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Immigrant

Immigrant

Immigration is the act of moving to or settling in another country or region, temporarily or permanently. An immigrant is someone who intends to reside permanently, and not a casual visitor or traveler. Immigration means "in-migration" into a country, and is the reverse of emigration, or "out-migration." The long term and/or permanent movement of human population in general, whether into, out of, or within countries (or before the existence of recognised countries) is regarded as migration.

Why do people immigrate?

People immigrate for the following reasons:
- professional,
- political,
- economic
- persecution and oppression, including genocide and ethnic cleansing
- retirement (e.g., better weather; lower living costs).
- sentimental (e.g., the desire to settle in a country due to personal preference; family reunification).
- personal (e.g., opinion-based; extreme dislike of present country) Much immigration occurs for economic reasons. Wage rates vary greatly among different countries; individuals of third world countries, in particular, can have far higher standards of living in developed countries than in their originating countries. The economic pressure to migrate can be so high that when legal means are restricted, people may immigrate regardless of their legal status. In general, people are considered as an immigrant if they keep staying in the new country for more than one year. See also economic migrant.

Differing perspectives on immigration

Some free-market libertarians believe that a free global labor market with no restrictions on immigration would, in the long run, boost global prosperity. Likewise, there are anarchists who believe national borders are not legitimate to begin with. Major corporate interests have been among the strongest advocates of liberalization of immigration laws since movement of personnel is essential to creation of true multinational corporations. Among those on the opposite side of the issue are nationalists who propose militarizing borders; protectionists who prefer closed labor markets or who see liberal immigration [http://www.vdare.com/misc/050127_burns_welfare.htm practices] as a form of corporate welfare where corporate interests use inexpensive or free government immigration benefits, rather than corporate resources, to compensate employees; and xenophobes who fear the presence of foreigners, though these views are not shared by all or even most immigration reductionists. Still others feel that the focus should be taken off of immigration control and placed on the importance of equal rights for immigrants to avoid what they beleive to be corporate exploitation of immigrant poverty. In practice, no country operates without basic immigration controls. Some countries, such as Japan, allow for little or no immigration. In countries that do allow immigration there is disagreement over the numbers, policies, and implementation. Those who support more restricted immigration believe that the current levels of immigration serve to depress wages and circumvent unionisation, and contribute to unsustainable levels of population growth. Others disagree, believing that overly restrictive immigration policies and practices would not address the economic demand for work emanating from wealthier countries, would not harm the security or cohesiveness of the country, and would endanger the lives of legitimate refugees from political or racial oppression. Immigration has become an increasingly controversial topic among environmental activists in recent years, especially within the Sierra Club in the United States. Some environmentalists concerned with overpopulation favor limiting immigration as a means of isolating the effects of human population growth, while others argue that overpopulation and environmental degredation are global problems that should be addressed by other methods. Events, such as the November 2005 riots in France, have led some to conclude that, although reasonable immigration numbers are welcome in most societies, large numbers can cause immigrants to form closed ethnic ghettos that lead to social confrontation and seclusion. Others, such as [http://economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=5135795 The Economist], have noted that more important than the level of immigration are the policies of the recipient country aimed at integrating immigrants into the political, social, and especially economic environment - something that might explain the relative success of immigration in some countries, such as Canada.

External links

:See individual "Immigration to..." articles for country-specific links.
- [http://www.pstalker.com/migration/index.htm Stalker's Guide to International Migration] - Comprehensive interactive website on migration
- [http://www.eurasylum.org Eurasylum] Many relevant documents on immigration, asylum and refugee policy, and human trafficking/smuggling internationally
- [http://www.fmreview.org/ Forced Migration Review]
- [http://www.iom.int/ International Organisation for Migration]
- [http://www.unesco.org/migration UNESCO Programme on International Migration and Multicultural Policies]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/world/04/migration/html/migration_boom.stm BBC News Factfile: Global migration]
- [http://www.leliathomas.com/2005/06/21/not-giving-up-just-seeking-new-tactics/ Not Giving Up, Just Seeking New Tactics] - Commentary on how some immigration is beneficial to society, while other immigration is not; looks to provide a fairly equal view of things.
- [http://www.pstalker.com/migration/index.htm Stalker's Guide to International Migration] - Comprehensive interactive website on migration Category:Human migration Category:Nationality law ja:移民 simple:Immigrant

Emigration

Emigration is the act and the phenomenon of leaving one's native country to settle abroad. It is the same as immigration but from the perspective of the country of origin. Human movement before the establishment of state boundaries or within one state, is termed migration. There are many reasons why people might choose to emigrate. Some for political or economic reasons. Some might have found a spouse while visiting another country and emigrate to be with them. Many older people living in rich nations with cold climates will choose to move to warmer climates when they retire. climate, commemorating the thousands of emigrants who left the country to start a new life in the United States. ]] Many political or economic emigrants move together with their families toward new regions or new countries where they hope to find peace or job opportunities not available to them in their original location. Throughout history a large number of emigrants return to their homelands, often after they have earned sufficient money in the other country. Sometimes these emigrants move to countries with big cultural differences and will always feel as guests in their destinations, and preserve their original culture, traditions and language, sometimes transmitting them to their children. The conflict between the native and the newer culture may easily create social contrasts, generally resulting in an uncomfortable situation for the "foreigners", who have to understand legal and social systems sometimes new and strange to them. Often, communities of emigrants grow up in the destination areas, collecting immigrants of common provenance, also to help for integration. Emigration had a profound influence on the world in the 19th and the 20th century, when hundreds of thousands of poor families left Western Europe for the United States, South America and Australia. Even though definitions may be vague and vary somewhat, emigration/immigration should not be confused with the phenomenon of involuntary migration, such as instances of population transfer or ethnic cleansing. Motives to migrate can be either incentives attracting you away, known as pull factors, or circumstances encouraging a person to leave, known as push factors, for example:

Push factors

- War or other armed conflict
- Famine or drought
- Disease
- Political reasons
- Religious intolerance
- Natural disasters These factors generally do not affect people in developed countries; even a natural disaster is unlikely to cause out-migration.

Pull factors

- Adventure,
- Higher incomes,
- Better medical facilities,
- Better education facilities,
- Family reasons,
- Political stability,
- Religious tolerance,
- Often these are based on perceptions rather than realistic information, If the migration is dominated by pull factors, it is voluntary migration. If it is based on push factors it is forced migration.

