, inline, flat).
- engine management systems
- exhaust system
- ignition system
- self starter
- emissions control devices
- turbochargers and superchargers
- front engine
- rear engine
- mid engine
- Ancillary power - mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, vacuum, air
- drivetrain
- transmission (gearbox)
- manual transmission
- semi-automatic transmission
- fully-automatic transmission
- Layout
- FF layout
- FR layout
- MR layout
- RR layout
- Drive Wheels
- 2 wheel drive
- 4 wheel drive
- Front wheel drive
- Rear wheel drive
- All wheel drive
- differential
- limited slip differential
- axle
- Live axle
- brakes
- disc brakes
- drum brakes
- anti-lock braking systems (ABS)
- wheels and tires
- custom wheels
- steering
- rack and pinion
- Ackermann steering geometry
- Caster angle
- Camber angle
- Kingpin
- suspension
- MacPherson strut
- wishbone
- double wishbone
- multi-link
- torsion beam
- semi-trailing arm
- axle
- body
- crumple zones
- monocoque (or unibody) construction
- suicide doors
- spoiler
- interior equipment
- passive safety
- seat belts
- airbags
- child safety locks
- dashboard
- shifter for selecting gear ratios
- ancillary equipment such as stereos, air conditioning, cruise control, car phones, positioning systems, cup holders, etc.
- exterior equipment
- windows
- Power window
- windshield
- Daytime running lamps

External links

- [http://www.dmv.org/ Department of Motor Vehicles]
- [http://www.automotivehistory.net/ A brief history of the automotive form]
- [http://www.autoweek.com/ Autoweek.com]
- [http://www.detnews.com/autosinsider/index.htm Auto Insider]
- [http://www.edmunds.com/ Edmunds.com]
- [http://www.kbb.com/ Kelley Blue Book]
- [http://www.hwysafety.org/ Insurance Institute for Highway Safety]
- [http://nhtsa.gov/ NHTSA.gov]
- [http://www.naftc.wvu.edu/ Alternative Fuel Vehicle Training]
- [http://supercarnews.com/ Car Images and Info]
- [http://www.netcarshow.com/ NetCarShow.com] - Archive of car pictures
- ko:자동차 ms:Kereta ja:自動車 simple:Car th:รถยนต์

United States

:For alternative meanings, see the disambiguation page for US, USA, United States, or American. The United States of America is a federal democratic republic situated primarily in central North America. It comprises 50 states and one federal district, and has several territories. It is also referred to, with varying formality, as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the States, or simply and most commonly, America. The official founding date of the United States is July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British colonies—adopted the Declaration of Independence. However, the structure of the government was profoundly changed in 1788, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the United States Constitution. The date on which each of the fifty states adopted the Constitution is typically regarded as the date that state "entered the Union" (became part of the United States). Since the mid-20th century, following World War II, the United States has emerged as a dominant global influence in economic, political, military, scientific, technological, and cultural affairs.

Geography and climate

The United States shares land borders with Canada (to the north) and Mexico (to the south), and territorial water boundaries with Canada, Russia, the Bahamas, and numerous smaller nations. It is otherwise bounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea, in the west; the Arctic Ocean, in the northernmost areas; and the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, in the eastern and southeastern areas. Forty-eight of the states are in the single region between Canada and Mexico; this group is referred to, with varying precision and formality, as the continental or contiguous United States, sometimes abbreviated CONUS, and as the Lower 48. Alaska, which is not included in the term contiguous United States, is at the northwestern end of North America, separated from the Lower 48 by Canada. The archipelago of Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean. The capital city, Washington, District of Columbia is a federal district located on land donated by the state of Maryland. (Virginia also donated land, but it was returned in 1847.) The United States also has overseas territories with varying levels of independence and organization. When inland water is included in the total area, only Russia and Canada are larger than the United States; if inland water is excluded, China ranks third and the U.S. ranks fourth. The United States' total area is 3,718,711 square miles (9,631,418 km²), of which land makes up 3,537,438 square miles (9,161,923 km²) and water makes up 181,273 square miles (469,495 km²). The United States' landscape is one of the most varied among those of the world's nations: among its many features are temperate forestland and rolling hills, on the east coast; mangrove, in Florida; the Great Plains, in the center of the country; the Mississippi–Missouri river system; the Great Lakes, four of the five of which are shared with Canada; the Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains; deserts and temperate coastal zones, west of the Rocky Mountains; and temperate rain forests, in the Pacific northwest. Alaska's tundra, and the volcanic, tropical islands of Hawaii add to the geographic diversity. Hawaii The climate varies along with the landscape, from tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida to tundra in Alaska and atop some of the highest mountains. Most of the North and East experience a temperate continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Most of the South experiences a subtropical humid climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. Rainfall decreases markedly from the humid forests of the Eastern Great Plains to the semi-arid shortgrass prairies on the high plains abutting the Rocky Mountains. Arid deserts, including the Mojave, extend through the lowlands and valleys of the southwest, from westernmost Texas to California and northward throughout much of Nevada. Some parts of California have a Mediterranean climate. Rainforests line the windward mountains of the Pacific Northwest from Oregon to Alaska.

