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Imam

Imam

Imam (Arabic: إمام) is an Arabic word meaning "Leader". The ruler of a country might be called the Imam, for example. The term, however, has important connotations in the Islamic tradition especially in Shia Beliefs . __TOC__

Prayer Leader

The common everyday use of the word is for a person leading Muslim congregational prayers (salah). In this meaning the imam is not required to be a cleric.

Clerical "Imams"

Shia "Imams"

In the Shia context, Imam also has a meaning more central to belief. The Shia believe that an Imam is someone that is able to lead mankind in all aspects of life. In addition they believe that an Imam is a perfect example in everything. According to Shia, an Imam is a leader that must be followed since he is appointed by Allah (GOD). The Shia interpretation is that the Quran clearly says that only God can appoint an Imam and no one else has the power to designate one. The incident of Ghadeer-e-Khum is referenced as when Muhammad declared Ali as the leader of the community after him. According to the Twelve-Imam Shiite, Imam is a divine status like Prophecy. A Prophet can also be an Imam but not all Prophets are Imams. Since Prophet Muhammad is the last Prophet, there could be no Prophets after him and so the 12 Imams are not Prophets but only Imams. These 12 Imams are as great in a sense as all the previous prophets except Prophet Muhammed who is the greatest of all. Following is a listing of the rightful successors of Muhammad, as recognized by ("Twelver") Shias. Each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, except for Husayn who was the brother of Hasan. See Shia Imams for details. # Ali ibn Abu Talib (600–661) # Hasan ibn Ali (625–669) # Husayn ibn Ali (626–680) # Ali ibn Husayn (658–713), also known as Zainul Abideen # Muhammad al Baqir (676–743) # Jafar as Sadiq (703–765) # Musa al Kazim (745–799) # Ali ar Rida (765–818) # Muhammad at Taqi (810–835) # Ali al Hadi (827–868) # Hasan al Askari (846–874) # Muhammad al Mahdi (868–?)) The Ismailis trace a different line of Imams, branching at one of Husayn's descendants, Ismail bin Jafar. The Zaiddiyah trace a different line, branching at Husayn's grandson, Zaid.

Sunni "Imams"

The term is also used for a recognized religious leader or teacher in Islam, often for the founding scholars of the four Sunni madhhabs, or schools of religious jurisprudence (fiqh). For example, Imam Abu Hanifa. Or the Imams of the sciences related to Hadith such as Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Imam Abu Dawood. Or the heads of the Prophet's descendants in their times such as Imam Jafar Sadiq.

Theocratical "Imams"

In a few historical cases, the title of imam was used for a de facto Muslim theocratic ruler, especially sectarian, sort of a mini-caliph or Mahdi; notably :
- in northern Yemen
- in Oman
- in Chechnya and in Muslim regions of Russia

External links

- For a slightly more detailed description of the Shiite belief (and for the other names and titles of the twelve Imáms), see, for example, http://www.bahai-library.org/books/dawnbreakers/preface/prefislam.html .
- [http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html Graphical illustration of the Shia sects]
- [http://www.akhbari.com Akhbari sub-sect], a Shia school of thought; including Khomeini's
- Iman Category:Arabic words ja:イマーム th:อิมาม

Arabic language

The Arabic language (; , less formally, ) is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. It is spoken throughout the Arab world and is widely studied and known throughout the Islamic world. Arabic has been a literary language since at least the 6th century and is the liturgical language of Islam.

Literary and Modern Standard Arabic

The term "Arabic" may refer either to literary Arabic, which no Arab speaks as a mother tongue, or Modern Standard Arabic or to the many spoken varieties of Arabic commonly called "colloquial Arabic." Arabs consider literary Arabic as the standard language and tend to view everything else as mere dialects. Literary Arabic, (Literally: "the most eloquent Arabic language" — ) refers both to the language of present-day media across North Africa and the Middle East and to the more archaic language of the Qur'an. (The expression media here includes most television and radio, and all written matter, including all books, newspapers, magazines, documents of every kind, and reading primers for small children.) "Colloquial" or "dialectal" Arabic refers to the many national or regional dialects/languages derived from Classical Arabic, spoken daily across North Africa and the Middle East, which constitute the everyday spoken language. These sometimes differ enough to be mutually incomprehensible. These dialects are not typically written, although a certain amount of literature (particularly plays and poetry) exists in many of them. They are often used to varying degrees in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic, is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of Diglossia -the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of whatever nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school-taught literary Arabic (to an equal or lesser degree). This diglossic situation facilitates code switching in which a speaker switches back and forth unaware between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. In instances in which Arabs of different nationalities engage in conversation only to find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g. a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), both should be able to code switch into Literary Arabic for the sake of communication. Since the written Arabic of today differs from the written Arabic of the Qur'anic era, it has become customary in western scholarship and among non-Arab scholars of Arabic to refer to the language of the Qur'an as Classical Arabic and the modern language of the media and of formal speeches as Modern Standard Arabic. Arabs, on the other hand, often use the term to refer to both forms, thus placing greater emphasis on the similarities between the two. The difference between Arabic of the Qur'anic era and today's Classical Arabic is only in the degree of eloquance. The vocabulary, the syntatic and grammatical rules are the same. Quite a few English words are ultimately derived from Arabic, often through other European languages, especially Spanish, among them every-day vocabulary like sugar (sukkar), cotton (qutn) or magazine (). More recognizable are words like algorithm, algebra, alchemy, alcohol, azimuth, nadir, and zenith (see List of English words of Arabic origin). The Maltese language spoken on the Mediterranean island of Malta is the only surviving European language to derive primarily from Arabic (a North African dialect), though it contains a large number of Italian and English borrowings.

Arabic and Islam

It is sometimes difficult to translate Islamic concepts, and concepts specific to Arab culture, without using the original Arabic terminology. The Qur'an is expressed in Arabic and traditionally Muslims deem it impossible to translate in a way that would adequately reflect its exact meaning—indeed, until recently, some schools of thought maintained that it should not be translated at all. A list of Islamic terms in Arabic covers those terms which are too specific to translate in one phrase. While Arabic is strongly associated with Islam (and is the language of salah), it is also spoken by Arab Christians, Oriental (Sephardic) Jews, and smaller sects such as Iraqi Mandaeans. Even so, a majority of the world's Muslims do not actually speak Arabic, but only know some fixed phrases of Arabic, such as those used in Islamic prayer. However, to counteract this, there is great encouragement for non-Arabic-speaking Muslims to learn the language.

Dialects

See Varieties of Arabic for a fuller overview. "Colloquial Arabic" is a collective term for the spoken languages or dialects of people throughout the Arab world, which, as mentioned, differ radically from the literary language. The main dialectal division is between the Maghreb dialects and those of the Middle East, followed by that between sedentary dialects and the much more conservative Bedouin dialects. Maltese, though descended from Arabic, is considered a separate language. Speakers of some of these dialects are unable to converse with speakers of another dialect of Arabic; in particular, while Middle Easterners can generally understand one another, they often have trouble understanding Maghrebis (although the converse is not true, due to the popularity of Middle Eastern—especially Egyptian—films and other media). One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words, and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among Romance languages, retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi aku, Levantine fiih, and North African kayen all mean "there is", and all come from Arabic (yakuun, fiihi, kaa'in respectively), but now sound very different. The major groups are:
- Egyptian Arabic (Egypt) Considered the most widely understood and used "second dialect"
- Maghreb Arabic (Algerian Arabic, Moroccan Arabic, Tunisian Arabic and western Libyan)
- Levantine Arabic (Western Syrian, Lebanese, Palestinian, and western Jordanian, Cypriot Maronite Arabic)
- Iraqi Arabic or Gulf Arabic (Iraqi, Eastern Syrian, Kuwaiti, Saudi Arabian, Persian Gulf coast from Iraq to Oman including much of Saudi Arabia's Eastern Province, and minorities on the other side) Other varieties include:
- (in Mauritania and Western Sahara)
- Andalusi Arabic (extinct, but important role in literary history)
- Maltese
- Sudanese Arabic (with a dialect continuum into Chad)
- Hijazi Arabic (West Cost of Saudi Arabia, Northern Saudi Arabia, eastern Jordan, Western Iraq)
- Najdi Arabic (Najd region of central Saudi Arabia)
- Yemeni Arabic (Yemen to southern Saudi Arabia)

Phonology

The consonant phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Standard Arabic, which has only three vowels, in short and long variants, namely and . Naturally, considerable allophony occurs.

