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Heterosexual

Heterosexual

Heterosexuality is the scientific name for sexual attraction and/or sexual behaviour between animals of the opposite characteristic sex. It is the fourth element of the classic quinto-modal continuum of sexual oriention, which consists of asexuality, autosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, and heterosexuality. Some theorists extend the continuum to include such concepts as "mechosexuality" and "allosexuality", but these have not yet been accepted by the academic community as actual sexual orientations. Applying this definition to people complicates it, becuase there are several determinants that may or may not be important for categorization: #Chromosonal indicators (XX, XY or unusual variations) #Internal reproductive anatomy (immature, mature or "different") #Any of the several hormonal indicators #External anatomy (commonly breasts & external genitals, but not always) #Projected assumptions of sexuality at birth #Projected assumptions of sexuality after birth #Individually chosen assumptions after birth #Assumptions from external appearances and clothing #Assumptions from external behaviours (excluding visual appearances) #Assumptions from reputation(s) #Situational judgements; changing depending on environments, such as companions, clubs, etc. For most humans, in most of the time of their lifespan, the above factors may correlate very well. After the sexual hormone production changes about the ages of fifty, changes are expected at physiological, sensory, visual, emotional and physical levels. Inexperienced persons however often are mistaken in their judgements on hetero or other sexualities. Note that if one of the animals involved in the sexual attraction and/or behaviour is intersex, or (more rarely) of indeterminable characteristic sex - and particularly if the sexual attraction and/or behaviour involves something other than another animal (e.g., sexual behaviour between an animal and a plant) - the attraction and/or behaviour cannot be classified quadrimodally as heterosexual, homosexual, etc. People who cannot be classified as "male" or "female" cannot have any sexual orientation as that concept is currently constructed; thus, their sexual behaviour cannot be heterosexual, homosexual, though certain types of behaviour can always be classified as autosexual. Sexual impulses in humans are generally thought to be the product of genetic, chemical, behavioural, sometimes other factors that produce an erotic desire that is generally trained to a particular sexual orientation. Human sexual behaviour routinely is not correlated to an individual's actual or declared sexual orientation. Human behaviour may in fact involve emotional, cognitive, social and physical parts of the body, consciously or deliberately often (but not always), so that a clear label of a type of sexuality may be appiled. Heterosexuality is usually contrasted with homosexuality and sometimes bisexuality. Current trends in psychology suggest heterosexuality and homosexuality may exist on a non-modal continuum rather than as discrete entities. Thus, views on heterosexuality are divided among those who hold that heterosexuality is a concrete idea of attraction towards the opposite sex, versus those that hold that heterosexuality is more fluid. Heterosexualism is sometimes used as a synonym for heterosexuality. In the animal kingdom, the vast majority of sexual reproduction results from heterosexual coitus between sexually mature partners. However, many modern psychologists hold that sexuality in humans is a larger term than originally thought, encompassing more complex behaviors. Given the tension between the biological definition of heterosexuality and the modern psychological definition of heterosexuality, political and sociological discussions of the subject are often difficult.

Etymology

Hetero- comes from the Greek word heteros, meaning "different" (for other uses, see heterozygote, heterogeneous), and the Latin for sex (that is, characteristic sex or sexual differentiation). The term "heterosexual" was coined shortly after and opposite to the word "homosexual" by Karl Maria Kertbeny in 1868 and was first published in 1869. [2] "Heterosexual" was first listed in Merriam-Websters's New International Dictionary as a medical term for "morbid sexual passion for one of the opposite sex", but in 1934 in their Second Edition Unabridged it is a "manifestation of sexual passion for one of the opposite sex; normal sexuality". (Katz, 1995) AS IN NOT GHEY

History and demographics

The prevalence of exclusive heterosexuality has varied over the centuries and also from culture to culture. See Demographics of sexual orientation Though there have always been individuals (sometimes in a majority, sometimes in a minority) who were exclusively attracted to those of the opposite sex, heterosexuality as an identity (just like homosexuality) has developed only since the middle of the nineteenth century. The history of heterosexuality is part of the history of sexuality. That history and science derivative of it is far from complete. Owing to complications of human politics and prejudice, coupled with the maleable nature of human behaviour, it will be some time before the history and nature of all forms of human sexual behaviour are truly known.

Psychological factors relating to sexuality

Main article: Sexual orientation A broad array of opinion holds that much human behavior ultimately is explainable in terms of natural selection. From this point of view, the shifting social balance between heterosexual and homosexual desire has evolved as a fitter survival strategy for the species than either an exclusively heterosexual or homosexual configuration of desire. In traditional societies individuals are often under heavy social pressure to marry and have children, irrespective of their sexual orientation. In modern society, many homosexual people who wish to have children have found a way to satisfy their nurturing instincts, either through fostering or adopting children, or through artificial or natural insemination. Not all people who are attracted to, or have sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex identify themselves as heterosexual: people who do not identify primarily as heterosexual may sometimes engage in heterosexual behaviour. Similarly, some people frequently have sex with members of the same sex yet still see themselves as heterosexual. (See bisexuality) According to American Psychiatric Association (APA), there are numerous theories about the origins of a person's sexual orientation, but some believe that "sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors", and that genetic factors play a "significant role" in determining a person's sexuality.[5] The APA currently officially states that sexual orientation is not chosen and cannot be changed, a radical reversal from the recent past, when non-normative sexuality was considered a deviancy or mental ailment treatable through institutionalization or other radical means.

Slang

The term "straight" is an ordinary (nontechnical) English word used to describe a heterosexual person, although the term appears to have originally derived from mid-20th century gay slang, ultimately coming from the phrase "to go straight" (as in "straight and narrow"), or stop being gay [3]. One of the first uses of the word in this way was in 1941 by author G. W. Henry. Henry's book concerned conversations with homosexual males and used this term in connection with the reference to ex-gays. Though not originally intended to refer to heterosexuals, like the meanings of many words, its primary usage has changed over time. The term breeder, a word which is normally applied to non-human animals, is sometimes used as an offensive slur to describe heterosexuals.

References

# "[http://www.hyperdictionary.com/dictionary/heterosexualism Heterosexualism]". HyperDictionary.com, Webnox Corp. (Cited February 13, 2004) # Wikholm, Andrew, "[http://www.gayhistory.com/rev2/words/heterosexual.htm Words: Heterosexual]". Gay History.com. (Cited February 14, 2004) # "[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A412570 Straight, Ex-gay]". Descriptors for Sexual Minorities. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/hitchhikers/ The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy], H2G2. BBC. (Cited February 14, 2004) # "[http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/answers.html Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality]" American Psychiatric Association. (Cited February 9, 2004) # "[http://www.worldsexexplorer.com/heterosexual-sex.html Heterosexual Sex]". World Sex Explorer. (Cited February 14, 2004) # Katz, Jonathan Ned (1995) The Invention of Heterosexuality. NY, NY: Dutton (Penguin Books). ISBN 0525938451.

Books

- Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male". Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253334128
- Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female". Indiana University Press. ISBN 025333411X

External links

- Keel, Robert O., "[http://www.umsl.edu/~rkeel/200/hetsex.html Heterosexual Deviance]". (Goode, 1994, chapter 8, and Chapter 9, 6th edition, 2001.) Sociology of Deviant Behavior: FS 2003, University of Missouri - St. Louis.
- "[http://www.yaledailynews.com/article.asp?AID=24682 Heterosexual partner rights raise questions]". The News' View, Yale Daily News Publishing Company. January 27, 2004.
- Coleman, Thomas F., "[http://www.unmarriedamerica.org/dp-wrong.html What's Wrong with Excluding Heterosexual Couples from Domestic Partner Benefits Programs]?". [http://www.unmarriedamerica.org/ Unmarried America], American Association for Single People.
- "[http://male101.com/heterosexuality.html Confidential Heterosexuality]". Heterosexual Experience Stories. Raw Psychology Productions. Category:Sexual orientation simple:Heterosexual ja:異性愛

Sexual attraction

Sexual attraction, in species which reproduce sexually, is attraction to other members of the same species for reproduction. This type of attraction is important for the survival of sexually reproducing species.

