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Frying

Frying

Frying is the cooking of food in fat. Fats can reach higher temperatures than water at atmospheric pressure. Through frying, one can sear (or even carbonizing) the surface of foods while caramelizing sugars. Frying techniques vary in the amount of fat required, the cooking time, the type of cooking vessels required, and the techniques employed in the manipulation of the food. Sautéing, stir frying, pan frying, shallow frying, and deep frying are all standard frying techniques. Sautéing and stir-frying involve cooking foods in a thin layer of fat on a hot surface, such as a frying pan, griddle, wok, or sauteuse. Since stir fry involves quickly frying at very high temperatures, one stirs foods frequently to prevent them from adhering to the cooking surface and overcooking. Shallow frying is a type of pan frying that requires enough fat to immerse approximately one-third to two-thirds of each piece of food; deep-frying involves either the total or near-total immersion of food in hot, bubbling oil.

Cooking

Cooking is the act of preparing food for consumption. It encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavour and/or digestibility of food. It generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools and the skill of the person cooking. The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural and religious considerations that impact upon it. Cooking frequently, though not always, involves applying heat in order to chemically transform a food, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. There is archaeological evidence of cooked foodstuffs (both animal and vegetable) in human settlements dating from the earliest known use of fire.

Effects of cooking

If heating is used, this can disinfect (depending on temperature, cooking time, and technique used) and soften the food. 4 to 60°C (41 to 140°F) is the "food danger zone." Between these temperatures bacteria can grow rapidly. Under the correct conditions bacteria can double in quantity every twenty minutes. The food may not appear any different or spoiled but can be harmful to anyone who ingests it. Meat, poultry, dairy products, and other prepared food must be kept outside of the "food danger zone" to remain safe to eat. Refrigeration and freezing do not kill bacteria, but only slow their growth.

Cooking techniques

Some major hot cooking techniques:
- Baking
- Baking Blind
- Broiling
- FlashBake
- Boiling
- Blanching
- Braising
- Coddling
- Double steaming
- Infusion
- Poaching
- Pressure cooking
- Simmering
- Steaming
- Vacuum flask cooking
- Steeping
- Stewing
- Frying
- Deep frying
- Hot salt frying
- Hot sand frying
- Pan frying
- Pressure frying
- Sautéing
- Stir frying
- Microwaving
- Roasting
- Barbecuing
- Grilling
- Rotisserie
- Searing
- Smoking

Other (cool) preparation techniques

- Brining
- Drying
- Grinding (e.g. sesame seeds to produce tahini), chopping, slicing finely, grating, etc..
- Marinating
- Mincing
- Pickling
- Salting
- Seasoning
- Sprouting

External links

- [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Cooking_Techniques Cooking_Techniques on CookBookWiki.com]
- [http://www.studentrecipes.com/ Quick and easy recipes for the lazy student]
- [http://www.healthy-quick-meals.com/ Quick healthy recipes]
- [http://www.healthdiaries.com/eatthis/ Healthy Recipes]
- [http://www.spanishliquidgold.com/search.php?q=cooking+classes Cooking classes]
- [http://www.momslilgreentin.com Family Recipes]
- [http://www.gti.net/mocolib1/kid/food1.html Culinary history timeline]
- [http://www.elook.org/recipes/ Recipes]
- [http://www.foodgeeks.com/recipes/ Foodgeeks.com Recipes]
- [http://www.visualrecipes.com Visual Recipes]
- [http://cooking.investitor.net/index.htm Cooking books]
- [http://www.mediterrasian.com/delicious_recipes.htm Mediterranean and Asian recipes]
- [http://www.pygmies.info/food.html African Pygmies cooking] Food preparation in the rain forest
- [http://www.ratemycookingkungfu.com/ Photos of home cooking]
- [http://www.realcajunrecipes.com/ RealCajunRecipes.com - includes Photo Album of Cajun Cooking]
- [http://www.turkishcookbook.com Binnur's Turkish Cookbook] Delicious, healthy and easy-to-make Turkish recipes.
- [http://www.goosto.com Goosto.com] Recipes Search Engine.
- [http://www.yummycrockpotrecipes.com YummyCrockPotRecipes.com Recipes]
- [http://www.foodtv.com FoodTV.com: Extensive Online Recipe Collection from the Food Network]
- [http://www.mexican-barbecue-recipes.com/wikipedia.html Mexican & Barbecue Recipes] Tex-Mex, grilling, and smoked fish.
- [http://www.findmearecipe.com Find Me a Recipe] Searchable database of over 100,000 recipes.
- [http://gourmetfood.about.com Gourmet Cooking, Recipes, & Techniques]
- [http://www.culinarychef.com CulinaryChef.com] An award-winning culinary source for the family, professional cooks, culinary chefs, and for those who enjoy fine eating since 1999. Category:Cooking Category:Food and drink Category:Hobbies Category:Survival skills ja:調理 simple:Cooking

Food

Food is any substance that can be consumed, including liquid drinks. Food is the main source of energy and of nutrition for animals, and is usually of animal or plant origin. The study of food is called food science. In English, the term food is often used metaphorically or figuratively, as in food for thought. Food can also be a system of communication, a collection of images, a protocol of usages, situations, and behavior. Food is what brings the memory of our past into our contemporary life.

Legal definition

Western food law defines four categories of object as food:
- any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans whether of nutritional value or not;
- water and other drinks;
- chewing gum;
- articles and substances used as an ingredient or component in the preparation of food. Links to official legal definitions of food:
- [http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/fdcact/fdcact1.htm US federal definition of food]
- [http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1990/Ukpga_19900016_en_2.htm#mdiv1 UK definition of food]
- [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=32002R0178&model=guichett EU definition of food]

Human eating habits

Historical development

Humans are commonly believed to be omnivorous animals that can consume both plant and animal products. Evidence suggests that early Homo Sapiens employed Hunter-gatherer as their primary means of food collection. This involves combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, roots, and mushrooms) with mobile animals which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. Additionally, it is believed that humans have used fire to prepare food prior to eating since their divergence from Homo erectus, possibly even earlier. At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture, which has Timeline of agriculture and food and altered the kind of food people eat. This has led to a variety of important historical consequences, such as increased [[population]], the development of [[cities, and the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared has varied widely by time, location, and culture.