Consonants

Standard Arabic has 28 consonants: See Arabic alphabet for explanations on the IPA phonetic symbols found in this chart. # is pronounced as by some speakers. This is especially characteristic of the Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects. In many parts of North Africa and in the Levant, it is pronounced as . # is pronounced only in , the name of God, i.e. Allah. # is usually a phonetic approximant. # In many varieties (if not most), are actually epiglottal (despite what is reported in many earlier works).

Emphatic Consonants

The consonants traditionally known as "emphatic" are either velarised or pharyngealised . In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter e.g. is written ‹D›; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it e.g. ‹ḍ›.

Long Consonants

Vowels and consonants can be (phonologically) short or long. Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark shaddah, which marks lengthened consonants. Such consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: e.g. qabala "he received" and qabbala "he kissed".

Syllable Shape

Arabic has two kinds of syllable: open syllables (CV) and (CVV) - and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC). Every syllable begins with a consonant - or else a consonant is borrowed from a previous word through elision – especially in the case of the definite article THE, al (used when starting an utterance) or _l (when following a word), e.g. baytu –l mudiir “house (of) the director”, which becomes bay-tul-mu-diir when divided syllabically. By itself, definite mudiir would be pronounced .

Word Stress

Although word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic, it does bear a strong relationship to vowel length and syllable shape, and correct word stress aids intelligibility. In general, "heavy" syllables attract stress (i.e. syllables of longer duration - a closed syllable or a syllable with a long vowel). In a word with a syllable with one long vowel, the long vowel attracts the stress (e.g. ki-'taab and ‘kaa-tib). In a word with two long vowels, the second long vowel attracts stress (e.g.ma-kaa-'tiib). In a word with a "heavy" syllable where two consonants occur together or the same consonant is doubled, the (last) heavy syllable attracts stress (e.g. ya-ma-’niyy, ka-'tabt, ka-‘tab-na, ma-‘jal-lah, ‘mad-ra-sah, yur-‘sil-na). This last rule trumps the first two: ja-zaa-i-‘riyy. Otherwise, word stress typically falls on the first syllable: ‘ya-man, ‘ka-ta-bat, etc. The Cairo (Egyptian Arabic) dialect, however, has some idiosyncrasies in that a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, so that mad-‘ra-sah carries the stress on the second-to-last syllable, as does qaa-‘hi-rah.

Dialectical Phonologies

In some dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, non-Arabic is used in the Maghreb dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names. Semitic became extremely early on in Arabic before it was written down; a few modern Arabic dialects, such as Iraqi (influenced by Persian) distinguish between and . Interdental fricatives ( and ) are rendered as stops and in some dialects (principally Levantine and Egyptian) and as and in "learned" words from the Standard language. Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes and coallesced into a single phoneme, becoming one or the other. Predictably, dialects without interdental fricatives use exclusively, while those with such fricatives use . Again, in "learned" words from the Standard language, is rendered as in dialects without interdental fricatives. Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render Standard (a voiceless uvular stop): it retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen and Morocco (and among the Druze), while it is rendered in Gulf Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Upper Egypt and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan) and as a glottal stop in many prestige dialects, such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. Thus, Arabs instantly give away their geographical (and class) origin by their pronunciation of a word such as qamar "moon": , or .

Grammar

See Arabic grammar

Alphabet

Arabic alphabet

Main article: Arabic alphabet The Arabic alphabet derives from the Aramaic script (which variety - Nabataean or Syriac - is a matter of scholarly dispute), to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of Coptic or Cyrillic script to Greek script. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (Maghrebi) and Eastern version of the alphabet—in particular, the fa and qaf had a dot underneath and a single dot above respectively in the Maghreb, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools (zaouias) of West Africa. Arabic, like other Semitic languages, is written from right to left.

Calligraphy

See Arabic calligraphy for a fuller overview. After the definitive fixing of the Arabic script around 786, by Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Qur'an and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration. Kufic font Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the Latin alphabet, Arabic script is used to write down a verse of the Qur'an, a Hadith, or simply a proverb, in a spectacular composition. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. Two of the current masters of the genre are Hassan Massoudy and [http://arabworld.nitle.org/gallery.php?module_id=7 Khaled Al Saa’i].

Arabic using the Latin alphabet

See Arabic transliteration and Arabic Chat Alphabet for more information. There are a number of different standards of Arabic transliteration: methods of accurately and efficently representing Arabic with the Latin alphabet. The more scientific standards allow the reader to recreate the exact word using the Arabic alphabet. However, these systems are heavily reliant on diacritical marks, which may be difficult to pronounce at first sight. Other, less scientific, systems often use digraphs (like sh and kh), which are usually more simple to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems. During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the Arab world, such as personal computers, the World Wide Web, email, Bulletin board systems, IRC, instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the Latin alphabet only, and some of them still do not have the Arabic alphabet as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script. To handle those Arabic letters that do not have an approximate equivalent in the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. E.g., the Latin numeral "3" is used to represent the Arabic letter "ع" ("ayn"). There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it Arabic Chat Alphabet.

External links

- [http://arabic-media.com/ Arabic-Media] on-line access to Arabic newspapers, radio, and television
- [http://st-takla.org/Learn_Languages/01_Learn_Arabic-ta3leem-3araby/Learn-Arabic_00-index_El-Fehres.html Learn Arabic language online with audio pronunciation] from [http://St-Takla.org St. Takla Egyptian Church]
- [http://www.nicoweb.com/sirpus/learn%20arabic%20course%20mp3.htm Arabic Writing and Reading with MP3]. Arabic Writing and Reading Course Online with MP3 audio.
- [http://pince31.free.fr/lang/arabic/liens.htm Links to learn Arabic language with online course]
- [http://www.madinaharabic.com Arabic language learning course with audio]
- [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=4&article_id=6173 "Antonyms in Arabic are a strange phenomenon" by Tamim al-Barghouti]
- [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=17 "The Development of Classical Arabic" by Kees Versteegh]
- [http://arabworld.nitle.org/audiovisual.php?module_id=1&selected_feed=118 Wellesley College Professor of Arabic on the forms and dialects of the language]
- [http://www.uga.edu/islam/arabic_windows.html Multilingual Computing in Arabic with Windows, major word processors, web browsers, Arabic keyboards, and Arabic transliteration fonts]
- [http://www.gomideast.com/arabic/index.htm gomideast - Learning to Speak Arabic phrases]
- [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/arabic.htm List of online Arabic-related resources] Web references and examples:
- [http://transliteration.org/quran/Pronunciation/Letters/TashP.htm Arabic language pronunciation applet] with audio samples
- [http://www.sunna.info/teaching/ Learn Arabic]
- [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1289272 E2 article]
- [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/ar.htm Sprachprofi]
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Arabic-english/ Arabic - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=arb SIL's Ethnologue]
- [http://www.nitle.org/arabworld/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=113 Dialects of Arabic]
- [http://www.muftah-alhuruf.com Muftah-Alhuruf.com]: Write and send Arabic emails without having an Arabic keyboard or operating system. Arabic languages samples:
- [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic.php Arabic]
- [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-chadian-spoken.php Arabic Chadian Spoken]
- [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-judeo-iraqi.php Arabic Judeo Iraqi]
- [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-north-levantine-spoken.php Arabic North Levantine Spoken]
- [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=17 "The Development of Classical Arabic" by Kees Versteegh]
- Category:Arab ko:아랍어 ms:Bahasa Arab ja:アラビア語 simple:Arabic language th:ภาษาอาหรับ