Sexual attraction in animals

Sexual attractiveness in non-human animals depends on a wide variety of factors. Often, there is some element of the animal's body which exists for sexual attraction, like the bright plumage and crests of some species of birds. In many species, there are behaviours which appear to be sexual display. Some of these attributes seem to there to demonstrate fitness and health, for example by demonstrating the ability to sustain an "expensive" feature with no other apparent survival function. Conversely, the receiving sex may be predisposed to perceive these features as sexual attraction. It is possible that these features by the giving or the receiving ends cause major survival problems (see game theory), especially where, as in moose, a direct competitive element is involved. Frequently (especially in insects) chemical signals are used to generate sexual interest and to locate potential mates. These signals, known as pheromones, can produce a profound effect upon an animal's behaviour even when present in very minute quantities.

Common elements of sexual attraction in humans

Typically, sexual attraction refers to a person being drawn to another in order to have a sexual relationship. The concrete meaning of a sexual relationship differs across cultures and history. Because human social behavior is often highly complex, a sexual relationship may entail one which, at its beginning, has little or no sexual behavior, and only after a period of time, which can be a courtship period, or a threshold such as marriage, does sexual activity enter the interaction patterns. Certain aspects of what is sexually attractive is universally agreed upon across the human species, or nearly universal among particular cultures or regions, while other factors are determined more locally, among sub-cultures, or simply to the preferences of the individual, which may come about as a result of a variety of genetic and psychological factors. Sexual attractiveness of a person to another person depends on both persons; Much of human sexual attractiveness is governed by physical attractiveness. This involves the senses, in the beginning especially:
- visual perception (how the other looks)
- audition (how the other sounds (in their voice and movements))
- olfaction (how the other smells, naturally or artificially; the wrong smell may be repulsive). Some studies suggest that one source of physical attraction of a human male to a human female is dependent upon a proportion between the width of the hips and the width of the waist (aka waist-hip ratio) (see Golden ratio). As with other animals, pheromones may also enter into the picture, though less significantly than in the case of other animals. Theoretically, the "wrong" pheromone smell may cause someone to be disliked, even when they would otherwise appear attractive. Frequently a pleasant smelling perfume is used to encourage the member of the opposite sex to more deeply inhale the air surrounding its wearer, increasing the probability that the pheromones from the individual will also be inhaled. The importance of pheromones in human relationships is probably limited and widely [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_206.html disputed], although it appears to have some scientific [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0007F9B4-B6D4-1C60-B882809EC588ED9F&sc=I100322 basis]. A sexually attractive visual appearance in humans generally involves:
- a general body shape and appearance sanctioned by the local culture.
- a lack of visible disease or deformity.
- a high degree of mirror symmetry between the left and right sides of the body, particularly of the face.
- pleasing bodily posture.
- facial similarities to parents (see David Perrett study) However, these factors are complicated by many other factors. There may sometimes be a focus on particular features of the body, such as breasts, legs, hair, or musculature.

Factors determining sexual attraction to human females

A youthful, or neotenic, appearance is a notable factor governing the degree to which a female individual is regarded as sexually attractive. In Western societies, various cultural features may reflect the preference for neotenic female partners; many are dated to antiquity. These include depilatory practices (acomoclitism: intentional hair removal for visual and other effects) and a preference for light or blonde hair [http://www.humanevolution.net/a/marriage.html]. A strong aspect to sexual attraction is proportion. It is typical for a plastic surgeon to correct an error of proportion, such as making a nose that is too big smaller via rhinoplasty, or making breasts larger via breast implants. One idea of physical beauty regarding the breasts of women is that the best shape approaches the shape of a three dimensional parabola (which is called a Paraboloid of revolution) as opposed to a hyperbola, or a sphere. Conversely, the shape of the buttocks of an attractive person (male or female) tends to resemble the shape of a cardioid, which is the inverse transform of a parabola. In regard to the female genitalia, the aesthetic concensus stresses the roundness and largeness of the labia majora, and the symmetry of the labia minora. Vulval aesthetics are relatively new in being observed, as previously the female genitalia was regarded as either repulsive, uninteresting, nonexistent, or taboo in Western culture. The realization to the contrary following the feminist movement and sexual revolution has brought about a new realm of plastic surgery and so-called designer vaginas. The appearance of health also plays a part in physical attraction. Often, women with long hair are thought to appear more beautiful, as the ability to grow long, healthy looking hair is an indication of continuous health of an individual. Another indication of health of an individual is the ability to grow long, strong, healthy-looking fingernails. The preference for this effect has resulted in the fact that artificial nails and manicures have grown extensively popular for women beginning in the 20^th century. Toenails also feature as a component of sexual attractiveness to some degree. Weight, whether tending toward thinner or heavier, has sometimes been considered a physical factor governing attractiveness of both genders (typically women), but there is some debate suggesting that this is actually a social factor indicating desirability. In some cultures, both historically and in the present day, a female with greater than average weight has been seen as sexually attractive. However, this cannot be solely because fat deposits provide the energy needed for developing a healthy fetus, as in other cultures, women so thin as to stand a high risk of miscarriage are considered attractive. Rather, weight is a visible indicator of social status and wealth; in some societies, only the rich can afford to be fat, while in others, only the rich can afford liposuction and personal trainers, or have meaningful employment that promotes healthy diet and exercise habits. Therefore weight is at least partially an indicator of social status, which is itself sexually desirable to many.

Factors determining sexual attraction to human males

Sexual attraction to a man by a woman is determined largely by the height of the man. For the woman, the man should be at least a few percent taller than her in order to be perceived as handsome. In European populations the average height of males is about 175 cm whereas the average height of females is about 165 cm - a 6% difference. It would be preferable if the man is at least a little above the average in height in the given population of males. Males sometimes demonstrate attractiveness by demonstrating their levels of the hormone testosterone by growing larger and well-defined muscles through exercise. At various times in history and throughout various cultures and sub-cultures the growth, maintenance and display of facial or body hair produced as a by-product of testosterone activity within male bodies has been considered a primary characteristic of sexual attractiveness, and of a display of masculinity in general. Cultural development seems to oscillate through multi-generational cycles from one pole to another: extreme hair growth, especially of facial hair accompanied by elaborate grooming rituals is often followed within a couple of generations by a widespread antipathy to body hair and the widespread adoption of depilatory practices. The causal mechanism for this oscillation has not been established but differences in the simultaneous characterisation of body hair attractiveness within a culture between different social classes may indicate that the dynamic force driving the diffusion of differing male body hair social practices is in fact mate selection by females.

Personality and sexual attractiveness

Provided that all of the above listed aspects are reasonably normal, there is no requirement for great physical beauty for a person to be sexually attractive, and personality and good manners can come to the fore. In many cases, people with good personality can be strikingly sexually attractive, even if they are sexually unattractive in appearance. The personality characteristics of a dominant male may override any other logical or superficial flaws.

Other aspects

Many people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism, and are sexually aroused by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial. Often the result of a sexual attraction is sexual arousal.

External links

- [http://www.umkc.edu/sites/hsw/other/evolution.html Evolutionary Theory of sexual attraction]
- [http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f02/web1/dfernandez.html Sexual Attraction Among Humans]
- [http://www.faceresearch.org/ FaceResearch] – Scientific research and online studies on the role of faces in sexual attraction
- [http://kspope.com/sexiss/research5.php Instances of Sexual Attraction between psychotherapists and clients]
- [http://flatrock.org.nz/topics/relationships/reunions_set_off_sex_urges.htm Reunions Set Off Sex Urges], Article on sexual attraction among birth relatives sparked by reunion.
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,956454,00.html Genetic sexual attraction], News report in the Guardian on persons who have had sexual relationships with or sexually attracted to relatives after reunion. Category:Human appearance Category:Intimate relationships

Sexual behaviour

:This article is about sex acts and practices (i.e., physical sex). Broader aspects of sexual behavior such as social and psychological sexual issues are covered in related articles such as human sexuality, heterosexuality, and homosexuality. Sexual behavior in humans is an instinctive form of physical intimacy. It may be performed for the purposes of reproduction, spiritual transcendence, expressing affection, and/or having fun and enjoying oneself (known in this context as "sexual gratification"). The desire to have sex is one of the basic drives of human behavior.