Meals

A portion of food or the act of eating a portion of food is considered a meal. Often named and patterned, meals play a role in an important social occasion, such as the celebration of many key cultural and religious festivals. A meal can be used as means for feeding a single individual or shared and eaten simultaneously by two or more people. The number of meals consumed by individuals in a day, their size, composition, when and how they are prepared and eaten varies greatly around the world. This diversity can be attributed to a number of local factors, including climate, ecology, economy, cultural traditions and industrialisation. In societies where the availability of food has risen above subsistence levels and beyond staple foods, meals are also sold pre-prepared for immediate consumption in restaurants and other similar retail premises. Food eaten in smaller quantities between the culturally normative meals is regarded as snack food. :See also: Appetite, Buddhist cuisine, Eucharist, Fast food, Fasting, Gault Millau restaurant guide, Halaal, I-tal, Kashrut, Michelin restaurant guide, Muslim dietary laws, Potluck, Totemism.

Food production or acquisition

Food is traditionally obtained through farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of subsistence locally important for some populations, but minor for others. In the modern era in developed nations, food supply is increasingly dependent upon agriculture, industrial farming, aquaculture and fish farming techniques. These techniques aim to maximize the amount of food produced while minimizing the cost. The techniques include a reliance on mechanized tools, from the threshing machine and seed drill, to the tractor and combine. Developed tools have been combined with the use of pesticides to promote high crop yields and to combat insects or mammals which reduce yield. More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more Sustainable agricultural practices. This approach - which is partly fuelled by consumer demand - encourages biodiversity, local self-reliance and Organic farming methods. Major influences on food production are international policy, e.g. the World Trade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy, national government policy or law and war. Food for livestock is fodder and traditionally comprises hay or grain. :See also: mariculture, horticulture, agribusiness, gardening. gardening

From plants

- Seeds
- Cereals from grasses, including barley, maize, oats, rice, rye, and wheat
- Cereals from non-grasses, including buckwheat, amaranth, and quinoa
- Legumes, including beans, peas, and lentils
- Nuts, including coconuts, almonds, and pine nuts
- Oilseeds, including sesame, sunflower, and hemp
- Vegetables (see also list of vegetables)
- Root vegetables, including potatoes, cassava, and turnips
- Leaf vegetables, including amaranth, spinach, and kale
- Sea vegetables, including dulse, kombu, and dabberlocks
- Stem vegetables, including bamboo shoots, nopales, and asparagus
- inflorescence vegetables, including globe artichokes, broccoli, and daylilies
- Fruit vegetables, including pumpkin, okra, and eggplant
- Fruits (see also list of fruits)
- Herbs and spices (see also list of herbs and spices) list of herbs and spices

From animals

- Dairy products, including milk
- Eggs, including roe and caviar
- Insects, including honey
- Meat, including beef, frogs' legs, goat, horse, kangaroo, lamb, mutton, pork, veal, rodents, human (i.e. cannibalism)
- Offal, including blood
- Poultry, including chicken, turkey, duck, goose, pigeon or dove, ostrich, emu, guinea fowl, pheasant, quail
- Seafood, including finfish such as salmon and tilapia, and shellfish such as mollusks and crustaceans
- Snails
- Game, this includes all animals hunted for food.

From neither animals or plants

- Salt
- Mushrooms, which are a type of fungi
- Seaweed, which is a protist
- Water, including mineral water and spring (water)

Food preparation

spring (water) While some food can be eaten without preparation, many foods undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, or flavor. At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. Most food preparation takes place in a kitchen. The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve slaughter, evisceration, hanging, portioning and rendering. :See also: Barbecue, Eating utensils, Frankfurt kitchen, Hangi, Oven, Microwave oven, Refrigeration, Food preparation utensils.

Food manufacture

Early food processing techniques were limited by the available food preservation, packaging and transportation. Early food processing mainly involved salting, curing, curdling, drying, pickling and smoking. An early processed food product was cheese. During the industrialisation era in the 19th century, food manufacturing arose. This development took advantage of new mass markets and emerging new technology, such as milling, preservation, packaging and labelling and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ domestic servants. At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well known food brands; with a populous number of small local or national food processing companies. :See also: Best before, Canning, Coloring, Food quality, Snap freezing, Additives, Flavoring, Enzymes, Genetically modified food, Pasteurization, Shelf-life, Ultra-high temperature processing.

Types of manufactured food

- Drinks: beer, juice, soft drink, squash, wine.
- Bread is a staple food for many nations, being made of risen dough of wheat or other cereals.
- Cakes and cookies
- Cheese is a curdled milk product, of which many varieties exist.
- Dessert is a course, usually sweet, and generally served after the main course, e.g. Ice cream.
- French fries, Chips
- Functional food
- Jam and Jelly
- Pasta
- Pie
- Pizza
- Processed meats
- Sandwiches
- Salad
- Sauce
- Sausage

Food trade

Food is now traded on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing season. Between 1961 and 1999 there has been a 400% increase in worldwide food exports. Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports. In 1994 trade liberalisation began when over 100 countries became signatories to the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade which included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers. This is underpinned by the WTO enforcement of agricultural subsidy, tariffs, import quotas and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved. Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization.

Food retailing

World Health Organization The sale of surplus food traditionally took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local village market place. Here food was sold to grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local people. With the onset of industrialisation, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them. In the 20th century supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a self-service approach to shopping using shopping carts (or Trollies in Commonwealth English) and were able to offer quality food at lower cost, through economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. This was sometimes known as 'pile it high' In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionised by the development of vast warehouse sized out-of-town supermarkets, selling an extraordinarily wide range of food from around the world. Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, in 2000 only 19% of all US consumer expenditure spent on food went to farmers. Recent technological innovations such as point of sale technology - barcodes. This allows ordering of goods and food to be driven by actual sales.