Profession

:This is the article about work professions. For religious professions, see Profession (religious). A profession is an occupation that requires extensive training and the study and mastery of specialized knowledge, and usually has a professional association, ethical code and process of certification or licensing. Examples are law, medicine, finance, the military, nursing, the clergy and engineering. Classically, there were only four professions: the church, the military, medicine, and law. All these held a specific code of ethics, and members were almost universally required to swear some form of oath to uphold those ethics. Each profession also provided and required extensive training in the meaning, value and importance of that oath in the practice of the profession. Sociologists have been known to define professionalism as self-defined power elitism or as organised exclusivity along guild lines, much in the sense that George Bernard Shaw characterised all professions as "conspiracies against the laity". Sociological definitions of professionalism involving checklists of perceived or claimed characteristics (altruism, self-governance, esoteric knowledge, special skills, ethical behavior, etc.) became less fashionable in the late 20th century. A member of a profession is termed a professional. However, professional is also used for the acceptance of payment for an activity, in contrast to amateur. A professional sportsperson, for example, is one who receives payment for participating in sport, but sport is not generally considered a profession.

History

Historically, the number of professions was limited: members of the clergy, medical doctors, and lawyers held the monopoly on professional status and on professional education, with military officers occasionally recognised as social equals. Self-governing bodies such as guilds or colleges, backed by state-granted charters guaranteeing monopolies, limited access to and behaviour within such professions. With the rise of technology and occupational specialisation in the 19th century, other bodies began to claim "professional" status: engineers, paramedics, educationalists and even accountants, until today almost any occupational group can -- at least unofficially -- aspire to professional rank and cachet, and popular recognition of this trend has made possible the widespread recognition of prostitution as "the oldest profession".

Common qualities of professions

In modern usage, professions tend to have certain qualities in common. A profession is always held by a person, and it is generally that person's way of generating income. Membership in the profession is usually restricted and regulated by a professional association. For example, lawyers regulate themselves through a bar association and restrict membership through licensing and accreditation of law schools. Hence, professions also typically have a great deal of autonomy, setting rules and enforcing discipline themselves. Professions are also generally exclusive, which means that laymen are either legally prohibited from or lack the wherewithal to practice the profession. For example, people are generally prohibited by law from practicing medicine without a license, and would likely be unable to practice well without the acquired skills of a physician. Professions also require rigorous training and schooling beyond a basic college degree. Lastly, because entrance into professions is so competitive, their members typically have above average mental skills. There is no standard definition of a modern professional, however. Beyond the classical examples (lawyers, doctors, etc.) there are many groups that claim status as a profession, and many who would dispute that status. For example, school teachers often refer to their occupation as a profession, even though it is not exclusive (people teach others outside of the traditional school environment), nor is entrance competitive, nor are they self-regulating (laypeople in state legislatures or on boards of education typically set the rules for and regulate teachers). The existence of a traceable historical record of notable members of the profession can serve as an indicator of a profession. Often, these historic professionals have become well known to laypersons outside the field, for example, Clarence Darrow (law), Edward Jenner (medicine), and Florence Nightingale (nursing). In modern times, however, there is no standard definition.

Political

Politics is the process by which decisions are made for a given society. The method of making decisions for groups varies, but the act of decision making is the key component that characterises politics. Although it is generally applied to governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Political science is the study of political behavior and examines the acquisition and application of power, i.e. the ability to impose one's will on another. One theorist, Harold Lasswell, has defined politics as "who gets what, when, and how." Another definition of 'politics' is: "how power is distributed within a group or system".

A natural state

In 1651, Thomas Hobbes published his most famous work, Leviathan, in which he proposed a model of early human development to justify the creation of human associations. Hobbes described an ideal state of nature wherein every person had equal right to every resource in nature and was free to use any means to acquire those resources. He noted that such an arrangement created a “war of all against all” (bellum omnium contra omnes). Further, he noted that men would enter into a social contract and would give up absolute rights for certain protections. While it appears that social cooperation and dominance hierarchies predate human societies, Hobbes’s model illustrates a rationale for the creation of societies (polities).

Early history

V.G. Childe describes the transformation of human society that took place around 6000 BCE as an urban revolution. Among the features of this new type of civilization were the institutionalization of social stratification, non-agricultural specialised crafts (including priests and lawyers), taxation, and writing. All of which require clusters of densely populated settlements - city-states. The word "Politics" is derived from the Greek word for city-state, "Polis". Corporate, religious, academic and every other polity, especially those constrained by limited resources, contain dominance hierarchy and therefore politics. Politics is most often studied in relation to the administration of governments. The oldest form of government was tribal organization. Rule by elders was supplanted by monarchy, and a system of Feudalism as an arrangement where a single family dominated the political affairs of a community. Monarchies have existed in one form or another for the past 5000 years of human history.

Definitions

- Power is the ability to impose one's will on another. It implies a capacity for force, i.e violence.
- Authority is the power to enforce laws, to exact obedience, to command, to determine, or to judge.
- Legitimacy is an attribute of government gained through the acquisition and application of power in accordance with recognized or accepted standards or principles.
- A government is the body that has the authority to make and enforce rules or laws.

Political power

Samuel Gompers’ often paraphrased maxim,"Reward your friends and punish your enemies," hints at two of the five types of power recognized by social psychologists: incentive power (the power to reward) and coercive power (the power to punish). Arguably the other three grow out of these two. Legitimate power, the power of the policeman or the referee, is the power given to an individual by a recognized authority to enforce standards of behavior. Legitimate power is similar to coercive power in that unacceptable behavior is punished by fine or penalty. Referent power is bestowed upon individuals by virtue of accomplishment or attitude. Fulfillment of the desire to feel similar to a celebrity or a hero is the reward for obedience. Expert power springs from education or experience. Following the lead of an experienced coach is often rewarded with success. Expert power is conditional to the circumstances. A brain surgeon is no help when your pipes are leaking.

Authority and legitimacy

Max Weber identified three sources of legitimacy for authority known as (tripartite classification of authority). He proposed three reasons why people followed the orders of those who gave them:

Traditional

Traditional authorities receive loyalty because they continue and support the preservation of existing values, the status quo. Traditional authority has the longest history. Patriarchal (and more rarely Matriarchal) societies gave rise to hereditary monarchies where authority was given to descendants of previous leaders. Followers submit to this authority because "we've always done it that way." Examples of traditional authoritarians include kings and queens.

Charismatic

Charismatic authority grows out of the personal charm or the strength of an individual personality (see cult of personality for the most extreme version). Charismatic regimes are often short lived, seldom outliving the charismatic figure that leads them. Examples include Hitler, Napoleon, and Mao.

Legal-rational

Legal-Rational authorities receive their ability to compel behavior by virtue of the office that they hold. It is the authority that demands obedience to the office rather than the office holder. Modern democracies are examples of legal-rational regimes.