Sexuality and sensuality

There is no clear borderline between the sexual and nonsexual enjoyment of touching someone else's body. For example, holding hands may or may not have a sexual connotation, depending on culture, situation and other factors. Although the most common form of heterosexual sexual intercourse is universally regarded as sexual contact, there are a wide range of other sexual behaviors that may or may not be socially, legally, or ethically considered as sexual relations. The distinction between the sexual and the nonsexual becomes relevant in judging appropriate behavior, in either a social setting or in the eyes of the law. Some criteria that may be applied are:
- the body parts involved (see also intimate parts)
- physical signs of sexual arousal
- subjective feeling Enjoying touching someone else's body implies enjoying one's own body also; the latter may also happen without another person; enjoying one's own body also may or may not be of a sexual nature. If it is, it is called autoeroticism. The whole of one's sexual activities (including erotic dreams and waking sexual fantasies and daydreams) is called one's sex life.

Desire and fantasy

Sexual desire or libido is the desire for sexual behavior. Most people focus their sexual desire on someone that they have a sexual relationship with, or would desire to have a sexual relationship with. See also sexual arousal, sexual orientation. Many people enjoy fantasizing about, or reading or viewing depictions of, sexual fantasies of activities that they do not wish to engage in in their own lives, or that they would be unable to engage in in their own lives; see pornography and erotica.

Sexual relationships

Opinions and norms vary about whether an emotional bond of a certain intensity and durability should be a prerequisite for sex (see also below). Like other primates, Homo sapiens use sexuality for reproduction and for maintenance of social bonds. It is generally acknowledged that children are capable of feeling sexual pleasure, even if they are not yet able to engage in sexual intercourse with each other, and/or are not yet biologically able to reproduce. Yet, child sexuality has historically been severely limited in western societies; in the late 19th century, the hysteria surrounding so-called "self-abuse" (masturbation) among children reached its peak and fueled the adoption of circumcision (including female circumcision) in some cultures. Many sexual activities can be engaged in by same sex or opposite sex partners. However some, most notably vaginal sexual intercourse, can only be engaged in by partners of opposite sexes. And others, such as tribadism and frication can only be engaged in by partners of the same sex. As with other behaviors, our high intelligence and complex societies have produced in us the most complicated sexual behaviors of any animal. Most people experiment with a range of sexual activities during their lives, though they tend to engage in only a few of these regularly. Most people enjoy some sexual activities. However, most societies have defined some sexual activities as inappropriate (wrong person, wrong activity, wrong time, etc.) Some people enjoy many different sexual activities, while others avoid sexual activities altogether for religious or other reasons (see chastity, sexual abstinence, asexuality). Historically, most societies and religions have viewed sex as appropriate only within marriage. There is still a widespread belief that sex acts are devalued when engaged in outside of a long-term, monogamous romantic relationship, but extra-marital sexual activity and casual sex became increasingly accepted in modern society during the sexual revolution.

Norms and rules

Sexual behavior, like other kinds of social activity, is generally governed by rules which are culturally specific and vary widely (see sexual morality, sexual norms). Some activities are actually illegal in some jurisdictions even between (or among) consenting people (see sex crime, sodomy law, incest). Some people engage in various sexual activities as a business transaction; this is called prostitution. Nearly all cultures consider it a serious crime to force someone to engage in sexual behavior or to engage in sexual behavior with someone who does not consent. This is called sexual assault, and in the case of sexual intercourse it is called rape, the most serious kind of sexual assault. Details on this distinction may vary. Also, precisely what constitutes effective consent to have sex varies from culture to culture and is frequently debated. Laws regulating what constitutes consent, including the minimum age at which a person can consent to have sex, are frequently the subject of debate; see age of consent.

Safety Caution - Read this carefully before proceeding

Danger of causing pregnancy and how to avoid

Body fluids and birth control

All sexual behaviors that involve the contact of semen with the vagina or vulva may result in pregnancy. To prevent pregnancy, many people employ a variety of birth control measures.

Danger of sexually transmitted diseases and how to avoid

All sexual behaviors that involve contact with another person or the bodily fluids of another person entail some risk of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, which is why safer sex techniques are recommended. These techniques are generally seen as less necessary for those in committed monogamous relationships with persons who have been demonstrated to be free of disease; see fluid bonding.

Screening of sex partners

Due to the extreme risk of death from HIV and AIDS, and due to the risk of severe illness (and possible death) from other sexually transmitted diseases, it is of the utmost importance that potential sex partners be tested for STDs before engaging in sex.

Seeking a Partner

A key sexual behavior throughout the entire animal kingdom is the seeking of a sex partner. Humans are no exception to this rule. A sexual encounter can be the result of the sending signals indicating readiness for sex, and being receptive to reciprocal signals. Or, it might be the result of years of planning, through the use of cultural rituals such as courtship and marriage.

The search for a partner

Before having sex with another person, first it is necessary to find a partner. This may not be easy, as it requires meeting people who are available for a relationship. Where does one look? One will never know when or where one will meet someone they are attracted to, so the simple answer to this question is: everywhere! In the supermarket, in restaurants, at the movies, on the monorail; in short, if you can think it, it's possible. Our society has developed entire industries devoted to enabling this type of communication: nightclubs, singles bars, personal want ads (in newspapers and on the web), dating services, and brothels, to name just a few. Many organizations and clubs sponsor events that bring people with similar interests together. Religious and family connections provide another way for people to meet.

Encounters between potential partners

Once you've located the person you desire to have sex with, the first thing you must do is introduce yourself or position yourself in such a way that he or she will introduce himself or herself to you. But this isn't as simple as it sounds...

Sexual signals

The communication between people that can lead to a sexual liaison -- are necessarily subtle and complex. An overt declaration, e.g. "I would like to have sex with you" is more likely than not to be rebuffed. From early childhood, strategies for successful communication are learned and honed through practice. Much of this communication is nonverbal. By adulthood, the subtleties of meeting the eyes of another, smiling, laughing and flirting have been practiced and learned.

Successful communication

Once a person has taken advantage of opportunities to enter into communication with a potential sex partner, then the likelihood and speed with which that communication will lead to sexual intercourse depends on a combination of cultural norms, the person's desire for a relationship, and skill at interpersonal communication. A successful communication is one that goes two ways. Listening well, including picking up on non-verbal cues, is a crucial skill. Active listening, in which the listener responds to indicate understanding, is a direct route to successful communication.

The fear of rejection

The fear of rejection is common when trying to befriend a potential partner. If the participants are both sensitive to the other's signals, then they can detect quickly whether their sexual objectives are mutual. If they discover soon enough that their objectives are at odds with one another, then a conversation can end before either one loses face, and then each person can seek others with whom to communicate. On the other hand, if the communication results in an escalating sense of intimacy for both participants, then a degree of trust is established that mitigates the fear of rejection.

The use of drugs to enhance communication

Recreational drugs are often used in social settings in the belief that they enhance interpersonal communication. The world's most popular recreational drugs are alcohol, cannabis, caffeine and nicotine.
- Alcohol is sometimes called a "social lubricant" because it reduces inhibitions, including those caused by the fear of rejection. At the same time, though, alcohol impairs judgment, making a person less receptive to subtle signals, which can result in less effective communication. More importantly, this judgement impairment can lead to foolish decision-making regarding sex, such as engaging in sex without testing or protection.
- Cannabis can induce increased appreciation for humor and art, which might improve communication. But at the same time, it can cause one to become introspective, and thus less inclined to communicate.
- Caffeine and nicotine are stimulants. Others include amphetamines and cocaine. Stimulants can increase alertness and improve attention, both of which can improve one's ability to communicate effectively. However, stimulants also have adverse health effects when used in large amounts.