Food sufficiency

Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately starvation. This is often connected with famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. In 2003 it was estimated that each year, 40 million people die of hunger worldwide. Rationing is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war. Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using famine scales.

Food aid

Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. Conversely, badly managed food aid can cause problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices and discouraging food production. Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the politics of the destination country. International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are co-ordinated by the World Food Programme. :See also: Fair trade, food security.

Food safety

Foodborne illness, commonly called "food poisoning," is caused by bacteria, toxins, viruses and prions. Food poisoning has been recognised as a disease of man since as early as Hippocrates. Murder by food poisoning was used during the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages all Royal Courts had food tasters. The sale of rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat and other microbiological studies by scientists such as Louis Pasteur contributed to the modern sanitation standards that we enjoy today. This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig whose work led to the development of modern food storage and food preservation methods. The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. For example, pests (or their feces), hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, metal shards, plasters etc. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze. Understanding of the causes of food-borne-illnesses and more systematic techniques for their elimination has led to the development of commercial systems such as HACCP which can, if properly implemented, identify and eliminate many, but not all, possible risks. HACCP is well suited to identifying and controlling these potential food safety risks.

Food allergies

Some people have food allergies or sensitivities to foods which are otherwise wholesome to the majority of people. The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a susceptible individual can be minute. For instance, tiny amounts of food in the air, too minute to be smelled, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in sufficiently sensitive individuals. In theory, any food may provoke a reaction, however, this most commonly involves gluten, corn, shellfish (mollusks), peanuts, and soy. Most patients present with diarrhea after ingesting certain foodstuffs, skin symptoms (rashes), bloating, vomiting and regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the allergen. Rarely, food allergy can lead to anaphylactic shock: hypotension (low blood pressure) and loss of consciousness. This is a medical emergency. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is peanut, although latex products can induce similar reactions. Initial treatment is with epinephrine (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an Epi-pen. Food allergy is thought to develop easier in patients with the atopic syndrome, a very common combination of diseases: allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis, eczema and asthma. The syndrome has a strong inherited component; a family history of these diseases can be indicative of the atopic syndrome.

Dietary habits

Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. For example:
- Eating disorders are a group of mental disorders that interfere with normal food consumption. They often affect people with a negative body image;
- 13% of the world's population suffer from Iodine deficiency;
- In 2003 it was estimated that vitamin A deficiency causes blindness in up to 500,000 children each year;
- Vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy;
- Calcium, Vitamin D and Phosphorus are inter-related. The consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others.
- Kwashiorkor and marasmus are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein.
- Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing heart disease, diabetes, and many other diseases. Concerns about foodborne illness have long influenced diet. Traditionally humans have learned to avoid foods that induce acute illness. Some believe that this is the underlying rationale behind some traditional religious dietary requirements. Additionally, many people choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees; see vegetarianism, veganism, fruitarianism, living foods diet, and raw foodism. The nutrient content of diets in industrialised countries contain more animal fat, sugar, energy, alcohol and less dietary fiber, carbohydrates and antioxidants. Contemporary changes to work, family and exercise patterns, together with concerns about the effect of nutrition and overeating on human health and mortality are all having an effect on traditional eating habits. Physicians and alternative medicine practitioners may recommend changes to diet as part of their recommendations for treatment. More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about the chronic impact on health that arise through the consumption of genetically modified food. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming on animal welfare, human health and the environment are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a counterculture with a preference for organic and local food. :See also: Food faddism, Health claims on food labels, list of diets, Slow Food.

Nutrients in food

- Calcium
- Carbohydrate
- Essential amino acids
- Fat
- Iron
- Minerals
- Phytochemicals, including anti-oxidants, enzymes, bio-flavinoids
- Potassium
- Protein
- Sodium
- Starch
- Vitamins
- Water Category:Nutrition Category:Biology

Water

:This article focuses on water as it is experienced in everyday life. See water (molecule) for information on the chemical and physical properties of pure water (H₂O, hydrogen oxide). Water (from the Old English word wæter; c.f German "Wasser", from PIE
- wod-or, "water") is a tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless (it has a slight hint of blue) substance in its pure form that is essential to all known forms of life and is known also as the most universal solvent. Water is an abundant substance on Earth. It exists in many places and forms. It appears mostly in the oceans and polar ice caps, but also as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, and sea ice. On the planet, water is continuously moving through the cycle involving evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea. Water fit for human consumption is called potable water. This natural resource is becoming more scarce in certain places as human population in those places increases, and its availability is a major social and economic concern.

Molecular properties

Forms of water

potable water] Water takes many different shapes on earth: water vapor and clouds in the sky, waves and icebergs in the sea, glaciers in the mountain, aquifers in the ground, to name but a few. Through evaporation, precipitation, and runoff, water is continuously flowing from one form to another, in what is called the water cycle. Because of the importance of precipitation to agriculture, and to mankind in general, different names are given to its various forms: while rain is common in most countries, other phenomena are quite surprising when seen for the first time. Hail, snow, fog or dew are examples. When appropriately lit, water drops in the air can refract sunlight to produce rainbows. Similarly, water runoffs have played major roles in human history as rivers and irrigation brought the water needed for agriculture. Rivers and seas offered opportunity for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoffs played a major part in shaping the environment providing river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of population centers. Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells. Because water can contain many different substances, it can taste or smell very differently. In fact, humans and other animals have developed their senses to be able to evaluate the drinkability of water: animals generally dislike the taste of salty sea water and the putrid swamps and favor the purer water of a mountain spring or aquifer.