Salah

Salah (also known as "salat", "solat", "solah" and several other spellings) (Arabic: صلاة, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة) refers to the five daily ritual prayers that Muslims offer to Allah (God). It is a pillar of the Five Pillars of Islam in Sunni Islam, and one of the ten Branches of Religion in Shi'a Islam. As such, it is compulsory (fard) upon every Muslim. It is widely known as "namaaz" in south Asian languages such as Urdu. The salah must be performed in the Arabic language even if the person neither speaks nor understands Arabic (although the dua afterwards need not be in Arabic). The prayers are to be recited by heart, although beginners may use written aids. The person performing salah is referred to as a musalleeh. All salah should be conducted within their waqt (prescribed time) and with the appropriate numbers of rakaat. While they may be prayed at any point within the waqt, it is considered best to pray them exactly at the beginning of their periods, when the call to prayer (adhan) announces the time of prayer. When far from a mosque, the time can be inferred from the position of the sun in the sky. The word 'salat' is from the root Saad-Lam-Waw and has the following meanings, taken from Classical Arabic lexicons (e.g. E. W Lane): prayer, supplication, petition, oration, eulogy, benediction, commendation, blessing, honour, magnify, bring forth, follow closely, walk/follow behind closely, to remain attached, to contact or to be in contact. Its core underlying meaning relevant to all its usage in The Quran is 'to go/turn towards' (this can be seen from Chapter 75, verse 31-32 of The Quran where it is put opposite to 'tawalla' which means 'to go/turn away'. In Islam, praying 'salah' is the most compulsory act (after 'shahada'- declaration of faith in God)

Five daily prayers

Muslims are commanded to perform salah fives times a day; these prayers are Fard (obligatory) on every Muslim above the age of puberty, with the exception being those who are mentally ill. The waqt for each of the five prayers is listed below: #Fajr: From dawn (the time at which the faintest hint of the new day starts) to sunrise. #Zuhr: From true noon, or when the sun begins to decline, to the time for the Asr prayer. On Fridays the Zuhr prayer is replaced by Jumu'ah (الجمعه). #Asr: The exact start time varies between the different schools of jurisprudence. According to Imam Abu Hanifa Asar starts when the shadow of an object becomes twice its height (plus the length of its shadow at the time of Zuhr). For the rest of Imams, Asr starts when the shadow of an object becomes equal to its length (plus the length of its shadow at the time of Zuhr). The period for prayer ends just before sunset. #Maghrib: Starts at sunset and ends right before the Isha'a time starts. According to Shi'a Imams, it starts when the reddish glow in the eastern sky passes overhead and it ends at true midnight. #Isha'a: It starts at dusk or when the white glow in the western sky disappears and ends at the time for the Fajr prayer. According to Imam Shafi'i it starts when the reddish glow in the western sky disappears. According Shi'a Imams, it is valid at any time after the Maghrib prayer has been validly performed and ends at the time for the Fajr prayer.

Qada

In certain circumstances one may be unable to perform one's prayer within the waqt, in this case the prayer must be performed as soon as one is able to. Prayers performed after the prescribed waqt are called qada. Note: It is not permissible to deliberately miss performing the Salah within its waqt, then to perform it afterwards.

Qasr and Jama

When travelling over long distances, one may shorten some prayers, a practice known as qasr. Furthermore, several prayer times may be concatenated, which is referred to as jama. Qasr involves shortening the obligatory components of the Zuhr, Asr and Isha prayers. Jama is when the Zuhr and Asr prayers are both performed either at the Zuhr or Asr time, and Maghrib and Isha'a are both performed at either of their respective times.

Sunnah prayers

Sunnah, as opposed to Fard, are voluntary prayers performed by musalleehs for extra reward. The Sunnah salah (as with all other Sunnahs) originated from the practice of the Prophet who used to perform more prayers than the obligatory amount. While general Sunnah salaah may be performed at any time of the day (with certain exceptions, see below), certain Sunnahs have prescribed waqts associated with them.

Sunnah Associated with the Five Daily Prayers

Apart from the obligatory prayers, each of the five daily salah also have associated Sunnah prayers which may be performed either before (qab'li'atan) and/or after (ada'an) the Fard Salah. The qad'li'atan sunnah is performed between the completion of the Adhan and the start of the Iqamah, while the ada'an sunnah is performed after the completion of the Fard salah up to the next waqt. Any amount of extra Sunnah may be performed, although most madhabs prescribe a certain number of Sunnah for each salah.

Witr

Witr salah is performed after the salah of Isha'a. It may contain any odd number of raka'at from one to eleven according to the different madha'ib.

Tahajjud

Tahajjud salah is performed at night, after one has woken from sleep (one cannot stay up to perform Tahajjud). It thus falls between the waqts of Isha'a and Fajr.

Tahiyatul Masjid

Tahiyatul Masjid, also called Masjidus Salaam, consists of two Raka'at and is performed when first entering a mosque, as a way of greeting the place of worship.

Taraweeh

Taraweeh is extra salah prescribed during the month of Ramadaan. It consists of 20 raka'at, (10 sets of two) which must be performed after Isha'a. It is common practice to complete a khatm (complete recitation) of the Quran in Taraweeh during the month.

Eid Salah

Eid Salah is performed on the morning of Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha. It is Wajib upon males to perform it. It consists of two raka'at, with the addition of extra Takbeers at the start of each raka'at. An integral part of Eid salah is listening to the khutbah after the prayers are performed.

Nafl Salah

Ritual ablution

Prayer can only be conducted after a Muslim has performed wudu (ritual ablution). In wudu, Sunni Muslims wash their hands, teeth, faces, noses, arms, hair, ears and feet three times in a particular order. Shi'a Muslims first wash their faces, then their arms, and then wipe their heads and feet with the moisture on their hands. When no water is available, sand may be used. (If the cleansing was done using water, the Muslim is considered to have cleansed him or herself from the physical manifestations of sin in a lasting fashion that extends between prayers; unless the Muslim does something to remove this cleanliness, the cleansing would not need to be repeated before the next prayer. When sand is used, the cleansing is only temporary and regardless of whether or not the Muslim commits any physical acts of uncleanliness he or she will need to undergo the ceremonial cleansing immediately before the next prayer.)

The prayer session

ablution The prayer starts with the intention to pray (Niyyah), and by reciting the first surah of the Qur'an (Al-Fatiha, "the Opening"), followed by a few short verses. Then, the Muslim bows and says something and stands upright again, only to reach the prayer mat and sit on his legs. He places his hands and face on the mat and sits up, repeating this once more before standing up and repeating the entire sequence. Each such action is called a raka'ah; there are two in Fajr, four for Zuhr and Asr, three for Maghrib, and again four for 'Isha'a. In each position, something is being said. Sunni Muslims end the session by looking right and left to, saying "Peace be unto you, and on you be peace" in Arabic to the believers sitting with you. (If alone, the Muslim greets his right angel and then his left angel. Muslims believe there is one angel on each shoulder, the one on the left noting every sin you commit, and the one on the right noting every good deed. Prayer removes a sin.) Shi'a Muslims end the session by reciting "Allahu Akbar" (God is Great) three times.

Prayer in a congregation

Muslims are suggested to perform the compulsory Salah in congregation (jama'ah), behind an Imam. Jama'ah prayer is considered better and has more social and spiritual benefit than individual prayer. When the performers consist of men and women, one man is chosen as imam. In this situation, women are forbidden from being an imam. This point, though unanimously agreed on by the major schools of Islam, is disputed by some groups, based partly on a hadith whose interpretation is controversial; see Women as imams. When the performers are all women, one woman is chosen as imam. When men, women, and children are performing, the children's rows are between men's and women's rows. There is also another configuration where man's rows and woman's rows are side by side, separated by big curtain / hijab, the main idea being that there is no direct line-of-sight between man and woman, following the Quran [http://www.submission.info/servlet/qtbrowse?pickthall=true&yusufali=true&arabic=true&chapter=24&verseBegin=30&verseEnd=31 24:30-31]. The person chosen to be an Imam may be a scholar, or the one who has the best knowledge of the Quran. When a muslim is praying they, their clothes, and the place where they are praying must be clean. Women must have their hair covered and are not allowed to pray with men except as described above.