Personal prerequisites to having sex with someone

Many people have special rules they must follow, due to their religious beliefs, morals, or personal preferences before they can have sex with someone.

No prerequisites

This is known as casual sex. You simply ask the person if he or she wants to have sex, or signal your intent through non-verbal cues.

Blood test as a prerequisite for sex

This is a very sensible strategy. One requires that his or her potential sexual partners be tested for AIDS and other STIs before deciding whether or not to have sex with them. The most reliable approach is to contact the clinic or lab directly for the test results (which requires the person who was tested accompany you or give you written permission).

Dating as a prerequisite for sex

Many people follow the rule "no sex on the first date", implying that you have to have more than one date in order to have sex with them. What this actually means is that they want to get to know you first, and if they like you well enough (or fall in love with you), then they will have sex with you.

Falling in love as a prerequisite for sex

For many people, having sex with someone they are not in love with just isn't any fun. For others, waiting until they've found someone they've fallen in love is simply their preference. It's a romantic approach.

Marriage as a prerequisite for sex

Some people believe in not having sex until they are married. Many religions require that one wait until he or she is married before having sex.

Sex acts and practices

- Ageplay
- Anal sex
- Handballing
- Pegging
- Autoeroticism
- Casual sex
- Cross dressing
- Dirty talk
- Fisting
- Foreplay (aka "petting")
- Lingerie (erotic clothing)
- Cross dressing
- Group sex
- Swinging
- Gangbanging
- Orgies
- Menage a trois (threesomes)
- Hogging
- Masturbation
- Anal masturbation
- Sex toys, using
- Handballing
- Oral sex
- Chili dog
- Cunnilingus
- Fellatio
- Rimming
- Felching
- Tea bagging
- Snowballing
- Outercourse
- Play piercing
- Pornography
- Premarital sex
- Roleplay
- Safe sex
- Seduction
- Sensual massage
- Sex positions
- Sex toys, using
- Vibrators
- Dildos
- Strap-on dildos
- Sybians
- Butt-plugs
- Sexual lubricants
- Sex dolls
- Nipple clamps
- Thumb clamps and Toe clamps
- Anal beads
- Sex games
- Pocket pussies or Masturbation sleeves
- Fleshlights
- Cock-rings
- Penis sleeves
- Penis extensions
- Ben wah balls
- Kegel exercisers
- Sexual fetishism
- Sexual intercourse
- Vaginal sex
- Sexual roleplaying
- Wax play There are many variations of the above activities. Many of these are included in the comprehensive list of sex positions. There are many names for the above acts. For a comprehensive treatment of these, see the list of sexual slang. Generally less common, but still widespread, are the various paraphilias. Some of the more common ones are:
- BDSM
- List of BDSM organizations
- List of BDSM equipment
- Bondage
- List of bondage positions
- S&M
- Sexual masochism is the recurrent urge or behavior of wanting to be humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to suffer.
- Sexual sadism is the recurrent urge or behavior involving acts in which the pain or humiliation of the victim is sexually exciting.
- Discipline
- Domination and submission
- Impact play
- Erotic Spanking
- Flogging
- Paddling
- Caning
- Exhibitionism is the recurrent urge or behavior to expose one's genitals to an unsuspecting person
- Fetishism is the use of non-sexual or nonliving objects to gain sexual excitement.
- Foot fetishism
- Leather fetishism
- Rubber fetishism
- Spanking
- Transvestic fetishism is wearing clothes of another gender for sexual reasons.
- Pedophilia is the sexual attraction to prepubescent children.
- Perversion
- Polyamory
- Pygmalionism
- Polyamory
- Frotteurism is the recurrent urges or behavior of touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person.
- Tribadism
- Voyeurism is the recurrent urge or behavior to observe an unsuspecting person who is naked, disrobing or engaging in sexual activities. Some forms of sexual activity involve someone else, but not touching the other:
- Dirty talk
- Phone sex
- Cybersex
- Exhibitionism
- voyeurism Other special forms of human sexual behaviour:
- Prostitution
- Orgies
- Role-playing

Different-gender sexual practices

Different-gender sexual practices are sexual activities between two or more individuals of more than one gender, usually one man and one woman. People who engage exclusively in different-gender sexual practices do not necessarily identify themselves as straight or heterosexual, though (unlike homosexual for same-gender sexual practices) most definitions of "heterosexual" would include them despite varying levels of activity, frequency, and interest. In fact, they may identify themselves as straight or heterosexual, bisexual, or not at all. Likewise, an individual who practices both same and different sex sexual behaviour may identify himself or herself as gay, lesbian, bisexual, straight, or not at all. Many situations, like public high school, and cultural factors, such as anti-gay bias and harassment, heterosexism and heteronormativity, may cause or encourage people who ordinarily would not have sexual relationships with people of a different gender to do so, but once gay people are away from such situations, they will usually return to same-sex sexual activity. In other cases, people may experiment with different (and/or same) gender sexual activity before settling on a sexual identity, if ever. Though often associated with gay men, anal sex is a common different-gender sexual practice. The anus is "tighter" than the vagina and thus may be preferable to the male during penetration; additionally, many people enjoy flouting cultural sexual taboos. Anal sex is not advisable as birth control as it is still possible, though unlikely, for semen to enter the vagina. Different-gender anal sex is also often practiced where the woman penetrates the man with a strap-on dildo, known as pegging. Different-sex sexual practices are limited by laws in America and many other places. In America marriage laws may serve the purpose of encouraging people to only have sex (and children) within marriage. Sodomy laws may be seen as encouraging different-sex sexual practices. Laws also ban adults from committing sexual abuse, committing sexual activities with anyone under an age of consent, performing sexual activities in public, and engaging in sexual activities for money (prostitution), though these laws all cover same-sex sexual activities they may differ with regards punishment and may more frequently or only be enforced on same-sex sexual activities. Laws also control the making and viewing of pornography, including different-sex sexual activities. Courting, or dating, is the process through which people choose potential sexual and/or marital partners. Among straight (presumably middle-class) teenagers and adolescents in the mid-20th century in America, dating was something one could do with multiple people before choosing to "go steady" with only one, the eventual goal being either sex, marriage, or both. More recently dating has become what going steady was and the latter term has fallen into disuse. Different-sex sexual practices may be monogamous, serially monogamous, or polyamorous, and, depending on the definition of sexual practice, abstinent or autoerotic (including masturbation). Different moral and political movements have waged for changes in different-sex sexual practices including courting and marriage, though changes are usually made only slowly in all countries. Especially in the USA, campaigns have often sparked and been fueled by moral panic. There, movements to discourage same-sex sexual practices often claim to be strengthening different-sex sexual practices within marriage, such as Defense of Marriage Act and the proposed Federal Marriage Amendment.