Water in biology

From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. Water carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allows replication. It is a good solvent and has a high surface tension, and thus allows organic compounds and living things to be transported in it. Fresh water has its greatest density at 4°C, then becoming less dense as it freezes or heats up from this point. As a stable, polar molecule prevalent in the atmosphere, it plays an important atmospheric role as an absorber of infrared radiation, crucial in the atmospheric greenhouse effect without of which, the average surface temperature would be −18° Celsius. Water also has an unusually high specific heat, which plays many roles in regulating global and regional climate, such as the Gulf Stream climate, allowing life to survive. Water is a very good solvent, chemically not unlike ammonia, and dissolves many types of substances, such as various salts and sugar, and facilitates their chemical interaction, which aids complex metabolisms. Some substances, however, do not mix well with water, including oils and other hydrophobic substances. Cell membranes, composed of lipids and proteins, take advantage of this property to carefully control interactions between their contents and external chemicals. This is facilitated somewhat by the surface tension of water. Water drops are stable due to the high surface tension of water caused by the strong intermolecular forces called cohesive forces. This can be seen when small quantities of water are put onto a nonsoluble surface such as polythene: the water stays together as drops. On extremely clean glass the water may form a thin film because the molecular forces between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces. This property plays a key role in plant transpiration. A simple but environmentally important and unique property of water is that its common solid form, ice, floats on the liquid. This solid phase is less dense than liquid water, due to the geometry of the strong hydrogen bonds which are formed only at lower temperatures. For almost all other substances and for all other 11 uncommon phases of water ice except ice-XI, the solid form is more dense than the liquid form. Fresh water is most dense at 4°C, and will sink by convection as it cools to that temperature, and if it becomes colder it will rise instead. This reversal will cause deep water to remain warmer than shallower freezing water, so that ice in a body of water will form first at the surface and progress downward, while the majority of the water underneath will hold a constant 4°C. This effectively insulates a lake floor from the cold. While this behavior may seem obvious, even intuitive, it should be noted that almost all other chemicals are denser as solids than they are as liquids, and freeze from the bottom up. Life on earth has evolved with and adapted itself to the important features of water. The existence of abundant liquid, vapor and solid forms of water on Earth has been an important factor in the abundant colonization of Earth's various environments by life-forms adapted to those varying and often extreme conditions. Civilizations have historically flourished around rivers and major waterways; Mesopotamia, the so-called cradle of civilization, is situated between two major rivers. Large metropolises like London, Paris, New York, and Tokyo owe their success in part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade. Islands with safe water ports, like Singapore and Hong Kong, have flourished for precisely this reason. In places such as North Africa and the Middle East, where water is scarcer, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human development.

Astronomical position of Earth and impact on its water

Mesopotamia The coexistence of the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of water on Earth is vital to the origin, evolution, and continued existence of life on Earth. However, if the Earth's location in the solar system were even marginally closer or further from the Sun (ie, a million miles or so), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist. Earth's mass allows gravity to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provides a greenhouse effect which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature. If Earth were less massive, a thinner atmosphere would cause temperature extremes preventing the accumulation of water except in polar ice caps (as on Mars). According to the solar nebula model of the solar system's formation, Earth's mass may be largely due to its distance from the Sun. The distance between Earth and the Sun and the combination of solar radiation received and the greenhouse effect of the atmosphere ensures that its surface is neither too cold nor too hot for liquid water. If Earth were more distant, most water would be frozen. If Earth were nearer to the Sun, its higher surface temperature would limit the formation of ice caps, or cause water to exist only as vapor. In the former case, the low albedo of oceans would cause Earth to absorb more solar energy. In the second case, a runaway greenhouse effect and inhospitable conditions similar to Venus would result. It has been proposed that life itself may maintain the conditions that have allowed its continued existence. The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying solar flux, indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's temperature via a combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia hypothesis.

Human uses of water

Gaia hypothesis All known forms of life depend on water. Water is a vital part of many metabolic processes within the body. Significant quantities of water are used during the digestion of food. (Note however that some bacteria and plant seeds can enter a cryptobiotic state for an indefinite period when dehydrated, and come back to life when returned to a wet environment) About 72% of the fat free mass of the human body is made of water. To function properly the body requires between one and seven litres of water per day to avoid dehydration, the precise amount depending on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people. However, for those who do not have kidney problems, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) dangerous to drink too little. People do often drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of water intoxication, which is frequently fatal. The "fact" that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced back to a scientific source. However, leading dieticians and nutritionists will tell you that this is the RDI (Recommended Daily Intake) of water. [http://ajpregu.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/283/5/R993]. The latest dietary reference intake report by the National Research Council recommended 2.7 liters of water total (including food sources) for women and 3.7 liters for men[http://www.iom.edu/report.asp?id=18495]. Water is lost from the body in urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of water vapor in the breath. Humans require water that does not contain too much salt or other impurities. Common impurities include chemicals and/or harmful bacteria, such as crypto sporidium. Some solutes are acceptable and even desirable for perceived taste enhancement and to provide needed electrolytes.

Water as a precious resource

:See water resources for information about fresh water supplies. fresh water Because of the growth of world population and other factors, the availability of drinking water per capita is shrinking. The issue of water shortage can be solved through more production, better distribution and less waste of it. For this reason, water is a strategic resource for many countries. Many battles and wars, such as the Six-Day War in the Middle East, have been fought to gain access to it. Experts predict more trouble ahead because of the world's growing population, increasing contamination through pollution, and global warming. UNESCO's World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from its World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from diseases related to the consumption of contaminated water or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds due to easily preventable water-related diseases. Some have predicted that clean water will become the "next oil", making Canada, with this resource in abundance, possibly the richest country in the world.

Regulating water distribution

Drinking water is often collected at springs or extracted from artificial borings in the ground, or wells. Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more water assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources are the rainwater and river or lake water. This surface water, however, must be purified for human consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes undissolved material while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes. Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques exist, such as reverse osmosis. Desalination of abundant ocean or seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates. The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems or as bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge. Others argue that the market mechanism and free enterprise are best to manage this rare resource, and to finance the boring of wells or the construction of dams and reservoirs. Reducing waste, that is using drinking water only for human consumption, is another option. In some cities, such as Hong Kong, sea water is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve fresh water resources. Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the pollutor. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.