References

GOMPERS,SAMUEL; “Men of Labor! Be Up and Doing,” editorial, American Federationist, May 1906, p. 319

Oppression

Oppression is the negative outcome experienced by people targeted by the arbitrary and cruel exercise of power in a society or social group. The term itself derives from the idea of being "weighted down." The term oppression is primarily used to describe how a certain group is being kept down by unjust use of force, authority, or societal norms. When this is institutionalized formally or informally in a society, it is referred to as "systematic oppression". Oppression is most commonly felt and expressed by a widespread, if unconscious, assumption that a certain group of people are inferior. Oppression is rarely limited solely to government action. Individuals can be victims of oppression, and in this case have no group membership to share their burden of ostracization. In psychology, racism, sexism and other prejudices are often studied as individual beliefs which, although not necessarily oppressive in themselves, can lead to oppression if they are acted on, or codified into law or other systems. By comparison, in sociology, these prejudices are often studied as being institutionalized systems of oppression in some societies. In sociology, the tools of oppression include a progression of denigration, dehumanization, and demonization; which often generate scapegoating, which is used to justify aggression against targeted groups and individuals. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the concept of Human Rights in general were designed to challenge oppression by giving a clear articulation of what limits should be placed on the power of any entity to unfairly control an individual or group of people. A hierarchy of oppression is a ranking (hierarchy) of relative oppressions according to arbitrariness and cruelty, or according to the perceived negative effects on oppressed communities. Hierarchies of oppression are seen by many human rights advocates as problematic, though hierarchies of oppression are often widespread even when unstated or unconscious. When oppression is systematized through coercion, threats of violence, or violence by government agencies or non-government paramilitiaries with a political motive, it is often called Political repression. More subtle forms of political oppression/repression can be produced by blacklisting or individualized investigations such as happened during McCarthyism in the United States. Transnational systems of oppression include colonialism, imperialism, and totalitarianism, and can generate a resistance movement to challenge the oppressive status quo.

Ethnic cleansing

The term ethnic cleansing refers to various policies of forcibly removing people of one ethnic group. At one end of the spectrum, it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population transfer, while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the forced expulsion of an "undesirable" population from a given territory as a result of religious or ethnic discrimination, political, strategic or ideological considerations, or a combination of these. This is a relatively new word, and its scope still varies. In its initial meaning it referred to policies applied by authorities to an undesirable ethnicity. However the term seem to fit well into a linguistic niche, and it is increasingly applied to other types of ethnic forced migration and genocide.

Origins of the term

The term "ethnic cleansing" entered the English lexicon as a loan translation of the Serbian/Croatian phrase etničko čišćenje (IPA ) (notice that literal translation of the phrase is "ethnic cleaning"). During the 1990s it was used extensively by the media in the former Yugoslavia in relation to the Yugoslav wars, and appears to have been popularised by the international media some time around 1992. The term may have originated some time before the 1990s in the military doctrine of the former Yugoslav People's Army, which spoke of "cleansing the territory" (čišćenje terena, IPA ) of enemies to take total control of a conquered area. The origins of this doctrine are unclear, but may have been a legacy of the Partizan era. This originally applied purely to military enemies, but came to be applied to ethnic groups as well. It was used in this context in Yugoslavia by the Serbian media as early as 1981, in relation to the policies of the Kosovo Albanian administration allegedly creating an "ethnically clean territory" (i.e. "cleanly" Albanian) in the province[http://www.siri-us.com/backgrounders/Archives_Kosovo/KLA-Terror-Cleansing.html]. However, this usage had antecedents. The earliest known usage of it may been in May 16, 1941, during the Second World War, by one Viktor Gutić, a commander in the Croatian fascist faction the Ustaše. An article in the Hrvatska Krajina newspaper[http://www.pavelicpapers.com/documents/ndhnews/ndhn0004.html] describing the visit to the Franciscan monastery in Petrićevac quotes Gutić's speech: : Every Croat who today solicits for our enemies not only is not a good Croat, but also an opponent and disrupter of the prearranged, well-calculated plan for cleansing [čišćenje] our Croatia of unwanted elements [...] The Ustaše did carry out large-scale ethnic cleansing in their time in the Second World War. It is possible that the revival of nationalism in the 1980s reintroduced ethnic cleansing into Yugoslavia's political debate and language. The term "cleansing" ("cleansing of borders", очистка границ) was used in Soviet documents of early 1930s in reference to the resettlement of Poles from the 22-km border zone in Byelorussian SSR and Ukrainian SSR. The process was repeated on a larger and wider scale in 1939-1941, see Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union and Population transfer in the Soviet Union. A similar term with the same intent was used by the Nazi administration in Germany under Adolf Hitler. When an area under Nazi control had its entire Jewish population removed, whether by driving the population out, by deportation to Concentration Camps, and/or murder, the area was declared judenrein (lit. Jew Clean): cleansed of Jews. (cf. racial hygiene.)

Early examples of ethnic cleansing

The Assyrian Empire regularly deported entire ethnic groups, as did the Babylonians; victims of this policy most famously include the Israelites of Israel in 722 BC and the Israelites of Judah in 586 BC (see Babylonian captivity of Judah). In some instances, the expulsion of Jews had some features of ethnic cleansing, especially if accompanied by violence and enacted on the whole territory of the state. Jews were expelled from England (1290), France (1306), Hungary (1349–1360), Provence (1394 and 1490), Austria (1421), Spain after the Reconquista, Portugal (1497), Russia in 1724, and from various parts of Germany at various times. Not all deportations of Jews affected an entire country or lasted for extended periods of time: Jews from Krakow (1494) were expelled to suburbs of the city, and Jews expelled from Lithuania (1491) were allowed to return 10 years later. Spain's large Muslim minority, inherited from that country's former Islamic kingdoms, was expelled in 1502 and 1609–1614. Roma people were expelled from France, England and other European countries in during the 16th century.

Colonization-related ethnic cleansing

During more recent times, ethnic cleansing has often been used during colonisation projects. In North America, British and American settlers ethnically cleansed millions of Native Americans, forcibly relocating them to remote and often inhospitable reservation land. In southern Africa and Australia, native tribes were removed from their lands so that they could be replaced by white farmers and settlers.
- The colonization of the Americas by European powers, particularly Spain and Britain. This led to population removals and massacres of the indigenous population, starting in the 15th century and continuing into the 20th.
- The colonization of Australia by Britain. This led to population removals and massacres of the indigenous population, starting in 1788. It is important to note that the Maori were not ethnically cleansed in New Zealand. Many Maori were dispossessed of ownership of their land, but few were ever forcibly removed, and when this did happen it was mostly as a result of punishment for fighting and losing against colonial troops during the New Zealand Wars.
- The invasion of Gibraltar by Britain in 1704 led to an ethnic cleansing of the local Andalusian population, who were expelled from the territory in 1704
- The removals and massacres of native populations in the African colonies of various European powers.
- The concentration of Boers by Britain during the Second Boer War The American and South Pacific instances were disastrous. The native populations fell from millions to thousands in only a few centuries, a combined result of colonization policies and epidemics of foreign disease.