External link

- [http://www.al-islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter7/6.html Salah according to Five Islamic Schools of Law]
- [http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/think-786/slw.htm An Understanding of 'salat' from Al Quran]
- [http://islam-usa.com/pray1.html Islam-USA.com: Beginners' Guide To Performing Islamic Prayers]
- [http://www.islamsa.org.za/ramadan/Kitabus_saum_10.htm Taraweeh and Witr]
- [http://www.islamsa.org.za/ramadan/Kitabus_saum_13.htm Eid and Fasts of Shawwal] Category:Five Pillars of Islam Category:Prayer ms:Solat th:นมาซ

Ghadir Khom

Ghadir(-e) Khum (Persian/Arabic: غدیر خم) or Qadir(-e) Khum is a location in Saudi Arabia between Mecca and Medina. It is historically famous for an event in which Shi'a Muslims believe Mohammad to have verified the appointment of Ali as his successor, during a sermon in which he recited the Hadith of the pond of Khumm. Ghadir Khum (lit. Pond at Khumm) is in fact the name of the site that lies between the holy Muslim cities of Mecca and Medina where the event transpired. Here the Hajj caravans separated from each other after the end of the pilgrimage. On the 18th of Dhil-Hijjah, 10 AH (roughly 15th March, 632 C.E.), the caravan of Muhammad comming from his Farwell hajj stopped at Ghadir Khumm, along with a group of Muslims returning to Madinah from Hajj. Muhammad was returning from his last Hajj from the city of Mecca. Here he delivered a sermon, which is considered by Shia Muslims to be a clear designation of Ali's leadership of the Muslim community. Shias celebrate this anniversary each year. :When Ali (A.S.) said to Anas: "Why do you not stand up and testify what you heard from the messenger of Allah on the day of Ghadir?" he answered, "O Amir al-Momineen! I have grown old and do not remember." Thereupon Ali said: "May Allah mark you with a white spot (of leprosy) unconcealable with your turban, if you are intentionally withholding the truth." And before Anas got up from his place he bore a large white spot on his face. Thereafter, Anas used to say: "I am under the curse of a righteous slave of Allah. [http://www.ezsoftech.com/islamic/ghadir.asp]
See also

- Succession to Muhammad
External link

- [http://www.al-islam.org/ghadir/ The Event of Ghadir Khom in the Qur'an, Hadith and History] Category:Islam Category:Shi'a Islam Category:Islamic history Category:Geography of Saudi Arabia Category:Religion in Saudi Arabia

Ali ibn Abu Talib

For other uses, see Ali (disambiguation). Ali ibn Abi Talib () (ca. 599 – January 661 CE) was an early Islamic leader. He is seen by the Sunnis as the fourth and last of the Khulafā' ar-Rāshidūn (rightly guided caliphs). Muslims of Shi'a persuasion consider him as the first imam and the first rightful caliph. Caliph Ali was the cousin of Muhammad, and after marriage to Fatima, he also became the prophet's son-in-law.

Birth

Ali was born in Mecca, in the Hijaz region of central western Arabia, sometime around 599 CE (the year is an approximation only). Multiple reports describe him being born inside the Kaaba, the most sacred site in Islam, and no records of alternative birth places are known. However, many non-Muslim scholars and a fair number of non-scholar Muslims are skeptical or dissmissive about those narrations. This is discussed in People reported to be born in the Kaaba. Accoring to Muslims sources, his mother wanted to name the child after her father, Asad. However, Ali was given an auspicious name, derived from one of 99 Names of God, Al-Ali (The Exalted).

Early life

Ali's father, Abu Talib, was a member of the powerful tribe of the Quraysh, and an uncle to the young Muhammad. When Muhammad was orphaned and then lost his grandfather, Abu Talib took Muhammad into his house. Ali and Muhammad were thus cousins raised as brothers, with Ali in the role of a younger brother, looking up to Muhammad and ready to follow his lead. When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, a claim that Islamic sources indicate was initially greeted with derision, Ali believed in him and professed Islam. Many Muslims -- the Shi'a in particular -- believe that he was the first male to convert to Islam (this is discussed at length in Identity of first male Muslim) Ali stood firm in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims in Mecca. In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's Hijrah (Migration) to Yathrib, later Medina, according to Islamic sources, Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that his cousin could flee in safety. Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Makkah to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping.