The impact of water on human culture

Water is considered a purifier in most religions, including Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Shinto. For instance, baptism in Christian churches is done with water. In addition, a ritual bath in pure water is performed for the dead in many religions including Judaism and Islam. In Islam, the daily Salah can only be done after ablution (Wodoo), that is, washing parts of the body in clean water. In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person or an area. Water is often believed to have spiritual powers. In Celtic mythology, Sulis is the local goddess of thermal springs; in Hinduism, the Ganga is also personified as a goddess. Alternatively, gods can be patrons of particular springs, river or lakes: for example in Greek and Roman mythology, Peneus was a river god, one of the three thousand Oceanids. The Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical elements along with fire, earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic stuff of the universe. Water was considered cold and moist. In the theory of the four bodily humours, water was associated with phlegm. Water was also one of the Five Elements in traditional Chinese philosophy, along with earth, fire, wood, and metal. A common misconception about water is that it is a powerful conductor of electricity. Any electrical properties observable in water are due to the ions of mineral salts and carbon dioxide dissolved in it. Water does self-ionize (two water molecules become one hydroxide anion and one hydronium cation), but only at a very slight, almost immeasurable level. Pure water can also be electrolized into oxygen and hydrogen gases but without any dissolved ions, this is a very slow process and thus very little current is conducted. Many bottled water companies exploit another common misconception, advertising both purity and taste, even though pure water is tasteless.

External links

- [http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/phase.html Phase diagrams of water]
- [http://www.publicforuminstitute.org/issues/oceans/index.htm Oceans and Water Issues Page]
- [http://www.greenfacts.org/water-disinfectants/index.htm Scientific Facts on Water disinfectants] A faithful summary by GreenFacts of a leading scientific consensus report on Drinking Water Disinfectants published by the International Programme on Chemical Safety of the WHO.
- [http://www.hkc22.com/residentialwater.html Residential water problems and markets] Study paper from Helmut Kaiser Consultancy
- [http://www.hkc22.com/watermarketsworldwide.html Water markets worldwide] Study paper from Helmut Kaiser Consultancy
- [http://www.worldwaterforum.org/ World Water Forum]
- [http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/ World Water Assessment Program]
- [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001295/129556e.pdf United Nations' World Water Development Report]
- [http://www.gemswater.org/ United Nations GEMS/Water Programme]
- [http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ Water Structure and Behaviour]
- [http://www.wateraid.org/ WaterAid]
- [http://www.sahra.arizona.edu/newswatch/ SAHRA—Global Water Newswatch]
- [http://www.siwi.org/ Stockholm International Water Institute] (SIWI)
- [http://www.c-win.org/ California Water Impact Network (C-WIN)]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3752590.stm BBC: The water debate]
- [http://www.geocities.com/tapvsbottled/ Tap Water Vs Bottled Water] - Interesting site providing facts about tap and bottled water.
- [http://www.emagazine.com/september-october_2003/0903feat1.html E the Environmental Magazine piece on bottled water] (Oct 2003).
- [http://www.iapws.org/ International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam]
- [http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html US Geological Survey: Comprehensive discussion of the water cycle, in many languages]
- [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm Why is water blue?]
- [http://www.water.org.uk/home/resources-and-links/water-for-health/ask-about/adults Water requirements in adults]
- [http://www.hkc22.com/environmentaltechnology.html/ Climate change raises markets for environmental technology, drinking water and clean energies]

References

- OA Jones, JN Lester and N Voulvoulis, Pharmaceuticals: a threat to drinking water? TRENDS in Biotechnology 23(4): 163, 2005
- Category:Beverages Category:Hydrology Category:Materials Category:Natural resources Category:Nutrition zh-min-nan:Chúi als:Wasser ko:물 ja:水 ms:Air simple:Water th:น้ำ

Carbonization

Carbonization is the term for the conversion of an organic substance into carbon or a carbon-containing residue. It is often used in organic chemistry with reference to the generation of coal gas and coal tar from raw coal. Fossil fuels in general are the products of the carbonization of vegetable matter. When biomaterial is exposed to sudden searing heat (as in the case of an atomic bomb explosion or pyroclastic flow from a volcano, for instance), it can be carbonized extremely quickly, turning it into solid carbon. In the destruction of Herculaneum many organic objects such as furniture were carbonized by the intense volcanic heat. In one study a new catalyst was developed for the generation of biodiesel from ethanol and fatty acids such as oleic acid or stearic acid by carbonization of simple sugars such as glucose and sucrose. The sugars were processed for 15 hours at 400 °C under a nitrogen flow to a black carbon residue consisting of a complex mixture of polycyclic aromatic carbon sheets. This material was then treated with sulfuric acid which functionalized the sheets with sulfonite, carboxyl and hydroxyl catalytic sites.

External links

- [http://vulcan.fis.uniroma3.it/vesuvio/excursiontext.html carbonization processes at Herculaneum site]

References

- Green chemistry: Biodiesel made with sugar catalyst Masakazu Toda, Atsushi Takagaki, Mai Okamura, Junko N. Kondo, Shigenobu Hayashi, Kazunari Domen and Michikazu Hara Nature 438, 178 (10 November 2005) doi:10.1038/438178a [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7065/abs/438178a.html;jsessionid=5EF9576FD23F6923C31E50D18DEA7AFF Abstract] category:chemical processes

Caramelization

Caramelization is the oxidation of sugar, a process used extensively in cooking for the resulting nutty flavor and brown color. Caramelization is a type of non-enzymatic browning reaction because it does not need enzymes. As the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released producing the characteristic caramel flavor. If a sucrose solution is left in a sand bath over night, the sucrose (once the water has evaporated) will caramelize. When Caramelization involves sucrose, it adds 1 water molecule to sucrose to split it apart to form fructose and glucose, increasing the mass of the sugar (caramel).

Process

Caramelization is a complex, poorly understood process that produces hundreds of chemicals. Here is an overview: # equilibration of anomeric and ring forms # sucrose inversion to fructose and glucose # condensation # intramolecular bonding # isomerization of aldoses to ketoses # dehydration reactions # fragmentation reactions # unsaturated polymer formation Caramelization should not be confused with the Maillard reaction, in which a reducing sugar reacts with amino acids.