History

American history started with the migration of people from Asia across the Bering land bridge approximately 12,000 years ago following large animals that they hunted into the Americas. These Native Americans left evidence of their presence in petroglyphs, burial mounds, and other artifacts. It is estimated that 2-9 million people lived in the territory now occupied by the U.S. before European contact, and the subsequent introduction of foreign diseases such as small pox that greatly diminished the native populations. Some advanced societies were the Anasazi of the southwest, who inhabited Chaco Canyon, and the Woodland Indians, who built Cahokia, located near present-day St Louis, a city with a population of 40,000 at its peak in AD 1200. Vikings first visited North America around 1000, but did not settle permanently. Following the discovery voyages of Christopher Columbus around 1492, other Europeans began to explore and settle there. During the 1500s and 1600s, the Spanish settled parts of the present-day Southwest and Florida, founding St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 and Santa Fe (in what is now New Mexico) in 1607. The first successful English settlement was at Jamestown, Virginia, also in 1607. Within the next two decades, several Dutch settlements, including New Amsterdam (the predecessor to New York City), were established in what are now the states of New York and New Jersey. In 1637, Sweden established a colony at Fort Christina (in what is now Delaware), but lost the settlement to the Dutch in 1655. This was followed by extensive British settlement of the east coast. The British colonists remained relatively undisturbed by their home country until after the French and Indian War, when France ceded Canada and the Great Lakes region to Britain. Britain then imposed taxes on the 13 colonies, widely regarded by the colonists as unfair because they were denied representation in the British Parliament. Tensions between Britain and the colonists increased, and the thirteen colonies eventually rebelled against British rule. British Parliament, George Washington (1789-1797).]] In 1776, the 13 colonies split from Great Britain and formed the United States, the world's first constitutional and democratic federal republic, after their Declaration of Independence of that year, and the Revolutionary War (1775 to 1783). The original political structure was a confederation in 1777, ratified in 1781 as the Articles of Confederation. After long debate, this was supplanted by the Constitution in 1789, forming a more centralized federal government. Prior to all these was the Albany Congress in 1754, in which a union was first seriously proposed. From early colonial times, there was a shortage of labor, which encouraged unfree labor, particularly indentured servitude and slavery. In the mid-19th century, a major division occurred in the United States over the issue of states' rights and the expansion of slavery. The northern states had become opposed to slavery, while the southern states saw it as necessary for the continued success of southern agriculture and wanted it expanded to the territories. Several federal laws were passed in an attempt to settle the dispute, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. The dispute reached a crisis in 1861, when seven southern states seceded¹ from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, leading to the Civil War. Soon after the war began, four more southern states seceded. During the war, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, mandating the freedom of all slaves in states in rebellion, though full emancipation did not take place until after the end of the war in 1865, the dissolution of the Confederacy, and the Thirteenth Amendment took effect. The Civil War effectively ended the question of a state's right to secede, and is widely accepted as a major turning point after which the federal government became more powerful than state governments. Thirteenth Amendment). The title of the painting, from a 1726 poem by Bishop Berkeley, was a phrase often quoted in the era of Manifest Destiny, expressing a widely held belief that civilization had steadily moved westward throughout history. [http://americanart.si.edu/t2go/1lw/1931.6.1.html (more)] ]] During the 19th century, many new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the continent. Manifest Destiny was a philosophy that encouraged westward expansion in the United States. As the population of the Eastern states grew and as a steady increase of immigrants entered the country, settlers moved steadily westward across North America. In the process, the U.S. displaced most American Indian nations. This displacement of American Indians continues to be a matter of contention in the U.S. with many tribes attempting to assert their original claims to various lands. In some areas American Indian populations were reduced by foreign diseases contracted through contact with European settlers, and US settlers acquired those emptied lands. In other instances American Indians were removed from their traditional lands by force. Though some would say the U.S. was not a colonial power until the Spanish-American War when it acquired Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, the dominion exercised over land in North America the United States claimed is essentially colonial. The Philippines became independent in 1946. During this period, the nation also became an industrial power. This continued into the 20th century, which has been termed "the American Century" because of the nation's overriding influence on the world. The US became a center for innovation and technological development; major technologies that America either developed or was greatly involved in improving include the telephone, television, computer, the Internet, nuclear weapons, nuclear power, aviation, and aeronautics. In addition to the Civil War, another major traumatic experience for the nation was the Great Depression (1929 to 1939). The nation has also taken part in several major foreign wars, including World War I and World War II (in both of which the US later joined the Allies). During the Cold War, the US was a major player in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and, along with the Soviet Union, was considered one of the world's two "superpowers". With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. Beginning in the 1990s, the United States became very involved in police actions and peacekeeping, including actions in Kosovo, Haiti, Somalia and Liberia, and the first Persian Gulf War driving Iraq out of Kuwait. After attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, the United States and other allied nations found themselves involved in what has come to be called the "War on Terrorism," which has primarily encompassed military actions in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Government

Iraq of the United States.]]