Modern-age ethnic cleansing

The term "ethnic cleansing" has come to mean the displacement or expulsion from a territory of one ethnic group by another. The displacement is usually forcible, though there are examples of voluntary or compensated ethnic cleansing. The 20th century has seen numerous cases, particularly in Europe and the Middle East.

Older examples

- In Canada the expulsion of the Acadians in 1755 from their ancestral lands in Nova Scotia or Acadia by the British military because of the French and Indian War.
- In the United States in the 19th century there were numerous instances of relocation of Native American peoples from their traditional areas to often remote reservations elsewhere in the country, such as the Long Walk of the Navajo and the Trail of Tears, the forced removal of the Cherokee tribe that led to the deaths of about 2,000 to 8,000 people.
- Expulsion and cleansing of Turkish, Muslim, and Jewish populations from Balkans following the independence of Balkan countries (e.g., Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria) from Ottoman Empire from early 1800s to early 1900.
- Cleansing of Muslim populations in Northern Caucasus by imperial Russia throughout 19th century. Particularly, expulsion of Circassians to Anatolia in 1864.

20th-century instances

- The 1913 Convention of Adrianople, annexed to the Peace Treaty between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire, provided for an exchange of ethnic Turks and Bulgarians in a 15 kilometer strip.
- The Armenian Genocide and the expulsion of Pontian Greeks perpetrated by the Young Turks during 1914–1922.
- The 1919 Treaty of Neuilly provided for the reciprocal emigration of ethnic minorities between Greece and Bulgaria.
- In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne which ended the First World War in the East, as well as post-war hostilities between Greece and the newly-formed Republic of Turkey, provided for a compulsory exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey.
- The expulsions of Jews from Austria after the Anschluss, and deportations of Poles and Jews from Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany.
- Nazi Germany wiped out entire populations of Jews and Gypsies during World War II (see also the Holocaust).
- Generalplan Ost, in which the Nazis planned to kill or expel most or all ethnic Slavs from large regions of Eastern Europe and replace them with German settlers.
- The German exodus from Eastern Europe. Although the exact numbers may never be known, some estimates claim that more than 16 million people had to leave their homes, and that approximately 2 million of those lost their lives during the process.
- The exodus of Italian people from Istria and Dalmatia after World War II
- Systematic deportations of numerous nationalities in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.
- The ethnic cleansing of Volhynia by Ukrainian guerrilla groups.
- The expulsion of Poles from Zamosc Voivodship by Germans in 1944.
- The expulsion of 800,000 Poles from Warsaw to concentration camps after defeat of Warsaw Uprising 1944, caused 200,000 deaths. The city of Warsaw, population of one million, was ordered to be completely demolished on the personal order of Hitler. Approximately 80% of the city was demolished.
- Finns evacuated from Finnish Karelia and other parts occupied by Soviet Union during World War II, leaving behind ethnically clean area. This was voluntary, but they evacuated fearing the Soviet rule and deportations to Siberia that happened in Soviet Union before to many nationalities, including Finns, see Population transfer in the Soviet Union.
- Mass expulsions of Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan to India, resulting in the complete ethnic cleansing of former West-Pakistan (current Republic of Pakistan), and the mass expulsions of Muslims from India to Pakistan, both following the partition of British India in 1947.
- Since 1947 expulsions of Hindus from both the Pakistani and Indian ruled regions of the disputed territory of Kashmir by Islamist militant groups.
- The Nakba, or Palestinian exodus, in which the substantial majority of Palestinians (600,000-900,000) in the areas of Palestine that became part of Israel fled or were forcibly deported by Jewish forces during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.
- The flight of Jews from the areas of Palestine occupied by Jordan and Egypt during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.
- The Jewish exodus from Arab lands - Yemen, Morocco and Iraq during 1948-1950, as well as flights which took place over the following 20 years from Egypt, Tunisia, Libya and other Arab countries.
- The forced resettlement of some 9,000 Jewish settlers from the Gaza Strip and the northern West Bank by the Israeli government as part of the unilateral disengagement plan is compared to ethnic cleansing both by the extreme opposition to the act and by more neutral observers.
- The mass deportation of ethnic minorities from their homelands, including East Timor and Papua, by the Indonesian government, beginning with Indonesian independence in 1949 (and subsequent occupation and annexation of Papua until the present day and of East Timor until 1999).
- The mass expulsions of Greek Cypriots from northern Cyprus and of Turkish Cypriots from southern Cyprus in 1974-1975.
- The widespread ethnic cleansing accompanying the Yugoslav wars from 1991 to 1999, of which the most significant examples occurred in eastern Croatia and Krajina (1991-1995), in most of Bosnia (1992-1995), and in the Albanian-dominated breakaway Kosovo province (of Serbia) (1999). Large numbers of Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks and Albanians were forced to flee their homes and expelled.
- The forced displacement of some 800,000 Azeris and 300,000 Armenians during the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan and the Armenian invasion of Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding areas from 1988 to 1994.
- The forced displacement of some 300,000 Georgians and other non-Abkhazians from Abkhazia in 1993.
- The 1994 massacres of Tutsis by Hutus, known as the Rwandan Genocide
- Attacks by the Janjaweed Arabic-speaking African Muslim militias of Sudan on the non-Arab African Muslim population of Darfur, a region of western Sudan.

Ethnic cleansing as a military and political tactic

The purpose of ethnic cleansing is to remove the conditions for potential and actual opposition, whether political, terrorist, guerrilla or military, by physically removing any potentially or actually hostile ethnic communities. Although it has sometimes been motivated by a doctrine that claim an ethnic group is literally "unclean" (as in the case of the Jews of medieval Europe), more usually it has been a rational (if brutal) way of ensuring that total control can be asserted over an area. The campaign in Bosnia in early 1992 was a case in point. The tactic was used by Croatian, Muslim Bosnian and Serbian forces. Ethnic cleansing is often also accompanied by efforts to eradicate all physical traces of the expelled ethnic group, such as by the destruction of cultural artifacts, religious sites and physical records [http://www.rastko.org.yu/kosovo/crucified/default.htm#_catalog]. As a tactic, ethnic cleansing has a number of significant advantages and disadvantages. It enables a force to eliminate civilian support for resistance by eliminating the civilians — in a reversal of Mao Zedong's dictum that guerrillas among a civilian population are fish in water, it drains the water. When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the forced resettlement of ethnic Germans to Germany after 1945, it can contribute to long-term stability. The large German populations in Czechoslovakia and Poland had been sources of friction before the Second World War, but this was forcibly resolved. It thus establishes "facts on the ground" - radical demographic changes which can be very hard to reverse. On the other hand, ethnic cleansing is such a brutal tactic and so often accompanied by large-scale bloodshed that it is widely reviled. It is generally regarded as lying somewhere between population transfers and genocide on a scale of odiousness, and is treated by international law as a war crime.