Caramelization temperatures

External links

- [http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/nfm236/sugar/index.cfm Sugar in food management] Category:Food science ja:%E3%82%AD%E3%83%A3%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AB%E5%8C%96

Sautéing

Sautéing is a method of cooking food using a small amount of fat in a shallow pan over relatively high heat. Sauter means "to jump," in French, and the food being sautéed is kept moving, not unlike the stir fry technique using a wok. Food that is sautéed is usually cooked for a relative short period of time over high heat in order to preserve its color, moisture and flavor. This is very common with more tender cuts of meat, e.g. tenderloin and filet mignon. Sautéeing differs from searing in that the sautéed food is thoroughly cooked in the process. One may sear simply to seal the outside of a food before another process is used to finish cooking it. Olive oil or clarified butter are commonly used for sautéeing, but most fats will do. Regular butter is less well suited for sautéeing because it will burn at a lower temperature due to the presence of milk solids. It is important to ensure that the pan is very hot and that the food is not crowded into the pan. This ensures that the food browns well without absorbing the fat or stewing in its own juices. Furthermore, the food must be completely dry in order to keep the pan from cooling and to keep the moisture from building up in the pan; moisture will steam or stew the food. This is particularly important in the case of food that has been marinated. To sauté, use a hot pan, large enough to hold all of the food in one layer. Do not use too much fat, which will cause the food to fry rather than to sauté. Do not toss or stir the items in the pan by shaking the pan around, which causes the pan to cool faster. Let one side of the sautéed item become golden brown before tossing, turning, or flipping the item over, in order to allow the food to yield more flavor.

Pan frying

Pan frying is a form of frying characterized by the use of less cooking oil than deep frying; enough oil to, at most, cover the food to be cooked only half way. As a form of frying, pan frying relies on oil as the heat transfer medium and on correct temperature to retain the moisture in the food. The exposed topside allows, unlike deep frying, some moisture loss (which may or may not be desirable) and contact with the pan bottom creates greater browning on the contact surface (which may or may not be desirable.) Because of the partial coverage, the food must be flipped at least once to cook both sides. The advantages of using less oil are practical: less oil is needed on hand and time spent heating the oil is much shorter. The chief disadvantage of using less oil is that it is more difficult to keep the oil at an even temperature. The moisture loss and increased browning can be beneficial or detrimental depending on the item cooked and its preparation and should be taken into account if there is a choice to be made between pan frying and deep frying. Generally, a shallower cooking vessel is used for pan frying than deep frying. Using a deep pan with a small amount of oil does reduce spatter but the increased moisture around the cooking food is generally detrimental to the preparation. A denser cooking vessel -- the pan should feel heavy for its size -- is necessarily better than a less dense pan since that mass will improve temperature regulation. An electric skillet can be used analogously to an electric deep fryer and many of these devices have a thermostat to keep the liquid (in this case, oil) at the desired temperature. A popular entree that would be described as "pan fried" would be fish or seafood. Category:Cooking techniques

Frying pan

:"Skillet" redirects here. For the band, see Skillet (band). Skillet (band) A frying pan, frypan, or skillet is a pan used for frying, searing, and browning foods. It is typically an 8 to 12 inch diameter flat pan with flared sides and no lid. In contrast, a pan of similar size with straight sides and a lid is called a sauté pan. Use of the word skillet is uncommon outside of North America.

Construction

Traditionally, frying pans were made of cast iron. Although cast iron is still popular today, especially for outdoor cooking, most frying pans are now made from metals such as aluminum and stainless steel. The materials and construction method used in modern frying pans vary greatly and some typical materials include:
- Aluminum
- Anodized aluminum
- Cast iron
- Copper
- Enameled cast iron
- Stainless steel
- Cladded stainless steel with an aluminum or copper core With the exception of cast iron frying pans, a teflon coating can be applied to the surface of the pan to make it non-stick. This is popular for frying pans sold to the home user but less so for those used by professional cooks and restaurants. Cast iron naturally becomes non-stick through use and so does not benefit from a teflon coating.

Use and care

Cast iron frying pans must be seasoned before use and periodically afterwards. Many traditionalists maintain that a cast iron frying pan should never be washed but rather wiped clean after each use. Washing destroys the anti-stick finish that forms through use and can promote rust and other problems. Frying pans made from copper will require polishing to remove tarnish. Aluminum and stainless steel frying pans generally do not require much maintenance. Frying pans with teflon coatings should not be overheated or else the teflon will melt. Category:Cookware and bakeware

Griddle

Cookware and bakeware are types of food preparation containers commonly found in the kitchen. Cookware comprises cooking vessels, such as saucepans and fry pans, intended for use on a stove or range cooktop. Bakeware comprises cooking vessels intended for use inside an oven. The terms cookware and bakeware are not exclusive, and it is possible for a single utensil to be used as both cookware and bakeware.

History

Knowledge of cooking vessels before the development of pottery is minimal due to the limited archaeological evidence. It has been possible to extrapolate likely developments based on methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the techniques believed to be used by stone age civilizations were improvements to basic roasting. In addition to exposing food to direct heat from either an open fire or hot embers it is possible to cover the food with clay or large leaves before roasting to preserve moisture in the cooked result. Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern cuisines. Of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to natural heated water sources, such as hot springs, it was possible to prepare a small pit lined with stones and filled with water. Heated stones could then be placed in the water to raise its temperature. In many locations the shells of turtles or large mollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels. Bamboo tubes sealed at the end with clay would have provided a usable container in Asia, while the inhabitants of the Tehuacan Valley began carving large stone bowls that were permanently set into a hearth as early as 7000 BC. A final cooking vessel available to early civilizations were the stomachs from animals killed by hunters. The development of earthenware pottery allowed for the creation of fireproof cooking vessels in a variety of shapes and sizes. Coating the earthenware with some type of plant gum, and latter pottery glazes, converted the porous container into a waterproof vessel. The earthenware cookware could then be suspended over a fire through use of a tripod or other apparatus, or even designed to be placed directly into a fire or coal bed. The development of bronze and iron metalworking skills allowed for cookware made from metal to be manufactured although adoption of the new cookware was slow due to the much higher cost. After the development of metal cookware there was little new development in cookware, with the standard Medieval kitchen utilizing a cauldron and a shallow earthenware pan for most cooking tasks with a spit employed for roasting. By the 17th Century, it was common for a western kitchen to contain a number of skillets, baking pans, a kettle, and several pots along with a variety of pot hooks, and trivets. In the American colonies, these items would commonly be produced by a local blacksmith from iron while brass or copper vessels were common in Europe and Asia. Improvements in metallurgy during the 19th and 20th centuries allowed for pots and pans from metals such as steel, stainless steel and aluminum to be economically produced.