Republic and suffrage

The United States is an example of a constitutional republic, with a government composed of and operating through a set of limited powers imposed by its design and enumerated in the United States Constitution. Specifically, the nation operates as a presidential democracy. There are three levels of government: federal, state, and local. Officials of each of these levels are either elected by eligible voters via secret ballot or appointed by other elected officials. Americans enjoy almost universal suffrage from the age of 18 regardless of race, sex, or wealth. There are some limits, however: felons are disenfranchised and in some states former felons are likewise. Furthermore, the national representation of territories and the federal district of Washington, DC in Congress is limited: residents of the District of Columbia are subject to federal laws and federal taxes but their only Congressional representative is a non-voting delegate.

Federal government

The federal government is the national government, comprising the Legislative Branch (led by Congress), the Executive Branch (led by the President), and the Judicial Branch (led by the Supreme Court). These three branches were designed to apply checks and balances on each other. The Constitution limits the powers of the federal government to defense, foreign affairs, the issuing and management of currency, the management of trade and relations between the states, and the protection of human rights. In addition to these explicitly stated powers, the federal government—with the assistance of the Supreme Court—has gradually extended these powers into such areas as welfare and education, on the basis of the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution.

The Congress

necessary and proper The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members, each of whom represents a congressional district and serves for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population; in contrast, each state has two Senators, regardless of population. There are a total of 100 senators, who serve six-year terms. The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the necessary-and-proper clause, which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers."

The President

necessary-and-proper clause At the top level of the executive branch is the President of the United States. The President and Vice-President are elected as 'running mates' for four-year terms by the Electoral College, for which each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D. C.) in both houses of Congress (see U.S. Electoral College). The relationship between the President and the Congress reflects that between the English monarchy and parliament at the time of the framing of the United States Constitution. Congress can legislate to constrain the President's executive power, even with respect to his or her command of the armed forces; however, this power is used only very rarely—a notable example was the constraint placed on President Richard Nixon's strategy of bombing Cambodia during the Vietnam War. The President cannot directly propose legislation, and must rely on supporters in Congress to promote his or her legislative agenda. The President's signature is required to turn congressional bills into law; in this respect, the President has the power—only occasionally used—to veto congressional legislation. Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both houses. The ultimate power of Congress over the President is that of impeachment or removal of the elected President through a House vote, a Senate trial, and a Senate vote. The threat of using this power has had major political ramifications in the cases of Presidents Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon, and Bill Clinton. The President makes around 2,000 executive appointments, including members of the Cabinet and ambassadors, which must be approved by the Senate; the President can also issue executive orders and pardons, and has other Constitutional duties, among them the requirement to give a State of the Union address to Congress once a year. Although the President's constitutional role may appear to be constrained, in practice, the office carries enormous prestige that typically eclipses the power of Congress: the Presidency has justifiably been referred to as 'the most powerful office in the world'. The Vice President is first in the line of succession, and is the President of the Senate ex officio, with the ability to cast a tie-breaking vote. The members of the President's Cabinet are responsible for administering the various departments of state, including the Department of Defense, the Justice Department, and the State Department. These departments and department heads have considerable regulatory and political power, and it is they who are responsible for executing federal laws and regulations. George W. Bush is the 43rd President, currently serving his second term.

The Courts

George W. Bush The highest court is the Supreme Court, which consists of nine justices. The court deals with federal and constitutional matters, and can declare legislation made at any level of the government as unconstitutional, nullifying the law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. Below the Supreme Court are the courts of appeals, and below them in turn are the

Drag racing

History

Racing organization

Drag racing performance facts

Drag racing strategies and methods

The burnout

Staging

The nitrous purge

The race

An amateur "Day at the races"

Getting ready

What to bring

When you first arrive

The pit area

The timeslip

Dialing in

Time to race

After the race

A few famous names of drag racing

External links

Auto racing

History

The Start

City to city racing

1910-1950

Categories

Single-seater racing

Rallying

Ice Racing

Touring car racing

Stock car racing

Drag racing

Sports car racing

Offroad racing

Hillclimbing

Kart racing

Legend car racing

Other categories

Use of flags

Accidents

See also

External links

Automobile

History

Innovation

Model changeover and design change

Regulation

Environmental improvements

Alternative fuels and batteries

Safety

Future of the car

See also

Major possible subsystems

External links

United States

Geography and climate

History

Government

Republic and suffrage

Federal government

The Congress

The President

The Courts