Ethnic cleansing as international law crime

Ethnic cleansing is designated a crime against humanity in international treaties, such as that which created the International Criminal Court (ICC). The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was set up in a similar spirit, and prosecutes these crimes under more generic names. The United Nations' General Assembly condemns "ethnic cleansing" and racial hatred in a 1992 resolution [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/47/a47r080.htm]. The emergence of ethnic cleansing as a distinct category of war crime has been a somewhat complex process. Each individual element of a programme of ethnic cleansing could be considered as an individual violation of humanitarian law - a killing here, a house-burning there - thus missing the systematic way in which such violations were perpetrated with a single aim in mind. International courts therefore consider individual incidents in the light of a possible pattern of ethnic cleansing. In the Yugoslav case, for instance, the ICTY considers the widespread massacres and abuses of human rights in Bosnia and Kosovo as part of an overall "joint criminal enterprise" to carve out ethnically pure states in the region. However, many alleged "ethnic cleansings" in the past do not fit the modern definition of "crimes against humanity." For example, the post-WW2 German expulsions were sanctioned by the international agreement at Potsdam conference, requiring that the actions proceed humanely.

Comparison of events in the Bible with ethnic cleansing

Some narratives in the in the Bible which describe the Hebrew conquest of Canaan in c. 13th century BC or before, would now be considered descriptions of ethnic cleansing or even genocide. In several places God commands the Hebrews to kill every man, woman and child after capturing a city, and sometimes cities also had to be burnt to the ground. In Exodus, the story of the Pharaoh's attempt to destroy the Israelites living in Egypt can also be seen as ethnic cleansing. Similarly Haman's attempt to wipe out the Jews within the Persian empire described in Esther can be considered ethnic cleansing.

References

- [http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html]
- [http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art3.pdf]

External links

- [http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/ Photojournalist's Account] - Images of ethnic cleansing in Sudan
- [http://www.genocide.org.uk/ Genocide of Tamils in Sri Lanka] Category:Human rights abuses Category:Violence Category:Persecution Category:Forced migration ko:민족청소 ja:民族浄化

Weather

Weather comprises all the various phenomena that occur in the atmosphere of a planet. "Weather" is normally taken to mean the activity of these phenomena over short periods of time, usually no more than a few days in length. Average weather conditions over significantly longer periods is known as climate, which is studied by climatologists for signs of climate change.

Terrestrial weather

On Earth, the regular events include wind, thunderstorms, rain, sleet, hail, snow, and fog which occur in the troposphere or the lower part of the atmosphere. Weather is driven by differences in energy received from the sun. Due to the different angles that sunlight intersects the earth, different parts of it are heated to different extents. This causes temperature differences, which lead to global wind, as well as, indirectly, all other weather phenomena. Direct causes of weather are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloud cover, wind speed, and elevation. The Earth's atmosphere is one large inter-related system so small changes to one part can have large effects in other parts, i.e., it is a chaotic system. This makes it very difficult to accurately predict short term weather changes more than a few days in advance, though weather forecasters large and small are continually working to improve this limit through the science of the study of weather: meteorology.

Extra-terrestrial weather

meteorology Weather phenomena and systems on other planets are thought to be similar to those on Earth, but often occur on a much bigger scale. Extra-terrestrial weather systems can be extremely stable; one of the most famous landmarks in the solar system, Jupiter's Great Red Spot is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. On other gas giants, the lack of a surface allows the wind to reach enormous speeds: gusts of up to 400 metres per second have been measured on the planet Neptune. This has created a puzzle for planetary scientists: The weather is created by the differential action of the Sun's energy on different places and the amount of energy received by Neptune is very, very small, relative to the Earth, yet the strength and magnitude of weather phenomena on Neptune is far, far greater than on Earth. This mystery is still to be solved. Earth's weather appears to behave based on about a half-dozen latitudinal weather zones. Jupiter's banded appearance shows over a dozen such zones, while Venus appears to have no zones at all. Studying how the weather works on other planets has been seen as helpful in understanding how it works on Earth.

Extra-planetary weather

Weather is not limited to just planetary bodies however. A star's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the solar system, known as the solar wind. Inconsistencies in this wind and larger events on the surface of the star, such as Coronal Mass Ejections, form a system that has features analogous to conventional weather systems (i.e. pressure and wind), and though not true weather, is known as space weather. The activity of this system can affect planetary atmospheres and occasionally surfaces. The interaction of the solar wind with the terrestrial atmosphere can produce spectacular aurorae, but can play havoc with electrically sensitive systems such as electricity grids and radio signals.

Wage rate

A wage is the amount of money paid for some specified quantity of labour. When expressed with respect to time (usually per hour), it is typically called the wage rate, and is specified in pre-tax amounts. It is often the main monetary item upon which the worker and the employer focus when negotiating an employment contract. Early forms of wages included salt (from which the word salary is derived). In modern English, the word salary tends to be used when referring to employment in which the employee is not paid by the hour. Depending on the structure and traditions of different economies around the world, wage rates are either primarily market-driven (the USA) or influenced by other factors such as tradition, social structure and seniority, as in Japan. Several countries have enacted a statutory minimum wage rate in an attempt to prevent the (some say supposed) exploitation of low-paid workers.

Etymology

Wage derives from words suggesting making a promise, often in monetary form. Specifically from the Old French word wagier or gagier meaning to pledge or promise, from which the money placed in a bet (wager) also derives. These in turn may derive from the French gage to wager, the Gothic wadi, or the Late Latin wadium, also meaning "a pledge".

Wages in the United States

In the United States, wages for most workers are set by market forces, or else by collective bargaining, where a labor union negotiates on workers' behalf. The Fair Labor Standards Act requires a minimum wage at the Federal level although states and cities can and sometimes do set their own higher minimum. For certain Federal or State Government contacts, employers must pay the so-called prevailing wage as determined according to the Davis-Bacon Act or its State equivalent. Activists have also undertaken to promote the idea of a living wage higher than current laws require.