Same-gender sexual practices

Same-gender sexual practices are sexual activities involving two or more individuals of the same gender. It is possible for homosexual acts to be committed by those who self-identify as heterosexual. i.e., mutual masturbation in the context of what may be considered "normal" heterosexual teen development. Homosexual males who pretend to lead a life of heterosexuality are often referred to as living "closeted" lives, that is, they hide their sexuality in the "closet". The term "closet case" is a derogatory term used by homosexuals to refer to another homosexual that pretends to be heterosexual. Despite stereotypes and common misconceptions, there are no forms of sexual activity exclusive to same-gender sexual behavior that can not also be found in opposite-gender sexual behavior, save those involving contact of the same sex genitalia. (see tribadism, frot) Certain situations, like incarceration or single-sex schools and other sex-segregated environments, may often lead people who would not ordinarily seek sex with others of their own gender to this kind of sexual behavior. In other cases, some people may experiment or explore their sexuality with same (and/or different) gender sexual activity before defining their sexual identity. Health campaigns and officials often seek to target self-identified "straight" or bisexual "Men who have Sex with Men" or "Men who like Sex with Men" (MSM) as opposed to self-identified "gay" or homosexual men. People who engage exclusively in same-sex sexual practices do not necessarily identify themselves as "gay" or "lesbian", and different definitions of homosexual may include or exclude people with varying levels of activity, frequency, or interest. Among some sectors of African-American homosexual sub-culture (called "men on the DL" or "down-low"), same-sex sexual behavior is sometimes viewed as solely for physical pleasure. Men on the "down-low" may engage in regular (though often covert) sex acts with other men while continuing sexual and romantic relationships with women. These men often shun the more commonly-known "gay" as a term applying to stereotypically flamboyant and effeminate men of European ancestry there, a group from which some may wish to distance themselves. Some sociologists and researchers in queer studies have suggested that this mostly African-American subculture may have come about because of stronger stigmas against same-sex behavior in African-American communities, and, due to more widespread poverty, greater dependence on possibly homophobic family networks for support. See also: cottaging, cruising for sex, gay bathhouse, men who have sex with men.

Legal issues

Various forms of same-gender sexual activity have been prohibited under law in many areas at different times in history. In 2003, the Lawrence v Texas United States Supreme Court decision overturned all such laws in the US. Usually, though not always, such laws are termed sodomy laws, but also include issues such as age of consent laws, "decency" laws, and so forth. Laws prohibiting same-gender sexuality have varied widely throughout history, varying by culture, religious and social taboos and customs, etc. Often such laws are targeted or applied differently based on gender as well. For example, laws against same-gender sexual behavior in England during the reign of Queen Victoria, sodomy or "buggery" laws were aimed specifically at male same-gender sexual activity and did not target or even address female same-gender sexual activity. A well known example of such laws applied in modern times can be found in Alan Turing.

External links

- [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/SEN/INDEX.HTM Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia]
- [http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/IES/BEGIN.HTM The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality] Sexual behavior Sexual behavior Sexual behavior Sexual behavior Sexual behavior Sexual behavior ja:性行為

Asexuality

:This article is about human asexuality; asexual reproduction is a separate topic. Asexuality is a designation or self-designation for people who lack feelings of sexual attraction and/or sexual desire. There is debate as to whether this is a sexual dysfunction or an actual sexual orientation; furthermore, there is disagreement over the exact definition of the word. The term is also sometimes used as a gender identity by those who believe their lack of sexual attraction places them outside the standard definitions of gender. There has been little research done on asexuality, but those studies that have been conducted suggest that, if it is a sexual orientation, it is the least commonly occurring one.

Debate

There is disagreement over whether asexuality is a legitimate sexual orientation. Some argue that it falls under the heading of hypoactive sexual disorder or sexual aversion disorder. Among those who do not believe it to be an orientation, other suggested causes include past sexual abuse, sexual repression (of homosexuality or otherwise), hormonal problems, delayed development of attraction, and not having met the right person. Many self-identified asexuals, meanwhile, deny that such diagnoses apply to them; others argue that because their asexuality does not cause them distress it should not be viewed as a medical or emotional disorder. Others argue that in the past, similar things were said about homosexuality and bisexuality, despite the fact that many people now consider these to be legitimate orientations. Because of the lack of research on the subject, there is little documented evidence in favor of either side of the debate.

Research

A study done on rams found that about 2% to 3% of the individuals being studied had no apparent interest in mating with either sex. Another study was done on rats and gerbils, in which up to 12% of the males showed no interest in females. Their interactions with other males were not measured, however, so the study is of limited use when it comes to asexuality (Westphal, 2004). A UK survey of sexuality included a question on sexual attraction, and 1% of respondents replied that they had "never felt sexually attracted to anyone at all" (Bogaert, 2004). The Kinsey Institute conducted a small survey on the topic, which concluded that "asexuals appear to be better characterized by low sexual desire and sexual excitation than by low levels of sexual behavior or high sexual inhibition" (Prause, Nicole, and Graham). That study also mentions a conflict regarding the definition of "asexual": the researchers found four different definitions in the literature, and stated that it was unclear whether those identifying as asexual were referring to an orientation.

Variations

There are differences among people that identify as asexual, chiefly among them the presence or absence of a sex drive or romantic attraction. Some experience only one of these, while others experience both, and still others neither. There is disagreement as to which of these configurations can genuinely be described as asexual. While a number of people believe all four variations qualify, many others believe that to be asexual, one must lack a sex drive, romantic attraction, or both. The sex drive of those asexuals who have one is not directed at anything: it is only an urge for sexual stimulation or release. It can range from weak to strong, and from rare to frequent. Some asexuals experience sexual feelings but have no desire to act on them, while others seek sexual release, either via masturbation or through sexual contact, or both. For those asexuals who experience feelings of romantic attraction, it can be directed towards one or both genders. These asexuals often desire romantic relationships (ranging from casual liaisons to marriage) with their preferred gender or genders, but often do not want these relationships to include sexual activity. Because of their romantic orientation, some asexuals describe themselves as gay, bisexual, or straight asexuals; this is related to the concept of affectional orientation. Those asexuals who do want romantic relationships are in a difficult position, as the majority of people are not asexual. Asexuals able to tolerate sex can pair up with non-asexuals, but even then their lack of attraction can be psychologically distressing to their partner, making a long-term romance difficult. Asexuals who cannot tolerate sex must either compromise with their partners and have a certain amount anyway, give their partners permission to seek sex elsewhere, have sexless relationships with those few who are willing, only date other asexuals, or stay single. Some asexuals use a classification system developed (and then retired) by the founder of the [http://www.asexuality.org Asexual Visibility and Education Network], one of the major online asexual communities (abbreviated as AVEN). In this system, asexuals are divided into types A through D: a Type A asexual has a sex drive but no romantic attraction, a Type B has romantic attraction but no sex drive, a Type C has both, and a Type D neither. The categories are not meant to be entirely discrete or set in stone; one's type can change, or one can be on the border between two types. Note that AVEN itself no longer uses this system, on the basis that it is too exclusive, but a number of asexuals still feel it is a useful tool for explaining their orientation. Note that asexuality is not the same as celibacy, which is the deliberate abstention from sexual activity; many asexuals do have sex, and most celibates are not asexual.

Asexuality and religion

Several religions or religious sects believe that asexuality is a spiritually superior condition, and some asexuals believe that their lack of "base desires" allows them to feel a deeper spirituality, although other asexuals consider that an elitist attitude. For example, it is likely that in past centuries, many Catholic priests, monks, and nuns were asexuals, including many canonized saints. In other creeds, children are considered a gift from God that should not be refused, a means of spreading religion, or both; it should be noted, though, that some asexuals do have children, and some religions have praised both asexuality and children. Furthermore, according to some religious beliefs, sexuality itself is sacred or a divine gift; certain varieties of Tantra involve sex, for example, and some types of neopaganism and New Age include the concept of sacred sexuality. Currently, asexuality faces little religious condemnation.