Metal cookware

20th 20th 20th ;Aluminum: Aluminum is a lightweight metal with very good thermal conductance. It does not rust, and is resistant to many forms of corrosion. Aluminum can however react with some acidic foods to change the taste of the food. Sauces containing egg yolks, or vegetables such as asparagus or artichokes may cuase oxidation of non-anodized aluminum. Since 1965 circumstantial evidence has linked Alzheimer's disease to aluminum, but to date there is no proof that the element is involved in causing the disease. Aluminum is commonly available in sheet, cast, or anodized forms. :Sheet aluminum is spun or stamped into form. Due to the softness of the metal it is commonly alloyed with magnesium, copper, or branze to increase its strength. Sheet aluminum is commonly used for baking sheets, pie plate, and cake or muffin pans. Stockpots, steamers, pasta pots, and even skillets are also available from sheet aluminum. :Cast aluminum produces a thicker product than sheet aluminum that is suitable for saucepots, dutch ovens, and heavywieght baking pans such as bundt pans. Due to the microscopic pores caused by the casting process cast aluminum has a lower thermal conductivity than sheet aluminum. :Anodized aluminum has had the naturally occurring layer of aluminium oxide thickened by an electrolytic process to create a surface that hard and non-reactive. It is used for saute pans, stockpots, saute pans, roasters, and dutch ovens. ;Copper:Classically in Western cooking, the best pots were made out of a thick layer of copper for good conductivity and a thin layer of tin to prevent the copper from reacting with acidic foods. Copper pans provide the best conductivity, and therefore the most even heating. They tend, however, to be heavy, expensive, and to require occasional retinning. They are now available with stainless steel rather than tin linings which last much longer. They are best for such high-heat, fast-cooking techniques as sauteing. ;Cast Iron:Cast iron provides cookware that is slow to heat, but once at temperature provides even heating. Cast iron can also withstand very high temperatures. Being a reactive material, cast iron can have chemical reactions with high acid foods such as wine or tomatoes. In addition, spinach cooked on bare cast iron will turn black. :Cast iron is a porous material and requires seasoning before use. Seasoning creates a thin layer of fat and carbon over the iron that coats the surface and prevents sticking. Although cast iron cookware can be washed with soap, it should not be soaked or left wet. ;Stainless Steel:Stainless steel is an iron alloy containing a minimum of 11.5% chromium. Blends containing 18% chromium with either 8% nickel,called 18/8, or with 10% nickel, called 18/10, are commonly used for kitchen equipment. Stainless steels virtues are a resistance to corrosion, it does not react with either alkaline or acidic foods, and it is not easily scratched or dented. Stainless steel's drawback for cooking use is that it is a relatively poor heat conductor. ;Carbon Steel:Carbon Steel cookware can be made from thin sheets of material while still withstanding very high heat. This allows for rapid heating, but carbon steel does not distribute heat as well as other materials. Carbon steel is often used for woks and crepe pans.

Non-metallic bakeware

Non-metallic bakeware can be used in both conventional and microwave ovens. Glazed ceramics, such as porcelain, provide a nonstick cooking surface. Unglazed ceramics, such as terra cotta, have a porous surface that can hold water or other liquids during the cooking process. Borosilicate glass, such as Pyrex, are safe at oven temperatures. The clear glass also allows for the food to be seen during the cooking process. Glass-ceramics are used to make products such as Corningware, which have many of the best properties of both glass and ceramic cookware. While Pyrex can shatter if taken between extremes of temperature too rapidly, glass-ceramics can be taken directly from deep freeze to the stovetop. Their near-zero coefficient of thermal expansion makes them almost entirely immune to thermal shock. Silicone bakeware is light, flexible, and able to withstand sustained temperatures of 675°F (360°C) [http://www.kitchenkapers.com/silicone-zone-info.html]. It melts around 930°F (500°C), depending upon the fillers used. Its flexibility is advantageous in removing baked goods from the pan. This rubbery material is not to be confused with the silicone resin used to make hard, shatterproof children's dishware, which is not suitable for baking.

Coated and composite cookware

silicone resin Enameled cast iron is a cast iron cooking vessel covered with a porcelain surface. This creates a piece that has the heat distribution properties of cast iron combined with a non-reactive, non-stick surface. Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of heat conducting material, such as copper or aluminium, sandwiched between a non-reactive material, such as stainless steel. This provides much of the functionality of tinned-copper pots for a fraction of the price. Modern cooking pans are frequently coated with a substance such as Teflon in order to minimize the possibility of food sticking to the pan surface. This has advantages and disadvantages for flavor and ease of use. A small amount of sticking is needed to cause flavorful browning (called a glaze); adding liquid to lift the glaze from the pot is called deglazing. Additionally, nonstick pans cannot be used at high temperatures. On the other hand, they are easier to clean than other types of pots, and do not often result in burned food. When frying in pans without such a coating, it is usually necessary to use vegetable or animal fat to prevent sticking. Nonstick coatings tend to degrade over time, and require vigilant care and attention. In order to preserve the nonstick coating of a pan, it is important never to use metal implements in the pan while cooking or harsh scouring pads or chemical abrasives when cleaning. Also, use of nonstick cookware, such as Teflon and Silverstone, has been implicated in cancer. [http://members.shaw.ca/cancerconspiracy/updates.htm]

Types of cookware

Silverstone Small pots with taller sides are called saucepans and are measured by volume (usually 1–4 quarts). As saucepans get larger, they are called sauce-pots or soup pots (3–12 quarts). Saucepots with sloping sides are called Windsor pans, which provide quicker evaporation than straight sides. Large pots that are wide and shallow are called braisiers; ones that are taller than they are wide are called stockpots (12-36 quarts). Shallow pans with a single long handle are called saute pans, frypans, frying pans, or skillets, and are generally measured by diameter. Frypans with a gentle, rolling slope are sometimes called omelette pans. A griddle is a flat plate of metal used for cooking. It may be permanently attached to its heat source similar to a hot plate or an electric frying pan. People have used a variety of cooking pans and pots for food preparation throughout history. Other vessels for cooking include woks, double boilers, and bains-marie.