External links

- [http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/capitalism_wages.htm Understanding Capitalism Part III: Wages and Labor Markets] - Critical of capitalism
- [http://www.dol.gov/esa/minwage/america.htm U.S. Department of Labor: Minimum Wage Laws] - Different laws by State
- [http://www.usda.gov/nass/graphics/data/fl_allwg.txt Average U.S. farm and non-farm wages compared to the minimum wage (1981 - 2004)] Category: Labor category:Organizational studies and human resource management ja:賃金

Third World

:For the Jamaican reggae band, see Third World (band). Third World (band) Third World was a term first coined by Jawaharlal Nehru (First Prime Minister of India), originally to distinguish nations that aligned with neither the West or with the East during the Cold War, including many members of the Non-Aligned Movement. Today, however, the term is used to denote nations with a low UN Human Development Index (HDI), independent of their political status. Many "Third World" countries are located in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. They are often nations that were colonized by another nation in the past. Third world countries are generally very poor but with high populations and birth rates. In general they are not as industrialized or technologically advanced as OECD countries. The majority of the countries in the world fit this classification. These countries are also known as the Global South, developing countries, least developed countries and the Majority World in academic circles. Development workers also call them the two-thirds world (because 2/3rds of the world is underdeveloped) and The South. Some dislike the term developing countries as it may imply that economic development (industrialisation) is the only way forward, while they believe it is not necessarily the most beneficial. The term Third World is also disliked as it may imply the false notion that those countries are not a part of the global economic system. Some note that the underdevelopment of Africa, Asia and South America during the Cold War was influenced, or even caused by the Cold War economic, political, and military maneuverings of the most powerful nations of the time. The term Fourth World is used by some writers to describe the poorest Third World countries, those which lack industrial infrastructure and the means to build it. More commonly, however, the term is used to describe either indigenous peoples or other oppressed minority groups within any country.

History of the term

Fourth World Perhaps the earliest use of such a ranking system to describe the peoples of Earth appears in studies of 'race' during the classic period of European imperialism. James M. Hobson, in his "The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization" (2004) discusses the 'civilizational league table' (employing categories such as 'racial colour', 'temperament', and 'climactic character'), and connects it to the work of Robert Knox, Benjamin Kidd, and the Comte de Gobineau (amongst others). Such discourse typically divided the world into three races - the 'advanced' First World of Europe, inhabited by Whites; the 'barbaric' second World of the Yellows; and the 'savage' Black Third World. A quite different use of the term "Third World" is found in the work of economist Alfred Sauvy in an article in the French magazine L'Observateur of August 14, 1952. It was a deliberate reference to the "Third Estate" of the French Revolution. Tiers monde means Third World in French, but in the sense of "one-third" -- it does not mean "third in rank" (which would be troisième monde). The term gained widespread popularity during the Cold War when many poorer nations adopted the category to describe themselves as neither being aligned with NATO or the Warsaw Pact, but instead composing a non-aligned "third world" (in this context, the term "First World" was generally understood to mean the United States and its allies in the Cold War, which would have made the East bloc the "Second World" by default; however, the latter term was very seldom actually used). Leading members of this original "third world" movement were Yugoslavia, India, and Egypt. Many third world countries believed they could successfully court both the communist and capitalist nations of the world, and develop key economic partnerships without necessarily falling under their direct influence. In practice, this plan did not work out quite so well; many third world nations were exploited or undermined by the two superpowers who feared these supposedly neutral nations were in danger of falling into alignment with the enemy. After World War II, the First and Second Worlds struggled to expand their respective spheres of influence to the Third World. The militaries and intelligence services of the United States and the Soviet Union worked both secretly and overtly to influence Third World governments, with mixed success. During the Cold War there were a number of countries which did not fit comfortably into the neat definition of First, Second, and Third Worlds. These included Switzerland, Sweden, and the Republic of Ireland, which chose to be neutral. India was under the Soviet Union's sphere of influence but was not communist, nor was it a member of the Warsaw Pact. Austria was under the United States' sphere of influence, but in 1955, when the country again became a fully independent republic, it did so under the condition that it remained neutral. None of these countries would have been defined as Third World despite their non (or marginally) aligned status. With the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union, the term Second World largely fell out of use and the meaning of First World was extended to include all developed countries. By the end of the Cold War, the term Third World had shifted in English from its original meaning and had become a synonym for infrastructure-poor countries. The term "Fourth World" has come to denote especially poor and powerless groups, such as many indigenous peoples, living in either Third or First World countries. It is also sometimes used to describe extremely poor countries with almost no industrial infrastructure to speak of or as a synonym for "least developed countries". Heavily industrialized states that were formerly communist are simply called "former communist countries.It must be realized that enormous diversity exists within the third world and the term is increasing being obsolete becuse it is archaic and describes an international power structure that existed after the second world war. It should be noted that the conception that the third world lacks an industrial infrastructure (while generally true) is not always correct. Certainly China is far more technologicaly advanced than many first world countries; and also oil rich gulf states while having brutal regimes are richer than some "first world" countries. In retrospect the term should be use with caution as classyifying countries into one homogenous lump often inhibits an objective perspective

Dependency theory

The dependency theory suggests that multinational corporations and organizations such as the IMF and World Bank have contributed to making Third World countries dependent on first world countries for economic survival. The theory states that this dependence is self-maintaining because the economic systems tend to benefit first world countries and corporations. Scholars also question whether the idea of development is biased in favor of Western thought. They debate whether population growth is a main source of problems in the third world or if the problems are more complex and thorny than that. Policy makers disagree on how much involvement first world countries should have in the Third World and whether Third World debts should be canceled. The issues are complicated by the stereotypes of what Third World and first world countries are like. People in the first world, for example, often describe Third World countries as underdeveloped, overpopulated, and oppressed. Third World people are sometimes portrayed as uneducated, helpless, or backwards. Modern scholarship has taken steps to make academic discourse more conscious of the differences not only between the First World and the Third World, but also among the countries and people of each category.

Countries

The countries considered Third World are usually the whole of South and Central America (everything south of the United States), the whole of Africa (with the possible exception of South Africa), the Middle East (except for Israel and possibly Turkey), South and Southeast Asia (except for South Korea, Taiwan, Japan and Singapore), and the Pacific Islands (except for New Zealand). While the former communist countries of the world were historically part of the Second World, their current classification is often uncertain. Some former-Communist countries, such as Slovenia, currently have high-income economies and a high human development index, and may therefore be considered First World. Others are classified as "transition economies" and are neither classified as First World or as Third World. The countries of Central Asia, as well as the People's Republic of China, North Korea, India and Vietnam, are nearly always considered Third World. The status of the People's Republic of China and India as Third World countries is, however, uncertain, since these countries are currently developing at a very fast pace and approaching middle-income status.

Prosperity

In New Age and New Thought circles the term prosperity is often used to refer to the spiritual principle that holds that man's birth right in this world is wealth. Marie Dressler and Polly Moran starred in a 1932 film titled Prosperity. Category:1932 films

Anarchism

Definitions of anarchism on Wikiquote

Anarchism derives from the Greek αναρχία ("without archons (rulers)"). Thus anarchism, in its most general meaning, is the belief that rulers are unnecessary and should be abolished. Anarchism refers to various political philosophies and related social movements that advocate the elimination of authoritarian institutions and relationships. There is often disagreement about the meaning of "authoritarian." The state is universally seen by anarchists as an unnecessary evil that must be abolished, but other things - such as economic relationships - provoke intense controversy. In place of centralized political structures and coercive economic institutions, anarchists advocate social relations based upon voluntary association of autonomous individuals and self-governance. There is no agreement among self-described anarchists as to whether the term "anarchism" refers only to those anti-statist movements which oppose private property, or to any movement that opposes the existence of authority regardless of the proposed economic system; however, most dictionaries use the latter meaning.[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Definitions_of_anarchism] While anarchism is defined by what it is against, anarchists also offer differing positive visions of what they believe to be a truly free society. The word "anarchy," as anarchists use it, does not imply chaos or anomie, but rather a harmonious rulerless society. However, ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably, especially with respect to economics. Also, there is disagreement about how a free society might be brought about.