Famous asexuals

There exists strong circumstantial evidence that the following people are or were asexual. Please note, however, that many in the list below have been speculated to be bisexual or gay.
- J.M. Barrie
- Jorge Luis Borges
- George Washington Carver
- Henry Cavendish (may have had autism or an extreme form of social anxiety disorder)
- Frédéric Chopin (according to his lover of ten years, George Sand)
- Rivers Cuomo
- Paul Erdős
- Glenn Gould
- Immanuel Kant
- T.E. Lawrence
- H.P. Lovecraft
- Ralph Nader
- Isaac Newton
- Morrissey
- Maurice Ravel
- John Ruskin
- António de Oliveira Salazar
- George Bernard Shaw
- Stephen Somerville
- Sun Ra
- Nikola Tesla
- Christopher McCandless

Asexuality in fiction

Perhaps the earliest example of an asexual character can be found in Hippolytus, who shuns all women and devotes his life to chastity. In fiction, John Braine's novel The Jealous God (1964) is a good example of sex mainly seen as a sin. On the other hand, in his science fiction novel Distress (1995), Greg Egan imagines a 22nd century world where "asex" is one out of seven acknowledged gender settings. To quote from Distress: :"Asex was really nothing but an umbrella term for a broad group of philosophies, styles of dress, cosmetic-surgical changes, and deep-biological alterations. The only thing that one asex person necessarily had in common with another was the view that vis gender parameters (neural, endocrine, chromosomal and genital) were the business of no one but verself, usually (but not always) vis lovers, probably vis doctor, and sometimes a few close friends. What a person actually did in response to that attitude could range from as little as ticking the 'A' box on census forms, to choosing an asex name, to breast or body-hair reduction, voice timbre adjustment, facial resculpting, empouchment (surgery to render the male genitals retractable), all the way to full physical and/or neural asexuality, hermaphroditism, or exoticism." (Distress, paperback ed., p. 45) An example of a sympathetically presented asexual character in science fiction is Aghora, one of Alejandro Jodorowsky's Metabarons, who is not only asexual but also a transman. Samuel R. Delany's 1969 short story "Aye, and Gomorrah..." depicts a society where astronauts become sexless because cosmic radiation renders their reproductive organs useless. Ryan A. Morgan's 1997 novel John-Jack Christian tells about a teenager struggling to deal with his asexuality in a normal teenage environment, before resorting to bodybuilding to keep himself sane. In Doctor Who, the fictional character The Doctor has always been traditionally depicted as asexual despite his regular stream of attractive young female companions. Some fans debate the absolute nature of this assumption. Since the First Doctor's first companion, Susan Foreman, was introduced as his grandaughter, it is often assumed, but never confirmed, that the Doctor was at one time in his early life married with children. In the K. Sandra Fuhr's online strips Boy Meets Boy (ended) and Friendly Hostility (ongoing), the cynical Collin Sri'Vastra claims to be asexual. He later forms a relationship with his best friend Kailen "Fox" Maharassa, but his romantic/affectionate levels appear to be rather low, at least at the begining. One of the central characters of Isabel Allende's The House of Spirits, Clara, could be construed as asexual. In her later years, she expresses a lack of interest in coitus, commenting that it only makes her bones ache.

References

- Bogaert, Anthony F. (August 2004). [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_3_41/ai_n6274004 Asexuality: prevalence and associated factors in a national probability sample]. Journal of Sex Research. Retrieved 5 March 2005.
- Egan, Greg (1995). Distress.
- Prause, Nicole, and Graham. [http://www.asexuality.org/docs/SSSS_2003.ppt Asexuality: a preliminary investigation]. Retrieved 4 March 2005. (Note: Power Point file.)
- Westphal, Sylvia Pagan (14 October 2004). [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996533 Glad to be asexual]. New Scientist.

External links

- [http://www.asexuality.org/ Asexual Visibility and Education Network]
- [http://archive.salon.com/mwt/feature/2005/05/26/asexual Asexual and proud!]. Salon, (May 26, 2005).
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/science/story/0,12996,1326893,00.html No sex please, we're asexual]. The Guardian, (14 October 2004).
- [http://www.cnn.com/2004/TECH/science/10/14/asexual.study/index.html Study: One in 100 adults asexual]. CNN, (14 October 2004).
- [http://www.asexualove.net Asexual personals]
- [http://www.theofficialasexualsociety.com/contact1.html The Official Nonlibidoism Society] Category:Non-sexuality Category:Sexual orientation Category:Sexual orientation and identity

Homosexuality

Since its inception, the term homosexuality has acquired multiple meanings. In the original sense, it refers to a sexual orientation characterised by a lasting aesthetic attraction, romantic love, and sexual desire exclusively for members of the same sex or gender identity. It can also refer to the manifestation of that orientation in the identity of an individual, which may be at odds with that person's sexual behaviour. Finally, it can refer to sexual relations with another of the same sex regardless of one's sexual orientation, self-identification or gender identity. Homosexuality is usually contrasted with heterosexuality and bisexuality (see sexual orientation). Three major forms of homosexual relationships are proposed by anthropologists: egalitarian, gender-structured, and age-structured. Of these, one is usually dominant in a given society at a given time. (See Forms below.) As there are different biological, historical and psychosocial components to sex and gender, no single label or description will fit all individuals. See discussions on sex and gender at sex and homosexuality and transgender. Religion addresses homosexuality often, and the issue is one of the greatest in religious politics today. There are Abrahamic Religions that do condemn it, but there are denominations and groups that accept homosexuality and advocate gay rights. Non Abrahamic religions either take a neutral stance, or condemn it, or even idolize it. Until the colonial era, most idolized or did not care about it. The colonialization of Christian European empires changed this. Most nations do not impede consensual sex between unrelated individuals above the local age of consent. Some jurisdictions further recognise equal rights, protections and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including marriage. Some nations and religions mandate that homosexual and bisexual people restrict themselves to heterosexual relationships or abstinence. In some jurisdictions individuals having relations with others of the same sex are subject to various sanctions, ranging as far as capital punishment in some fundamentalist Muslim areas such as Iran and parts of Nigeria. There are often significant differences between official policy and concrete enforcement. A force to be reckoned with in the homosexual community, Peter Pavlou is known as a taker

Etymology and usage

The word homosexual translates literally as "same-sex," being a hybrid of the Greek prefix homo- meaning "same" and the Latin root sex- meaning "sex." The first known appearance of the term homosexual in print is found in an anonymously published 1869 German pamphlet written by the Hungarian Karl-Maria Kertbeny. The term homosexual can be used as a noun or adjective to describe persons as well as their sexual orientation, sexual history, or self-identification. Since homosexual places emphasis on sexuality, it should be avoided in reference to non-sexual contexts. Some people also feel the term is too clinical and somewhat dehumanising. Much of that sentiment arose while homosexuality was still classified as a mental illness in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. As a result of this sentiment the terms gay and lesbian are generally preferred when discussing a person with this sexual orientation. Some same-sex oriented persons actually prefer the term homosexual to gay, as they may perceive the former as describing a sexual orientation and the latter as describing a cultural or socio-political group with which they do not identify. The term gay may refer to all homosexual people, or only to homosexual men, which is why gay man may be preferred. Lesbian refers exclusively to homosexual women. Although some early writers used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-gender context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term implies a sexual aspect. The term homosocial is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. The more generic term homophilia ("same-love") is also preferred by some. Derogatory terms include fag or faggot, which generally refer to gay men; poofter, is used mostly in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth; queer is generally used against anyone who is not exclusively heterosexual, but also reclaimed as an affirming term by many gays and academics; Gay and homo are common terms of abuse among adolescents; and dyke, which refers to lesbians. See Homophobia Given how confusing and overloaded various terms can be, when specificity is important new terms are starting to be pressed into service. For example, men who have sex with men, or MSM for short, is sometimes used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual behaviour (regardless of sexual orientation or self-identification). Same-sex attraction focuses on spontaneous feeling, but de-emphasises identification with a demographic or cultural group, and also leaves open the possibilty for co-existing opposite-sex attraction. Homoerotic is a synonym for same-sex attraction, that is used to refer both to personal feelings and works of art. Non-straight is another attempt at neutrality that is gaining currency. Some other humorous terms are now gaining weight, including heteroflexible to refer to a person who identifies as heterosexual, but occasionally engages in same-sex sexual activities, or metrosexual to denote a straight man with stereotypically gay tastes in food, fashion and design.

Academic study

The manifestation of sexual orientation is subject to a considerable variability. Thus it is common for homosexual individuals in heteronormative societies to love, marry, and have children with individuals of the opposite sex, a practice that may be done primarily for social reasons in societies which reject same-sex relations, as a cover for one's orientation (such relationships are known as "beards"). The opposite situation seems to obtain in homonormative societies, where men whose primary attraction may be to the opposite sex nonetheless engage in the homosexual practices prescribed by their respective culture. Both of these adaptations are forms of situational sexual behavior. A further, and extremely common, manifestation of situational sexual behaviour involving homosexuality is seen in prisons and other environments where individuals only encounter members of their own sex for long periods of time. (See prison sex.)