Types of bakeware

Baking pans are designed for use in the oven (for baking) and encompass a variety of different styles of bakeware such as cake pans, pie pans, and loaf pans. These are often made from light or medium gauge metal. Cake pans can include square pans, round pans, and specialty pans such as angel food cake pans and springform pans often used for baking cheesecake. Casserole dishes are commonly made of glazed ceramics or pyrex. They have high sides and usually have handles. Roasters or roasting pans are a casserole variant with higher sides designed for roasting of meats. Roasters are usually made of heavy gauge metal so that they may be used safely on a cooktop following roasting in an oven. Sheetpans or cookie sheets are bakeware with large flat surfaces.

List of cookware and bakeware

- Angel food cake pan
- Baking pan
- Chip pan
- Cookie sheet
- Cooking pot
- Double boiler
- Dutch oven
- Frying pan (also called Skillet)
- Kettle
- Pan
- Pressure cooker
- Roasting pan
- Roasting rack
- Saucepan
- Saute pan
- Souffle dish
- Springform pan
- Wok

References

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External links

- [http://www.hormel.com/templates/knowledge/knowledge.asp?catitemid=7&id=585 Bakeware] and [http://www.hormel.com/templates/knowledge/knowledge.asp?catitemid=7&id=586 cookware] from Hormel
- [http://www.cookingforengineers.com/article.php?id=120 Cooking For Engineers - Focus on Common Materials of Cookware] Category:Cookware and bakeware ja:鍋

Wok

The wok (; Cantonese: wok6) is a versatile cooking utensil used especially in East Asia and Southeast Asia. It is identical to guō (鍋; 锅; wo1) in Chinese linguistic research. In Indonesia the wok is known as a wadjang, kuali in Malaysia, and kawali (small wok) and kawa (big wok) in the Philippines. It is traditionally a round-bottomed pan that ranges from 30 cm to a meter or more in diameter. Almost every Chinese family owns one. It is most often used for stir frying, but can also be used many other ways, such as in steaming and deep frying or to make soup. One advantage of woks is that the shape produces a small, hot area at the bottom while using relatively little fuel. The curve helps spread an open flame to cook food evenly and allows for easier use of the toss cooking technique Chinese chefs are famous for using with less spillage. Woks are found composed of a variety of materials, in a variety of sizes. By far the most commonly used material these days is carbon steel, although cast iron was the old standard. Some woks are even made of aluminum, although this is a bit of an overkill. Although an excellent conductor of heat, aluminum does not retain heat as well as these other two materials, which is a vital attribute of a wok in stir frying. Cast iron is by far superior to carbon steel in its own heat retention, but the incredible weight of cast iron makes carbon steel the most popular option due to its relatively light weight, quick heat conduction, and excellent heat retention. A 14" wok is the most common size, suitable for a family of 3 or 4, but woks can commonly be found as small as 10" and as large as 36". Woks are also sold in western countries, where they are sometimes found with flat bottoms and/or nonstick coatings. This makes them more similar to a deep frying pan than a true wok. However, the flat bottoms mean that they can be used on an electric cooker. Woks with curved bottoms normally come with metal rings to stabilize them on a gas stove. When such a wok is used on an electric stove, the ring should normally be placed upside-down so that the wok is in contact with the burner. In a joke sport introduced by the German comedian Stefan Raab, woks are used to carry people down a bobsleigh track. In November 2003 the first "official" championship was held in Winterberg, Germany.

References

External links

- [http://www.thaifoodandtravel.com/features/wokcare.html Wok Seasoning and Care] from thaifoodandtravel.com Category:Chinese food preparation utensils Category:Cookware and bakeware ja:中華鍋

Pan frying

Deep frying

Deep frying is a cooking method whereby food is submerged in hot oil or fat. It is an extremely fast way to cook. Despite the use of liquid oil, it is best classified as a dry cooking method. Deep frying originated in Africa. If performed properly, deep frying does not make food greasy since the moisture in the food repels the oil. The hot oil heats the water within the food, and steams it from the inside out. As long as the oil is hot enough and the food is not immersed in the oil for too long, no oil will actually enter the food itself. If food stays in the oil too long, all of the water will steam out and the oil will begin to penetrate the food. If the oil is too cool, the food will not be done cooking before the oil seeps into it. The oil is typically between 350°F (177°C) and 375°F (190°C). Most fried foods receive a coating of batter or breading prior to frying. The effect of breading is that the outside of the food becomes crispy and browned while the inside becomes tender, moist, and steamed. Some foods, such as potatoes or whole, skin-on poultry, produce a natural skin and do not require breading. In Japanese cuisine, deep frying is considered one of the four essential cooking techniques (along with grilling, steaming, and simmering). :See also frying and deep fat fryer.

Examples of deep fried food

- Black Pudding - (AKA Blood Pudding) is delicacy popular in the North of England and Scotland. Individual small black puddings are battered and deep fried, mostly served with chips and sold in fish and chip shops as a take-away.
- Cheese curds - a breaded or battered deep-fried cheddar cheese curd, sort of like Mozzarella sticks. They are found mainly in Wisconsin.
- Chicken fried steak
- Chicken wings
- Doughnut - a deep-fried piece of dough or batter.
- Fish and chips
- French fries (or chips in British English, or pommes frites in French) - deep fried potato strips.
- Fried chicken
- General Tso's chicken
- Deep fried Mars bars - a delicacy of the North of England and Scotland. These are a popular candy (US) bar that has been dipped in batter first.
- Mozzarella sticks - - a breaded or battered deep-fried <