Precursors of anarchism

Primitive cultures

Anarcho-primitivists assert that, before recorded history, human society was organized on anarchist principles. They point to the egalitarian structure of hunter-gatherer bands, to the lack of division of labour and accumulated wealth, non-hierarchal political organization, and the lack of decreed law as indicators of such indigenous anarchist systems. Examples of indigenous societies with Anarchist political systems include the Nuer of East Africa, the Iroquois (and by some accounts most native people) in North America. The first use of the term anarchy to mean anti-statism was by Louis-Armand, Baron de Lahontan in his Nouveaux voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale, (1703), where he described the indigenous American society, which had no state, laws, prisons, priests, or private property, as being in anarchy [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-12]. Russell Means, a leader in the American Indian Movement, has repeatedly stated that he is "an anarchist, and so are all [his] ancestors." Thomas Jefferson said the native American Indians "never submitted themselves to any laws, any coercive power, any shadow of government. Their only controls are their manners, and that moral sense of right and wrong, which, like the sense of tasting and feeling in every man, makes a part of his nature..." and "I am convinced that those societies (as the Indians) which live without government, enjoy in their general mass an infinitely greater degree of happiness than those who live under the European governments" (Notes on Virginia and Letter to Colonel Carrington).

Philosophical traces

Some anarchists have claimed that Taoism, which developed in Ancient China, was a source of anarchistic attitudes [http://www.toxicpop.co.uk/library/taoism.htm][http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ancient-chinese.html]. Similarly, anarchistic tendencies can be traced to the philosophers of Ancient Greece, such as Zeno, the founder of the Stoic philosophy, Aristippus, who said that the wise should not give up their liberty to the state [http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html], and Diogenes of Sinope, the Cynic, who claimed to be a citizen of the world. Later movements — such as Stregheria in the 1300s, the Free Spirit in the Middle Ages, the Anabaptists, The Diggers, and the Ranters — have also expounded ideas that have been interpreted as anarchist.

Ancient Greece

The first known usage of the word anarchy appears in the play Seven Against Thebes by Aeschylus, dated 467 BC. There, Antigone openly refuses to abide by the rulers' decree to leave her brother Polyneices' body unburied, as punishment for his participation in the attack on Thebes, saying that "even if no one else is willing to share in burying him I will bury him alone and risk the peril of burying my own brother. Nor am I ashamed to act in defiant opposition to the rulers of the city (ekhous apiston tênd anarkhian polei)". Ancient Greece also saw the first European instance of anarchism as a philosophical ideal, in the form of the stoic philosopher Zeno of Citium, who was, according to Kropotkin, "[t]he best exponent of Anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece". As summarized by Kropotkin, Zeno "repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual". Within Greek philosophy, Zeno's vision of a free community without government or slavery is opposed to the state-Utopia of Plato's Republic. Zeno argued that although the necessary instinct of self-preservation leads humans to egotism, nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct — sociability. Like many modern anarchists, he believed that if people follow their instincts, they will have no need of law, courts, or police, no temples and no public worship, and use no money (a gift economy taking the place of the exchanges). Zeno's beliefs have only reached us as fragmentary quotations. [http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html]

Taoism

Taoism is often forgotten when looking for anarchist tracings through history. However,early philosophical Taoism is very close to modern anarchism. Founded by Lao Tzu in the 6th Century BCE Taoism rejected civilization and stated that all unhappiness in the world was created by human beings not being able to do what they want. Lao Tzu felt that humans should live with nature so they can express their nature endowed talents. In the Tao Te Ching the Taoist scripture Lao Tzu's definition of nature endowed talents is akin to the Christian notion of God given talent. Lao Tzu also felt that there were many artificialties in our civilization which consisted of: culture, government institutions of all kinds including education, institutionalized morality (laws, rules, convention, manners, etiquette), institutionalized violence (arms, military), conscription, antiritualism, antimilitarism, antiintellectualism (he was not advocating ignorance, but intellectualism as far as institutionalized education was concerned). Taoism has a strong belief in the goodness of human nature. To illustrate this better there is a famous Taoist story about a man who wakes up one morning and decides to visit a friend who he has not seen a while but lives far away. The man takes half the day going to his friends house and when he gets to the door instead of knocking he stops and turns around to go back home. Many people become frustrated with this story and ask if the man took all that time to go to his friends house then he should have just visited him. But to a Taoist the man obviously did not feel like seeing his friend when he arrived and instead of forcing himself to go through with the visit anyway, and doing something he did not want to, he simply turned around and went back home.

The Anabaptists

The Anabaptists of 16th century Europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism. Bertrand Russell, in his History of Western Philosophy, writes that the Anabaptists "repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by the Holy Spirit...[f]rom this premise they arrive at communism...." The novel Q by Luther Blissett provides a fictional depiction of this movement and its revolutionary ideology. Gerrard Winstanley of The Diggers, who published a pamphlet calling for communal ownership and social and economic organization in small agrarian communities in the 17th century, is considered another of the forerunners of modern anarchism.

History of anarchism

Justice against the state

The first essay explicitly advocating the absence of government was "[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Burke0061/Vindication/0339_Bk.html A Vindication of Natural Society]" (1756) by Edmund Burke. There is an ongoing historical dispute about whether this essay was serious or satirical; nevertheless, it was influential among later anarchists such as William Godwin, Benjamin Tucker, and others who praised it. William Godwin, in [http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pjtp.html An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice]" (1793) wrote what would become core anarchist critiques of government, economics, and society; though he did not use the word anarchism, some today regard him as the "founder of philosophical anarchism" By "political justice" Godwin meant "the adoption of any principle of morality and truth into the practice of a community," and his characteristically anarchist conclusion was that government in fact inhibits rather than fosters justice. Godwin's philosophy was optimistic about the potential for human beings to develop and conduct social relations on the basis of reason and consent. He believed that there are no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil. He considered that "our virtues and our vices may be traced to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated from the world." The control of man by man in general, and the institution of government in particular, are detrimental to human development. "Government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original mind." However, Godwin admitted that "we may be obliged to admit [Government] as a necessary evil for the present." Godwin's masterpiece was published in 1793, in the thick of the French Revolution. The themes of his work, some of which he later retracted, would become central to the future development of anarchism. But at this point no anarchist movement yet existed, and the term anarchiste was known only as an insult hurled by the bourgeois Girondins at more radical elements in the revolution. (Some of whom, the Parisian Sans-culottes, are seen by many as the immediate predecessors of working-class anarchism.)