Anthropology

Forms

Numerous researchers studying the social construction of same-sex relationships have suggested that the concept of homosexuality would best be rendered as "homosexualities." They document that same-sex relations have been and continue to be organised in distinctly categorical ways by different societies over many documented eras. These variations are grouped by cultural anthropologist Stephen O. Murray into three separate modes of association:
- Egalitarian, features two partners with no relevance to age. Additionally, both play the same socially-accepted sex role as heterosexuals of their own sex. This is exemplified by relationships currently prevalent in western society between partners of similar age and gender. See Sexual minority cultures
- Gender structured features each partner playing a different gender role. This is exemplified by traditional relations between men in the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and Central and South Asia, as well as two-spirit or shamanic gender-changing practices seen in native societies. Albania also has a similar practice where a woman may choose to be an "Albanian Virgin" and be given all the rights and entitlements of a man. In North America, this is best represented by the butch/femme practice. See Homosexuality and Islam, Two-Spirit and Hijra Hijra
- Age structured features two partners of different ages, usually spanning at least one generation. This is exemplified by pederasty among the Classical Greeks or those engaged in by novice samurai with more experienced warriors; southern Chinese boy-marriage rites; and ongoing Central Asian and Middle Eastern practices. See Shudo, Pederasty, Historical pederastic couples, and Homosexuality in China, Both gender-structured and age-structured homosexuality frequently involve one partner adopting a "passive" and the other an "active" role. Among men, being the passive partner often means receiving semen, i.e. performing fellatio or being the receptive partner during anal sex. This is sometimes interpreted as an emphasis on the sexual pleasure of the active partner, although this is not true in all cases. For example, in gender-structured female homosexuality in Thailand, active partners (toms) emphasise the sexual pleasure of the passive partner (dee), and often refuse to allow their dee to pleasure them. Some anthropologists have argued for the existence of a fourth type of homosexuality, class-structured homosexuality, but many scholars believe that this has no independent existence from the other three types. Usually in any society one form of homosexuality predominates, though others are likely to co-exist. As historian Rictor Norton points out in his [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/social19.htm Intergenerational and Egalitarian Models,] in Ancient Greece egalitarian relationships co-existed (albeit less privileged) with the institution of pederasty, and fascination with adolescents can also be found in modern sexuality, both heterosexual and homosexual. Egalitarian homosexuality is becoming the principal form practised in the Western world, while age- and gender-structured homosexuality are becoming less common. As a byproduct of Western cultural dominance, this egalitarian homosexuality is spreading from western culture to non-Western societies, although there are still defined differences between the various cultures.

Incidence

Estimates of the modern prevalence of homosexuality vary considerably. They are complicated by differing or even ambiguous definitions of homosexuality, and by fluctuations over time and according to location. Recent estimates on the number of homosexuals (not including bisexuals) in Western countries, where egalitarian relationships predominate, range from 1% to 10%, confined to a self-identified subculture. In the United States during the 2004 elections, exit polls indicated 4% of all voters self-identified as gay or lesbian. However, many who are homosexual may not be open in public as evident in the recent forced "outings" of New Jersey Governor Jim McGreevey and Spokane, Washington, Mayor Jim West. In North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, where gender- and age-structured relationships are the rule, male homosexual practices are reported to be widespread, engaged in by many individuals who do not regard themselves as homosexual. See Homosexuality and Islam Historically, in areas where same-sex relationships were embedded in the culture, such as Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, parts of Melanesia, Renaissance Italy, and pre-modern Japan, homosexual relationships were engaged in by a majority of the male population. See Pederasty

Biology

Prenatal hormonal theory

One recent hypothesis on the formation of sexual orientation is the prenatal hormonal theory. It holds that as prenatal exposure to particular levels of circulating sex hormones determines whether a fetus will acquire male or female traits, so similar exposure determines sexual orientation. However this begins with genetic susceptibility. Twin studies provide strong support for this theory, with a high concordance rate in identical twins, who share 100% of their genetic material. Fraternal twins, as with siblings born at different times, share only 50% of their genetic material on average and are much less likely to both be homosexual. In a fetus that carries the genetic susceptibility for homosexuality, sex hormones from the mother and sex hormones from the gonads of the fetus (to a lesser extent) trigger the expression of those genes. Although identical twins have identical genes and almost always share a placenta, they do have their individual umbilical cords, providing subtle differences in the chemical environment for the developing brain. There are differences in identical twins, such as fingerprints, which are unique in each individual. Fingerprints are formed during the second trimester of pregnancy; lesbians often share a unique fingerprint swirl, adding to the mounting evidence that homosexuality is caused by genetic susceptibility triggered by the prenatal hormonal environment.

Physiological differences in homosexual persons

Several recent studies, including pioneering work by Simon LeVay, demonstrate that there are notable differences between the physiology of a heterosexual male and a homosexual male. These differences are primarily noted in the brain, inner ear and olfactory sense. LeVay discovered in his double-blind experiment that approximately 10% of human male brains were physiologically different than their heterosexual counterparts. Studies in women have not produced similar findings to date.

Homosexuality in other animals

olfactory.
(Picture:Nicole Bengiveno/The New York Times)]] Homosexual behaviour is common in the animal kingdom, especially in species closer to humans on the evolutionary scale, such as the great apes. Georgetown University professor Janet Mann has specifically theorised that homosexuality, at least in dolphins, is an evolutionary advantage that minimises intraspecies aggression, especially among males.
- Male penguin couples have been documented to mate for life, build nests together, and to use a stone as a surrogate egg in nesting and brooding. In 2004, the Central Park Zoo in the United States replaced one male couple's stone with a fertile egg, which the couple then raised as their own offspring. German and Japanese zoos have also reported homosexuality among their penguins. This phenomenon has also been reported at Kelly Tarlton's Aquarium in Auckland, New Zealand.
- Courtship, mounting, and full anal penetration between bulls is common among American bison. The Mandan nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behaviour, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season." Also, mounting of one female by another is common among cattle. (See also, Freemartin. Freemartins occur because of clearly causal hormonal factors at work during gestation.)
- Homosexuality in male sheep (found in 6-10% of rams) is associated with variations in cerebral mass distribution and chemical activity. A study reported in Endocrinology concluded that biological and physiological factors are in effect. These findings are similar to human findings studied by Simon LeVay.