Ali in Madinah

The small community of Muslim immigrants in Medina, the Muhajirun, were at first extremely poor. They had no land, no houses, and lived on the charity of the Madinans who had converted to Islam (the Ansar). They hired themselves out for labor. Ali shared in all the labor and hardships of the community. Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 CE, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Banu Umayyed champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. He was publicly praised by Muhammad. After this, he was emboldened to ask for the hand of Fatima Zahra, Muhammad's daughter by Khadijah, in marriage. Fatima and Muhammad consented, and the marriage was solemnized two months after the battle [http://al-islam.org/restatement/23.htm]. Ali was also prominent on the battlefield of Uhud. He is said to have received seventeen wounds in the battle. For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his cousin's service, serving in his armies, leading parties of warriors on raids, carrying messages and orders. With the exception of Tabuk, Ali joined all of Muhammad's battles and expeditions. As Muhammad's son-in-law and one of his lieutenants, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community. In 9 A.H. (630 CE), Muhammad prepared to lead an expedition against Syria. This was the well-known expedition of Tabuk. He did not want to leave Madinah, the capital city, unguarded, and decided to leave Ali behind as his deputy. Muhammad is reputed to have said: :"Will you not be pleased that you will be to me like Aaron to Moses? But there will be no prophet after me." 1. That was the only battle Muhammad engaged in without Ali accompanying him.
The death of Muhammad (632 CE)
Muhammad had been ailing for some time, but seemed to have recovered somewhat. He left his house to take part in prayers at the mosque, then returned to his quarters and died. Ali had a strong claim to the leadership, both as one of Muhammad's closest assistants and as his cousin and son-in-law. But he was passed over for the leadership (see Saqifah). At first he refused to swear fealty to Abu Bakr, another prominent Muslim and Muhammad's father-in-law. In this he was followed by the Banu Hashims and a significant portion of Medina's Muslim community. They were known as the Rafidis, or "Refusers", and later as the Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali. This is an extremely contentious issue, covered in detail in the Succession to Muhammad article. Muslims ultimately divided into two branches based on their political attitude towards this issue. The Shi'a argue that Muhammad, in accordance with God's command, designated Ali to succeed him, and that Ali was a victim of worldly intrigue; the Sunni consider that the community made a wise choice in uniting behind Abu Bakr. The two Muslim groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan. The Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them.
Inheritance
Shi'a Muslims believe that Ali and Fatima, as well as the wives of Muhammad had an additional cause for disaffection with Abu Bakr [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/053.sbt.html#004.053.325]. The new caliph argued that the Muhammad's considerable landed property had been held by the prophet in trust for the community, and was rightfully the property of the state -- despite Ali's rejoinder that Muhammad's revelations included accounts of prophetic inheritance (Qur'an 27:16, 21:89). Abu Bakr gave state pensions to Muhammad's widows, but Muhammad's blood relatives, Ali, Fatimah and Ibn Abbas, did not receive even that much. After Fatima's death, Ali again claimed her inheritance, but was denied with the same argument. The caliphs who followed Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, also refused to return the various properties, whether to Ali or to Muhammad's widows. Shi'a Muslims regard this as yet another instance of the persecution of Muhammad's lineage, the Ahl al-Bayt, at the hands of the caliphs they regard as usurpers. (Some of the hadith cited by both sides in this dispute can be found at [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/080.sbt.html].)
Succession to the caliphate
In 656 CE, the third caliph Uthman, was murdered in his own house, in Medina, by rebellious Muslim soldiers. Medina, now a large city and the capital of an empire stretching from Africa to Central Asia, fell into chaos. In the crisis, some Muslims turned to Ali, who had been for years a faithful and steady lieutenant of Muhammad and his successors, and urged him to seek the caliphate. Ali at first refused. He is said to have been horrified by the assassination of Uthman, and did not wish to appear to be profiting from the situation. But his supporters persevered, and Ali finally allowed himself to be proclaimed caliph. Some opponents at the time claimed that he had connived at the murder of Uthman, or at the very least been negligent in seeking the murderers. However, most current and historical opinion absolves him of any blame. Besides his extremely high status in Shi'a Islam, he is also revered by Sunnis as the last of the truly exemplary successors of Muhammad. For a fuller discussion of this and succeeding events, see First Islamic civil war.
Caliphate
Almost the first act of his caliphate was to put down a rebellion led by Talha and az-Zubayr (two eminent companions of Muhammad), who were urged on by Aisha, Muhammad's widow. In the view of Shi'as, she was a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the chief hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel army was defeated at the Battle of Basra (also known as the Battle of the Camel); Talha was killed, Zubayr fled and was killed later, and Aisha was captured and escorted with all respect to Medina, where she was given a pension. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides such as Malik ibn Ashter and Salman the Persian. Ali then transfered his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Syria, Damascus, was held by Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of Uthman, Ali's slain predecessor. Mu'awiyah raised an army and marched against Ali, demanding vengeance for the death of Uthman. A prolonged battle took place in July 657 CE in the Battle of Siffin, near the Euphrates; the battle seemed to be turning in favor of Ali, Malik ibn Ashter being very close to Muawiyas camp, when a number of the opposing army, fixing copies of the Qur'an to the points of their spears, exclaimed that "the matter ought to be settled by reference to this book, which forbids Muslims to shed each other's blood." At this point, the soldiers of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the issue be referred to arbitration. Ali and his followers are said to have disagreed over the choice of advocate for Ali. Ali wanted Malik ibn Ashter or Ibn Abbas; his followers are said to have objected. Finally, Abu Musa al Asha'ri was chosen as Ali's advocate. Amr ibn al-As, a veteran diplomat, was chosen to act for Mu'awiyah. It is claimed that `Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it would be to the advantage of Islam that neither candidate should reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Mu'awiyah, `Amr declared that he also deposed Ali, but invested Mu'awiyah with the caliphate. This decision greatly injured the cause of Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of Egypt to Mu'awiya's forces.
Death
Egypt, Iraq - Ali is believed by many to be buried here]] According to tradition, three Muslim zealots (purists later termed Kharijites) had agreed to assassinate Ali, Mu'awiyah and `Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds among the faithful. The assassins sent against Mu'awiyan and `Amr failed; the only assassin who succeeded was the one who attacked Ali. Ali suffered a mortal head wound the 19th of Ramadan while he was performing morning prayers in mosque in the city of Kufa. The sword that wounded was poisoned. Before Ali died, when offered milk, he is said to have asked if his assassin, Abdur Rahman bin Muljam al Sarimi, had been offered milk as well. Also, when he noticed that the assassin's ropes had been tied painfully tight, he ordered them to be loosened. Ali further decreed that if he was not to survive, then Bin Muljam should be killed with no more than one stroke, as he had only struck Ali once. Ali died on the 21st of Ramadan (three days after he was stabbbed) in the city of Kufa (Iraq) in 661 CE. A splendid mosque called Mashad Ali was afterwards erected in the city at Najaf.
Descendants
Ali had eight wives after Fatima's death, and in all, it is said, thirty-three children. He had two sons by Fatima, Hassan and Hussein. Hasan is said to have refrained from publicly claiming the caliphate, so as to prevent further bloodshed among Muslims. Mu'awiyah I thus became caliph and established the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs. Hassan is, however, revered by most Shi'a as the second imam; his brother Hussein is reckoned as the third, except by the Shi'a Ismaili, who consider him the second imam. Ali's descendants by Fatima are known as sharifs, sayyeds, or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayyed/sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on the distinction. Many Muslim notables are descendents of Muhammad. The Hashemite royal families of Jordan and Iraq, the Alaouite royal family of Morocco, and the Aga Khans of the Ismaili community claim direct descent from the prophet through Ali and Fatima. There are also many humbler sayyeds whose only distinction may be the title in front of their name, or the right to wear a black turban (a sign of Alid descent in some communities).
Legacy
Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious leader. The most famous collection of Ali's speeches and letters is the Peak of Eloquence (Arabic: Nahj al-Balāgha). A few famous quotes from it include:
- Inability is a disaster; patience is bravery; abstinence is a treasure, self-restraint is a shield; and the best companion is submission to Divine Will.
- Socialize with people in such a manner that when you die, they should weep for you and as long as you live, they should long for your company.
- Greed is a permanent slavery.
- Submission to God's will is the cure of the misery of the heart. Ali is also reputed to have said:
- He who has a thousand friends has not a friend to spare, And he who has one enemy will meet him everywhere.

Muslim view

In the eyes of the Muslims Ali was remarkable for learning and wisdom, being seen as one of the most learned of his time, being the tutor of the knowledgeble Ibn Abbas, Umar and Abu Baker, and also succeeding Muhammad as the head of the Banu Hashim. He is also recognized by Muslims for courage in battle, seen as one of the greates war heroes of Islam, single handedly killing multiple enemy heroes and countless soldiers in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq and Khaybar. He is also reqonised for as a striver for peace and unity among Muslims, initiating in peace talk before battle, as in Jamal and Siffin. Just as Muslims do not picture God, or Allah, but reference him by his Ninety-nine Names or titles, so Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims with titles of praise and add pious interjections after their names. Sunni and Shi'a alike agree that Ali deserves these titles:
- Commander of the Faithful (Arabic: Amīr al-Mu'minīn)
- Father of Dust/Soil (Arabic: Abu Turab)
- Lion of God (Arabic: Asad-ullāh) ::(Please note that translation from Arabic to English may change the way the words are interpreted) Many Muslims add the phrase "May God be pleased with him" (Arabic: radiallhu anu) after mentioning the name of a prominent or pious companion of Muhammad. He is seen as praised by Muhamamd as "my brother in this world and the next" and as a Aron to a second Moses. Both Shia and Sunnis agree that hating Ali nulifies Islam, and loving him is obligatory. He is greatly respected by most Muslims, the Ibadi might be the only dissenters.

Sunni view of Ali

Sunnis hold Ali in high respect as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Four Righteously Guided Caliphs. He was one of the first to convert; he was Muhammad's cousin; he was honored with the hand of Muhammad's daughter Fatima, a hounor Sunnis conclude is shared with Uthman, whom Sunni belive married two of Muhamamd biological daughters. Sunnis also belive that there are some blemishes on Ali's character, such as him angrying Fatimah and Muhammad when he allegedly wanted to marry the daughet of Abu Jahl. He is also belived by Sunnis to have given his biological daghter, Umm Khultum bint Ali to marry Umar [http://www.abc.se/~m9783/o/umuk_e.html], [http://www.ansar.org/english/marriage.htm], [http://www.livingislam.org/o/umuk_e.html], when she was five years old, after giving in to public duress from Umar. Although these events are regarded authentic by Sunni scholars, Sunni practice the doctrine of not mentioning the faults of the Sahaba, and dont mention these events, and rather talk only good about Ali. Sunni often portraying Ali as a lojal friend to Muhammad, Abu Bakr and Umar, even if they sometimes had frendly disagreences. Sunni believe that Shi'a distort history when they argue that he withdrew from public life after losing his bid to be the first caliph. Sunnis say that he supported the first three caliphs loyally, named some of his sons after them[http://answering-ansar.org/answers/names/en/index.php], and gave Umar his daughter in marriage [http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/umme_kulthum/en/index.php].