The first self-labelled anarchist

Sans-culottes It is commonly held that it wasn't until Pierre-Joseph Proudhon published "[http://ns52.super-hosts.com/~vaz1net/bill/anarchism/library/WhatIsProperty/ What is Property?]" in 1840 that the term "anarchist" was adopted as a self-description. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory. In What is Property Proudhon answers with the famous accusation "Property is theft." In this work he opposed the institution of "property" (propriété) in the special sense of natural resources bestowed and enforced by state privilege, but he also opposed the notion of collective ownership of such, saying "instead of inferring from this that property should be shared by all, I demand, as a measure of general security, its entire abolition." Rather, he advocated a right of individuals to occupy and use land and to individually own product of cultivating it, calling this "possession" and "usufruct"; dominion over land that is not being used or occupied would constitute "property" and therefore "theft." Consisitent with his anti-communism, he strongly supported individual property in the product of labor. His reply to the communist motto "each according to his needs" was: "To each according to his works, first; and if, on occasion, I am impelled to aid you, I will do it with a good grace; but I will not be constrained" (The Philosophy of Misery). Proudhon's vision of anarchy, which he called mutualism (mutuellisme), thus involved an exchange economy where individuals and groups could trade goods valued by the labour time expended to produce them. The system would be supported by interest-free national banks. Proudhon generally opposed violent expropriation of property; instead he advocated programs whereby workers would create mutual organisations that could supplant capitalism and render the state superfluous. For example, he advocated the formation of interest-free community-owned banks - the prototype for modern credit unions. Proudhon's ideas began to exert some influence within French working class movements, and his followers were active in the Revolution of 1848 in France. However authoritarian socialist tendencies such as Blanquism were a stronger force in Proudhon's own time. Proudhon's work on property raised a central issue in the future development of anarchism. The question of property, and its place in an anarchist society, is sometimes seen as dividing anarchism thereafter into two major streams or tendencies which can loosely be called 'individualism' and 'collectivism'. Proudhon consistently opposed ideas of communism, and his reply to the motto "each according to his needs" was: "To each according to his works, first; and if, on occasion, I am impelled to aid you, I will do it with a good grace; but I will not be constrained" (The Philosophy of Misery). Proudhon also debated the French économistes (Frederic Bastiat, Gustave de Molinari, et. al.), who shared Proudhon's anti-statism but did not share his antipathy toward capital and interest. See Frederic Bastiat's debate with Proudhon.

Egoism

Max Stirner is considered to be the first egoist of the individualist anarchists. Stirner considered the world and everything in it, including other persons, available to one's taking or use without moral constraint --that rights do not exist in regard to objects at all. Stirner is a supporter of property but holds that a right to property is an illusion, or "ghost"; property is only a matter of control --it is not based in any moral right but solely in the right of might: "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property." He sees no rationality in taking the interests of others into account unless doing so furthers one's self-interest, which he believed is the only legitimate reason for acting. His embrace of egoism is in stark contrast to Godwin's altruism. He denies society as being an actual entity, calling society a "spook" and that "the individuals are its reality" (The Ego and Its Own). Stirner argued that most commonly accepted social institutions - including property rights and the very notion of society itself - were mere illusions or ghosts, saying rather that "the individuals are its reality." He advocated a form of amoralism, in which individuals would unite in 'associations of egoists' only when it was in their self interest to do so. The philosophy of Max Stirner, which he described as egoism is considered a form of individualist anarchism. Whether individualist anarchism is properly justified by self-interest (egoism) or natural law has been a subject of debate among later individualists. For example, Lysander Spooner argued that private property was based in natural law and espoused a labor theory of property, while Benjamin Tucker's ideas on property were founded on egoism, as he believed that property could only come about by self-interested parties contracting to establish it: "the right of might and the right of contract -are the only rights that ever have been or ever can be."

Individualist anarchism

See also: Individualist anarchism, American individualist anarchist, mutualism In 1825, the American Josiah Warren had participated in a collectivist experiment headed by Robert Owen called "New Harmony" that failed in a few years amidst much internal conflict. Warren came to the conclusion that the community's failure was due to a lack of individual sovereignty and private property. He held that in order to have a well-functioning society, :"Society must be so converted as to preserve the SOVEREIGNTY OF EVERY INDIVIDUAL inviolate. That it must avoid all combinations and connections of persons and interests, and all other arrangements which will not leave every individual at all times at liberty to dispose of his or her person, and time, and property in any manner in which his or her feelings or judgment may dictate. WITHOUT INVOLVING THE PERSONS OR INTERESTS OF OTHERS" - "Practical Details" (Warren's capitalization) Warren believed that "by dispensing with government we shake off the greatest invader of human rights" (Equitable Commerce). He put his theories to practice by organizing anarchist colonies, including Utopia and Modern Times. Modern Times] In 1872 Benjamin Tucker first met Warren and William B. Greene in Boston at the New England Labor Reform League. He became familiar with Warren's ideas on the cost the limit of price (an application of the labor theory of value) and Greene's ideas on mutual banking. Tucker incorporated these ideas, as well as the market anarchism of Proudhon and Max Stirner's egoism, Herbert Spencer's "law of equal freedom," and other theorists, into what is seen as a formalized individualist anarchis

Immigrant

Why do people immigrate?

Differing perspectives on immigration

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General immigration topics

Australian immigration

Canadian immigration

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United States immigration

French immigration

Legal instruments

External links

Emigration

Push factors

Pull factors

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Profession

History

Common qualities of professions

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Political

A natural state

Early history

Definitions

Political power

Authority and legitimacy

Traditional

Charismatic

Legal-rational

References

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Oppression

See also

Further reading

Ethnic cleansing

Origins of the term

Early examples of ethnic cleansing

Colonization-related ethnic cleansing

Modern-age ethnic cleansing

Older examples

20th-century instances

Ethnic cleansing as a military and political tactic

Ethnic cleansing as international law crime

Comparison of events in the Bible with ethnic cleansing

See also

References

External links

Weather

Terrestrial weather

Extra-terrestrial weather

Extra-planetary weather

See also

Wage rate

Etymology

Wages in the United States

See also

External links

Third World

History of the term

Dependency theory

Countries

See also

Prosperity

Anarchism

Precursors of anarchism

Primitive cultures

Philosophical traces

Ancient Greece

Taoism

The Anabaptists

History of anarchism

Justice against the state

The first self-labelled anarchist

Egoism

Individualist anarchism