Psychology

Behavioural Studies

At the beginning of the 20th century, early theoretical discussions in the field of psychoanalysis posited original bisexuality in human psychological development. Quantitative studies by Alfred Kinsey in the 1940s and Dr Fritz Klein's Klein Grid in the 1980s find distributions similar to those postulated by their predecessors. Many modern studies, most notably the Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and the Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) by Alfred Kinsey have found that the majority of humans have had homosexual experiences or sensations and are bisexual. Contemporary scientific research suggests that the majority of the human population is bisexual, adhering to a fluid sexual scale rather than a category, as Western society typically views sexual nature. The Kinsey Reports found that approximately [http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/publications/duberman.html four percent] of adult Americans were exclusively homosexual for their entire lives, and approximately 10 percent were homosexual in their behaviour for some portion of their lives. Conversely, an even smaller minority of people appear to have had equal sexual experiences with both genders indicating an attraction scale or continuum. However, social pressures influence people to adhere to categories or labels rather than behave in a manner that more closely resembles their nature as suggested by this research. Kinsey himself, along with current queer activist groups, focus on the historicity and fluidity of sexual orientation. Kinsey's studies consistently found sexual orientation to be something that evolves in many directions over a person's lifetime; rarely, but not necessarily, including forming attractions to a new gender. Rarely do individuals radically reorient their sexualities rapidly — and still less do they do so volitionally — but often sexualities expand, shift, and absorb new elements over decades. For example, socially normative "age-appropriate" sexuality requires a shifting object of attraction (especially in the passage through adolescence). Contemporary queer theory, incorporating many ideas from social constructionism, tends to look at sexuality as something that has meaning only within a given historical framework. Sexuality, then, is seen as a participation in a larger social discourse, and, though in some sense fluid, not as something strictly determinable by the individual. Most sexual orientation specialists follow the general conclusion of Alfred Kinsey regarding the sexual continuum, according to which a minority of humans are exclusively homosexual or heterosexual, and that the majority are bisexual. The consensus of psychologists is that sexual orientation, in most individuals, is shaped at an early age; and is not voluntarily changeable. Other studies have disputed Kinsey's methodology and have suggested that these reports overstated the occurrence of bisexuality and homosexuality in human populations. "His figures were undermined when it was revealed that he had disproportionately interviewed homosexuals and prisoners (many sex offenders)." However, Kinsey's idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys acceptance today and is supported by findings in the human and animal kingdoms including biological studies of structural brain differences between those belonging to different sexual orientations. More modern and accurate research Sex in America: A definitive survey (1995) is now available from NORC and the University of Chicago by Edward O. Laumann, University of Chicago. "Results reported from the study, and included in The Social organisation of sexuality, include those related to sexual practices and sexual relationships, number of partners, the rate of homosexuality in the population (which the study reported to be 1.3% for women within the past year, and 4.1% since 18 years; for men, 2.7% within the past year, and 4.9% since 18 years; in all, much lower than the Kinsey report of 10%; pp. 293-296), formative sexual experiences, sexually transmitted diseases, fertility, cohabitation and marriage." Sexologists have attributed discrepancies in some findings to negative societal attitudes towards homosexuality, for example, people may state different sexual orientations depending on whether their immediate social environment is public or private. Reticence to disclose one's actual sexual orientation is often referred to as "being in the closet". Individuals capable of enjoyable sexual relations with both sexes may feel inclined to restrict themselves to heterosexual relations in societies that stigmatise same-sex relations. Although the concept of three basic sexual orientations is widely recognised, a small minority maintain that there are other legitimate sexual orientations besides homosexuality, bisexuality and heterosexuality. These may include significant or exclusive orientation towards a particular type of transsexual or transgender individual (e.g. female-to-male transsexual men), intersexed individuals, or those who identify as non-gendered or other-gendered.

Behaviour modification

Some groups attempt to cure homosexuality, including Abrahamic congregations which interpret their sacred texts as holding homosexuality to be unnatural. These groups consider homosexuality to be an undesired orientation. Reparative therapy is psychotherapy aimed at the elimination of homosexual attractions and is employed by people who believe homosexuality to be a disorder and a sin. "Transformational ministry" believes that homosexual attraction is essentially a sin that can be reversed through a religious approach employing repentance and faith, usually in Jesus Christ. Proponents of these treatments have paid little attention to long term outcome studies, and some persons have reported that great harm was inflicted on them by such "treatments." There is no credible, scientific evidence supporting successful treatment of sexual orientation. Persons who do report a change to their sexual orientation most likely are bisexual to begin with - that is, capable of sexual attraction to the opposite sex.

Nature versus nurture

Considerable debate exists over what biological and/or psychological factors produce sexual orientation in humans. Candidates include genes and the exposure of foetuses to certain hormones (or levels thereof). Freud and many others psychologists, particularly in psychoanalytic or developmental traditions, speculate that formative childhood experiences help produced sexual orientation. Other scientists and medical professionals, particularly those in biology-oriented disciplines, tend to believe that in-born factors–whether genetic or acquired in utero–produce characteristically homosexual childhood experiences (such as atypical gender behaviour experiences), or at the least significantly contribute to them.

Societal attitudes

Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships, reflected in the attitude of the general population, the state and the church, have varied over the centuries, and from place to place, from expecting and requiring all males to engage in relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, to proscribing it under penalty of death. See Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered

Modern law

In most developed countries, same-sex relationships are accepted, and are accorded legal protection. Many governments have established formal structures for confirming legal relationships (either as marriage or partnership) between people of the same sex. In some cultures influenced by anti-gay religious dogma, homosexuality is still considered unnatural, a perversion and has been outlawed (see sodomy law, consensual crime). In some Muslim such as Iran nations it remains a capital crime.

Understudied phenomenon

Despite the emollience of attitudes towards homosexuality and acceptance of it in some societies, in psychology it is considered an 'understudied relationship'. In his book, Understudied Relationships, social psychologist S.W. Duck found that most mainstream research is predisposed towards studying only heterosexuality, in terms of relationships in contemporary Western cultures, implicating that same-sex relationships are neglected and ignored by the majority of psychologists. More research since the 1990s has focused on homosexual relationships, rather than just heterosexual relationships.

Political aspects

Scapegoating

1990)]] Homosexuality has at times been used as a scapegoat by governments facing problems. Some examples would be Nazi Germany's Holocaust of gay men based on the understanding that they were a threat to masculinity as well as contaminating the Aryan Race with a "gay" gene. Another is the burning of 6,000 books of homoerotic poetry of 8th c. Persian-Arab poet Abu Nuwas by the Egyptian Ministry of Culture in January 2001, to placate Islamic fundamentalists. During the early 14th century, accusations of homosexual behaviour were instrumental in disbanding the Knights Templar by the French court under Philip IV of France (King Philip the Fair). See: Heresy and Pardon of Knights Templar.

Modern capitalism

Capitalism with its business structures having a great degree of autonomy from a government have often been at the forefront in treating gay men and women equally. In the United States, the level of equal parity is much more common in business structures than governments. As of 2005 approximately 45% of companies within the Fortune 500 offered domestic partner benefits and nine of the top ten companies include sexual orientation in their non-discrimination policies.

Military

sexual orientation allow service without any distinction based on sexual orientation.]] Homosexuality since ancient times has been documented to be more common in militaries with their generally strict sex segregation. Official attitudes towards this form of sexuality have varied, usually reflecting their culture's views. Ancient Greece among others, as well as pre-modern Japan's military traditions openly encouraged sexual relationships among men as a form of male bonding (see pederasty and shudo). Many modern countries (such as the United Kingdom) welcome homosexuals in the armed services and offically support soldiers' participation in pride parades. Others, such as the United States, purge them from the force in the belief that they are a threat (see Don't ask, don't tell). This negative attitude was common in the European Middle Ages when the Knights Templar, a prominent Christian brotherhood of knights during the Crusades was destroyed on accusations of homosexuality. Militaries have been known to use sexuality in abusive manners such as rape, frequently based on a sexist view of gender roles. Ancient Romans viewed masculinity as being associated with a penetrative sexual role, regardless of the sex of the receptive partner, and used it as a form of dominance. T. E. Lawrence, during World War I, claimed to have been raped by his male Ottoman captors.
- See also: Sacred Band of Thebes

Youth groups

The Scouts, a group of youth organisations, often emulate the attitude of their home country's military. Thus the Scout Association in the UK welcomes gay members both as members and as leaders, while the Boy Scouts in the US reject them.

Religion

Religion has played a significant role in forming a culture's views towards homosexuality. Historically the negative perceptions have been limited to the Abrahamic religions. Groups not influenced by the Abrahamic religions have commonly regarded homosexuality as sacred or neutral. In the wake of colonialism and imperialism undertaken by countries of the Abrahamic faiths some non-Abrahamic religious groups have adopted new attitudes antagonistic towards homosexuality. For example, when India became part of the British Empire sodomy laws were introduced; while there was no basis for them in Hindu faith, this led to persecution of their society and religion. India still retains portions of these laws due to this past foreign influence as of 2005. This experience was also repeated by other Abrahamic religious nations upon their acquisitions throughout Africa, Asia and the Americas. The Roman Catholic Church accepts the three distinct orientation findings and requires homosexuals to practice chastity in the understanding that Chr