Shi'a view of Ali

not mentioning the faults of the Sahaba They hold Ali in extraordinary esteem; he is venerated as second only to Muhammad. Shia view him as not only as Muhammad's chosen successor, but also as holding a position of authority designated by God. Shia concluded that even if that was not the case, Ali should have still been the first Caliph, since he was by all and any standard the one most merited for the task. Shia make several claims for Ali, believed to indicate Ali's special status, a few of them include:
- That he was born in the Kaaba.
- That he was the first male to convert to Islam.
- That he never worshipped idols.
- That Muhammed said "You are to me as Aron was to Moses, except there will be no prophet after me". They also claim that Muhammad indicated in many times and in many ways his belief that Ali was his divinely appointed successor, and cite a number of hadith and verses from the Qur'an in support of that position. See Succession to Muhammad for further discussion. In the Shi'a view, Ali's character, like Muhammad's, is considered perfect and unblemished. They celebrate the anniversaries of his death and birth and in the Shi'a version confession of faith (shahada) and call to prayer (adhan), there is an optional reference to Ali. Sunnis feel that Shi'a have idolized Ali, sometimes giving him more attention, merit and honour than they give Muhammad, while Shi'a reject that.

Non-Muslim view of Ali

Non-Muslim views of Ali have varied. Some, like the 19th century historian Carlyle, found him an attractive, romantic figure. Some later scholars, such as Lammens and Watt, dismissed Ali as pious but a poor leader. Wilferd Madelung, a specialist in Shi'a studies, takes a much more favorable view of Ali. Nahj al-Balagha contains a long letter given to Malik ibn Ashter when he departed to succed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, in which Ali gave thourough instructions on how to establish and uphold a government. The United Nations urged the Arab nations to use that letter as a model. ^{[http://www.shianews.com/hi/europe/news_id/0000394.php ref]}

600

Events

- The moldboard plow is invented in eastern Europe
- Possibly the first reference to chess, in the Persian work Karnamak-i-Artakhshatr-i-Papakan.
- The Persians begin to use windmills for irrigation.
- Pope Gregory I codifies what comes to be known as Gregorian chant.
- Construction on the monastery of St. Catherine is begun on Mount Sinai.
- Irish missionaries preach in Scotland and Germany.
- Chinese-influenced sculptures of Buddha begin to be created in Japan.
- Sumatra, Java, and the surrounding islands are converted to Buddhism.
- Augustine of Canterbury converts Ethelbert of Kent to Christianity (approximate date).
- The Hopewell culture of North America ceases to be the dominant culture.

Environmental change

- The population of the Earth rises to about 208 million people.
- Smallpox arrives in Europe for the first time.

Births

- Ali Ben Abu Talib, the fourth caliph of Islam

Deaths

- Venance Fortunat, bishop of Poitiers, one of the last representatives of Classical Latin poetry.
- John Climax, ascetic and mystic.
- King Beop of Baekje, king of the Baekje Kingdom of Korea Category:600 ko:600년

661

Events
- Caliph Ali Ben Abu Talib is assassinated. He is succeeded by Muawiyah I ibn Abu Sufyan, first Umayyad caliph
- Emperor Tenji ascends to the throne of Japan
- Perctarit and Godepert become co-rulers of the Lombards, following the death of their father Aripert
- King Munmu becomes the 30th ruler of the Silla dynasty Births
- Empress Gemmei, empress of Japan Deaths
- Ali, nephew of Muhammad and caliph
- Empress Kōgyoku (also Empress Saimei), empress of Japan
- Aripert, king of the Lombards
- Saint Finan, Bishop of Lindisfarne Category:661 ko:661년

625

Events
- October 27 - Pope Boniface V succeeded by Pope Honorius I. Births
- Adamnan, abbot of Iona
- Empress Wu Zetian of China Deaths
- Pope Boniface V Category:625 ko:625년

Husayn ibn Ali

::This article concerns Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. For other persons of the same name, see Hussein bin Ali (disambiguation). Hussein bin Ali (disambiguation) Husayn ibn Ali ibn Abu Talib (c. 626 - October 10, 680) (; transliterated: Husayn bin 'Alī bin 'Abī Tālib) was the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, and son of his daughter Fatima Zahra with Ali ibn Abu Talib. Husayn is revered by Muslims, and has a special importance to the Shia as their Third Imam by most Shias and second Imam by some Shia sects. Husayn was the second son of Ali and Fatima. He was beloved by his grandfather Muhammad and many stories tell of a great resemblance between Husayn and Muhammad. There are numerous reports, or hadith, that refer to Husayn and his elder brother Hasan and express the love that Muhammad had for them. In one of these hadith, Muhammad is reputed to have said "Hasan and Husayn are like my two sweet bazels in this world". Husayn was famously killed, along with his entire family, in a most severely brutal manner, in Karbala on a day that is now referred to as Ashurah; a day that has been greatly mourned by Shi'as across the world for over 1300 years.

Titles

- Sayyid al-Shuhadā: Master of the Martyrs
- Shahīd al-Karbala: Martyr of Karbala

Birth

Husayn was born in 624, on 3rd Sha'ban, three years after the Hijra.
- Father: Ali ibn Abi Talib (the 1st Shia Imam), the Prophet Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law.
- Mother: Fatima Zahra, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. When Muhammad was given news of the birth, he hurried to the house of Ali and Fatima. Safia bint Abdul Muttalib, Asma bint Umais, and Umm Salama were all present when Husayn was born. When Muhammad asked Safia to bring him the newborn child, she said, "We have not cleaned him yet." When Muhammad heard this, he said: "You clean him? Certainly, Allah, the Exalted, has cleaned and purified him". This statement was repeated in the Hadith of The Cloak. Muhammad hugged the baby and kissed him. Asma saw that Muhammad looked mournful. She asked him why he was weeping. He replied, "He (Husayn) will be murdered by a cruel group, may God deprive them of my intercession." Muhammad recited the Adhan into the baby's right ear and left ear. Muhammad then named the baby Husayn.

Family life

Husayn is said to have married the eldest daughter of Yazdegerd III, the last King of Sassanid Persia. Bibi Shahrbanu gave birth to the fourth Imam, Ali ibn Husayn. [http://www.waxvisual.com/wvsyt/sypcdcv01.htm The Sayyida Ruqayya Mosque] in the old town of Damascus in Syria is dedicated to the daughter of Husayn.

The Caliphate

After the death of his father, Ali, in 661, the succession to the Caliphate was undetermined, and a conflict existed between those who thought Muawiyah should be the caliph, and those who felt that Husayn should succeed him. Husayn's elder brother, Hasan, chose not to pursue the issue. However, 10 years after Hasan died in 669, Husayn took up his claim to the caliphate amid charges that the then caliph (Yazid, the son of Muawiyah I), was corrupt.

Ashurah: The Martyrdom of Husayn at Karbala

Husayn thus led an insurrection and received support from the people of Iraq. However, when his forces met those of Yazid at Karbala, he was betrayed by those who had come to his aid. Husayn, most of his family (including sons Ali Akbar and Ali Asgar) and 72 of his companions were massacred at the battle. Husayn himself was decapitated and his head was delivered to Yazid. This event is known as Ashurah and is a great day of mourning and remembrance for the Shia. The same event also earned him the title of Sayyid al-Shuhadā (Leader of Martyrs) among Shi'a Muslims. This episode of Husayn's life is of special importance to many Muslims for its tragedy and for the bravery of Husayn in the face of an overwhelming opponent. The Festival of Muharram is held in honor of his sacrifice. Husayn's shrine is in Karbala, Iraq, where his body is buried. His head was later buried in Karbala.

The Imamah

Shias believe that the only survivor of the vicious massacre at Karbala, Ali ibn Husayn, was the successor to Husayn ibn Ali with regards to the Imamah or leadership of the believers.

Sayings

- "Death with dignity is better than life with humiliation."
- "I swear by God, I shall not surrender as a humiliated person, and I shall not escape like slaves."
- "I have not arisen for the purpose of exuberance, arrogance, corruption or oppression, but I have done so in order to seek reform in the nation of my Grandfather (Muhammad). I want to promote virtue and prohibit vice, and I want to go down the path and tradition of my Grandfather (Muhammad), and the path of my father (Ali)."
- "O Allah...
- How can You be reasoned about with that that is in need of You in its existence?
- Does anything other than You have a manifestation that You do not have, such that it can act as manifestation for You?
- When were You ever not present so that You may need a guide (evidence or reason) to lead to You?
- Blind is the eye that does not see You..." On the day of Ashurah, when Husayn was the only fighter left on the battlefield and his enemies began attacking the women and children in the tents, Husayn addressed his enemies:
- "If you do not believe in a religion, and do not fear the hereafter, then be free (from arrogance) in your lives."

non-Muslims about Husayn

- "If Husayn fought to quench his worldly desires, then I do not understand why his sisters, wives and children accompanied him. It stands to reason therefore that he sacrificed purely for Islam." - Charles Dickens (Author)
- "The best lesson which we get from the tragedy of Karbala is that Husayn and his companions were the rigid believers of God. They illustrated that numerical superiority does not count when it comes to truth and falsehood. The victory of Husayn despite his minority marvels me!" - Thomas Carlyle (Scottish historian)
- "I learnt from Husayn how to be wronged and be a winner." - Mahatma Gandhi
- "Husayn marched with his little company not to glory, not to power or wealth, but to a supreme sacrifice and every member of that gallant band, male and female, knew that the foes were implacable, were not only ready to fight but to kill. Denied even water for the children, they remained parched under a burning sun, amid scorching sands yet no one faltered for a moment and bravely faced the greatest odds without flinching." - Dr. K. Sheldrake

External links

- [http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/azadari/en/index.php Mourning for Imam Husayn]
- [http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/who_killed_imam_hussain/en/index.php Who killed Imam Husayn?]
- [http://www.al-islam.org/nutshell/files/husaynviews.pdf Imam Husayn in the eyes of non-Muslims]
- [http://www.al-islam.org/kaaba14/6.htm The Third Imam]
- [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Mourning%20Husayn%20%28Matam%20for%20Husayn%29.html Mourning ceremonies for Imam Husayn]
- [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Martyrdom%20%28Looking%20in%20the%20Direction%20of%20God%29.html The concept of martyrdom and mourning in Islam]
- [http://mohamadlatiff.blogspot.com/2005/02/immortal-slogan.html The Immortal Slogan of Imam Husain]

Sunni References on Imam Hussain (as)

- [http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah28.asf The Message of Imam Husayn to the Ummah] - An Online Video Lecture by Ahle Sunnah Scholar Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy
- [http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah18.asf Sirah of Imam Husayn (alayhi assalam)] An Online Video Lecture by Ahle Sunnah Scholar Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy Category:Islamic history Category:Martyrs Category:Shia Imams Category:626 births Category:680 deaths th:ฮุเซน

680

Events

- October 10 - Battle of Kerbela
- November 12 - The Sixth Ecumenical Council opens in Constantinople
- The Bulgars subjugate the country of current-day Bulgaria
- Pippin of Herstal becomes Mayor of the Palace
- Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I succeeded by Yazid I ibn Muawiyah
- Erwig deposes Wamba to become king of the Visigoths.
- Perctarit, king of the Lombards, makes his son Cunincpert co-ruler

Births

- Boniface, missionary to Germany
- Empress Gensho of Japan

Deaths

- January 30 - Balthild, queen of Neustria and Burgundy
- May 6 - Muawiyah I, caliph
- October 10 - Husayn bin Ali, grandson of Muhammad (see Battle of Karbala
- Wamba, king of the Visigoths

Heads of states

- Japan - Emperor Temmu. emperor of Japan (672-686) Category:680 ko:680년 th:พ.ศ. 1223

658

Events
- The union of Slavic tribes falls apart after Samo's death Births Deaths
- King Samo of the Slavs
- Jajang Yulsa, a monk in Silla Category:658 ko:658년

Muhammad al-Baqir

Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (676 - January 31, 743) was the fifth Shia Imam. He was born Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Husayn.

Birth

Muhammad al-Baqir was born in Medina in 676.
- Father: Ali ibn Husayn (the 4th Shia Imam)
- Mother: Fatima, daughter of Hasan ibn Ali (the 2nd Shia Imam).

Expertise

He was the greatest scholar of his time, so much so that he was called with title Baqir al-Aloom, which means revealer or splitter of knowledge and wisdom due to his ample knowledge of religion and his enthusiasm to teach to other people. Many historians assert that the he split open knowledge, that is scrutinized it and examined the depths of it so that it can be spread to all people truly and correctly. Muhammad al-Baqir's knowledge allowed him to become a teacher, and he is well remembered for his knowledge in both religious and judicial matters. His son, Jafar al-Sadiq was a student of his, and no doubt he benefited greatly from his father's knowledge.

During the Umayyad rulers

Despite his aversion to politics, he was harassed continually by the Umayyad rulers. They were afraid of his popularity and the influence his scholarly works had. In addition, the actions of his brother and other kinsmen made them distrustful of him.

Death

He died on January 31, 743, possibly due to poisoning. He is buried in Medina, in the Jannat al-Baqi cemetery.

Sayings

- "Our followers are of three kinds: one who follows us but depends on others; one who is like a glass involved in his own reflections; but the best are those who are like gold, the more they suffer the more they shine.
- "I admonish you regarding five things;
- if you are wronged, do not commit wrong doing to others;
- if you are betrayed, do not betray anyone;
- if you are called a liar, do not be furious;
- if you are praised, do not be jubilant;
- if you are criticised do not fret and think of what is said in criticism.
- If you find in yourself what is criticised about you, then you are falling down in the eyes of God; when you are furious about the truth, it is a much greater calamity then your falling down in the eyes of the people. And if you are opposite of what is said (in criticism) about you, then it is a merit you acquired without having to tire yourself in obtaining it."
- "There is no drop more loved by God than a teardrop that falls in the dark of the night from fear of God, meant solely for Him and no one else."
External links

- [http://www.al-islam.org/kaaba14/8.htm The Fifth Imam] Category:676 births Category:743 deaths Category:Shia Imams

676

Events

- November 2 - Donus becomes Pope.
- Æthelred invades Kent
- Cuthbert of Lindisfarne withdraws to hermitage

Births

- John of Damascus, Christian Saint (approximate date)

Deaths

Heads of states

- Japan - Emperor Temmu, emperor of Japan (672-686) Category:676 ko:676년

743

Events

- Umayyad caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (724–743) succeeded by al-Walid II ibn Abd al-Malik (743–744).
- Childeric III becomes king of the Franks after an interregnum of seven years.
- Constantine V re-ascends the throne of the Byzantine Empire.

Births

Deaths

- January 31 - Muhammad al-Baqir, Shia Imam (b. 676)
- Teodomiro, also known as Tudmir Category:743 als:743 ko:743년 ja:743

703

Events Births Deaths
- Empress Jitō, empress of Japan

In Other Fields

- 703 is the area code for telephone numbers in the Northern Virginia region of the United States. It is overlaid by area code 571. It touches the 202 area code of Washington, DC as well as the 301 and 240 area codes of Southern Maryland. Other area codes in Virginia are 276, 434, 540, 757, and 804. Category:703 ko:703년

765

Events
- Papal privileges are restored in Beneventino and Tuscany and partly in Spoleto. Births Deaths
- December 4 - Jafar Sadiq, Muslim scholar (b. 702)
- Emperor Junnin, emperor of Japan (b. 733) Category:765 ko:765년

Musa al-Kazim

Imam Musa al Kazim (November 10, 745 – September 4, 799) was the seventh Shia Imam (he is not accepted by the Ismailis as the seventh Imam). He was born Musa ibn Jafar ibn Muhammad, and the Festival of Imam Musa al Kazim is held on the seventh day of Rajab every year in the Islamic calendar.

Birth and family life

Musa al-Kazim was born in Abwa, a town between Mecca and Medina.
- Father: Jafar al-Sadiq (the 6th Shia Imam)
- Mother: Hamida, a Berber slave.

Expertise

As a youngster, he studied under his father who was renowned for his knowledge in the sciences, law and religious studies.

The Imamah

Jafar died when Musa was 20. Upon his fathers death, the title of Imam was contested. Some felt that it had passed to his brother Ismail ibn Jafar who had predeceased their father, while others felt it belonged to his other brother Abdullah al Aftali. Despite this controversy, Musa was successful at gaining the allegiance of most of the Shia community, cementing himself as the Imam. During Musa's Imamate, the Hashemites were facing persecution from the new Abbasid rulers of Baghdad. Musa was eventually arrested by Harun Rashid and sent to Baghdad to be executed. However, Rashid had a dream at the last minute, and instead freed Musa giving him a thousand dinars and sending him back to Medina. Despite his change of heart, Rashid would continue to regard the descendents of Muhammad as a threat to his rule, and as such, Musa was arrested again and kept in jail for six years.

Death

He is thought to have been poisoned by Harun Rashid on September 4, 799 while in jail, and his body was put on display on the Baghdad bridge so that Harun Rashid could dispel any rumors of Musa still being alive. He was buried north of Baghdad in a town that is now named after him, Kazimain. A mausoleum of one of his descendents called Imam Ja'far is situated in the city of Pishva near Tehran in Iran.[http://www.itto.org/attraction/attraction.asp?status=showattraction&attractid=Im111&prv=teh]

Academic line

Teachers:
- Ja'far al-Sadiq - 6:th Shia Imam Students:
External links

- [http://www.al-islam.org/kaaba14/10.htm The Seventh Imam] Category:745 births Category:799 deaths Category:Shia Imams

799

Events
- 29 November - Pope Leo III, aided by Charles the Great, returns to Rome. Births
- Deaths
- April 13 - Paul the Deacon, historian
- September 4 - Musa al-Kazim, Shia Imam (b. 745) Category:799 ko:799년

765

818

Events

- Bishop Theodulf of Orléans is deposed and imprisoned after getting involved in a conspiracy of Bernard, king of Italy, against Louis the Pious

Births

Deaths

- May 26 - Ali ar-Rida, Shia Imam (b. 766) Category:818 ko:818년

Muhammad at Taqi

Imam Muhammad al-Taqi (April 12, 811 - November 27, 835) was the ninth Shia Imam. His given name was Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Musa.

Birth and family life

Muhammad al-Taqi was born in Medina to Ali al-Rida and a Nubian slave named Khaizuran. He was only nine when his father died, and as such, many doubted his ability to carry the Imamah. However, he held on to his position with the help of Al Ma'mun whose patronage proved valuable to the young Imam, and who brought him to live in Baghdad. Eventually, Muhammad al-Taqi would be married to Al Ma'mun's daughter, Umm al Fadl.

Expertise

During his time in Baghdad, he was well known for possessing an amazing amount of knowledge, especially when considering his young age.

During Abbasid rule

After living in Baghdad for a few years, Muhammad al-Taqi returned to Medina. Here, he found his relationship with his wife strained, and upon the death of Al Ma'mun, he saw his fortunes deteriorate. The successor to his father in law was Al Ma'mun's half brother, Al-Mu'tasim. With the new Abbasid ruler in power, Muhammad al-Taqi was no longer protected, and his relationship with the new ruler was further deteriorated by the dislike that al-Mu'tasim had for him. Al Mu'tasm would call Muhammad al-Taqi back to Baghdad where he hoped to convert him to the lavish lifestyle of the palace. Muhammad left his son Ali al-Hadi with his mother in Medina and set out for Baghdad. He resided there for one more year, not influenced as al-Mu'tasm had hoped, rather becoming a well known scholar and popular in debates.

Death

Muhammad al-Taqi would die suddenly, likely via poison on November 27, 835. He would be buried alongside his grandfather, Musa al Kazim at Kazimain.

External links

- [http://www.al-islam.org/kaaba14/12.htm The Ninth Imam] Category:811 births Category:835 deaths Category:Shia Imams

810

Events

- October 1 - A man with a sword makes an attempt on emperor Nicephorus I's life. In the following trial, the assassin claims insanity as his defense.
- Temple of the Jaguar Priest constructed in Tikal National Park, Guatemala.
- The Book of Kells is completed by the Celts.
- China demands return of territory by Tibet.
- Bulgars, under king Krum, destroy the Avars.

Births

- Bukhari, Persian scholar
- Emperor Nimmyo, Emperor of Japan (d. 850)

Deaths

- July 8 - King Pippin of Italy (b. 773) Category:810 ko:810년

835

Events
- Ragnar Lodbrok rises to power (approximate date)
- The celebration of All Saints is made an obligation throughout the Frankish Empire and fixed on November 1.
- Viking raid of Dorestad. Births Deaths
- November 27 - Muhammad at-Taqi, Shia Imam (b. 811)
- Kukai founder of Shingon Buddhism in Japan (b. 774) Category:835 ko:835년

Amharische Sprache

Die Amharische Sprache (auch lesana negus, Sprache des Königs) ist seit der Ablösung der altäthiopischen Sprache (Ge'ez) durch neuere Sprachformen Amtssprache in Äthiopien und Hauptverkehrssprache angrenzender Länder. Die Sprache ist nach dem Volk der Amharen benannt. Der Language Code ist am bzw. amh (nach ISO 639).

Geschichte

Die eigentliche Heimat des Amharischen ist der Norden Äthiopiens, wo sie bis ins 14. Jahrhundert als unbedeutender Volksdialekt gesprochen wurde. Nach der Verlegung der königlichen Residenz in das Sprachgebiet des Südens erhielt das Amharische größere praktische Bedeutung. Für Rastafaris ist die Sprache noch heute eine heilige Sprache, da sie Haile Selassie I., den letzten Kaiser Äthiopiens als wiedergekehrten Messias verehren.

Grammatik

Die Grammatik ähnelt den semitischen Sprachen und hier am meisten der äthiopischen Sprache. Daneben zeigt sich ein großer Einfluss durch die benachbarten afrikanischen Sprachen, der insbesondere auf den Satzbau und die Wortstellung wirkt. Das Amharische stammt nicht direkt vom Äthiopischen ab, sondern von einer eigenen altamharischen Sprachform. Wortstellung Auch in den Lautverhältnissen (Phonetik) unterscheidet sich das Amharische von den klassischen semitischen Sprachen, wobei eventuell ältere Verhältnisse bewahrt wurden, etwa bei den glottalisierten und labialisierten Konsonanten.

Schrift

Konsonant Nachdem das Amharische lange Jahrhunderte nur mündlich übertragen wurde, begann man nach dem Aussterben der äthiopischen Sprache, deren Ge'ez-Schrift für die schriftliche Niederlegung von Texten zu verwenden. Dazu mussten für die eigentümlichen Laute des Amharischen gewisse Modifikationen vorgenommen werden. Die ältesten schriftlichen Zeugnisse des Amharischen sind die von Guldi herausgegebenen Königslieder (Le canzoni geez-amarina in onore di Ré Abissini, Rom 1889).

Tabelle der Silbenzeichen der Ge'ez-Schrift für Amharisch

Die korrekte Darstellung der Tabelle erfordert einen Unicode-Zeichensatz, der den Ge'ez-Bereich abdeckt

Siehe auch

- Äthiopische Sprache
- Äthiopische Schrift
- Äthiopisch-Orthodoxe Kirche

Weblinks

- [http://snow.prohosting.com/sprach/english/amh.htm Amharisch lernen] Kategorie:Einzelsprache Kategorie:Afrikanische Sprache Kategorie:Sprache in Äthiopien A ja:アムハラ語 ko:암하라어

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