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Insects

Insects

Subclass: Apterygota :Orders :
- Archaeognatha (Bristletails) :
- Thysanura (Silverfish) :
- Monura - extinct Subclass: Pterygota :
- Infraclass: "Paleoptera" (paraphyletic) ::Orders ::
- Ephemeroptera (mayflies) ::
- Protodonata - extinct ::
- Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) ::
- Diaphanopteroidea - extinct ::
- Palaeodictyoptera - extinct ::
- Megasecoptera - extinct ::
- Archodonata - extinct :
- Infraclass: Neoptera ::Orders ::
- Blattodea (cockroaches) ::
- Isoptera (termites) ::
- Mantodea (mantids) ::
- Dermaptera (earwigs) ::
- Plecoptera (stoneflies) ::
- Protorthoptera - extinct ::
- Orthoptera (grasshoppers, etc) ::
- Phasmatodea (walking sticks) ::
- Caloneroptera - extinct ::
- Titanoptera - extinct ::
- Embioptera (webspinners) ::
- Zoraptera ::
- Grylloblattodea ::
- Mantophasmatodea (gladiators) :
- Superorder: Exopterygota ::Orders ::
- Psocoptera (booklice, barklice) ::
- Thysanoptera (thrips) ::
- Phthiraptera (lice) ::
- Hemiptera (true bugs) :
- Superorder: Endopterygota ::Orders ::
- Raphidioptera (snakeflies) ::
- Megaloptera (alderflies, etc.) ::
- Neuroptera (net-veined insects) ::
- Coleoptera (beetles) ::
- Strepsiptera (twisted-winged parasites) ::
- Mecoptera (scorpionflies, etc.) ::
- Siphonaptera (fleas) ::
- Diptera (true flies) ::
- Trichoptera (caddisflies) ::
- Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths) ::
- Hymenoptera (ants, bees, etc.) ::
- Protodiptera extinct ::Incertae sedis ::
- Glosselytrodea extinct ::
- Miomoptera - extinct Insects are invertebrate animals of the Class Insecta, the largest and (on land) most widely distributed taxon within the Phylum Arthropoda. Insects comprise the most diverse group of animals on the earth, with over 800,000 species described—more than all other animal groups combined: "Indeed, in no one of her works has Nature more fully displayed her exhaustless ingenuity," Pliny exclaimed. Insects may be found in nearly all environments on the planet, although only a small number of species have adapted to life in the oceans where crustaceans tend to predominate. There are approximately 5,000 dragonfly species, 2,000 praying mantis, 20,000 grasshopper, 170,000 butterfly and moth, 120,000 fly, 82,000 true bug, 350,000 beetle, and 110,000 bee and ant species. Estimates of the total number of current species, including those not yet known to science, range from two to thirty million, with most authorities favoring a figure midway between these extremes. The study of insects is called entomology.

Relationship to other arthropods

A few smaller groups with similar body plans, such as springtails (Collembola), are united with the insects in the Subphylum Hexapoda. The true insects (that is, species classified in the Class Insecta) are distinguished from all other arthropods in part by having ectognathous, or exposed, mouthparts and eleven (11) abdominal segments. Most species, but by no means all, have wings as adults. Terrestrial arthropods, such as centipedes, millipedes, scorpions and spiders, are sometimes confused with insects due to the fact that both have similar body plans, sharing (as do all arthropods) a jointed exoskeleton.

Morphology and development

Insects range in size from less than a millimeter to over 18 centimeters (some walkingsticks) in length. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by an exoskeleton, a hard outer covering made mostly of chitin. The body is divided into a head, a thorax, and an abdomen. The head supports a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, and a mouth. The thorax has six legs (one pair per segment) and wings (if present in the species). The abdomen has excretory and reproductive structures. Insects have a complete digestive system. That is, their digestive system consists basically of a tube that runs from mouth to anus, contrasting with the incomplete digestive systems found in many simpler invertebrates. The excretory system consists of Malpighian tubules for the removal of nitrogenous wastes and the hindgut for osmoregulation. At the end of the hindgut, insects are able to reabsorb water along with potassium and sodium ions. Therefore, insects don't usually excrete water with their feces, a fact which allows them to store water in the body. This process of reabsorption enables them to withstand hot, dry environments. osmoregulation Most insects have two pairs of wings located on the second and third thoracic segments. Insects are the only invertebrate group to have developed flight, and this has played an important part in their success. The winged insects, and their secondarily wingless relatives, make up the subclass Pterygota. Insect flight is not very well understood, relying heavily on turbulent atmospheric effects. In more primitive insects it tends to rely heavily on direct flight muscles, which act upon the wing structure. More advanced flyers, which make up the Neoptera, generally have wings that can be folded over their back, keeping them out of the way when not in use. In these insects, the wings are powered mainly by indirect flight muscles that move the wings by stressing the thorax wall. These muscles are able to contract when stretched without nervous impulses, allowing the wings to beat much faster than would be otherwise possible. Insects use tracheal respiration in order to transport oxygen through their bodies. Openings on the surface of the body called spiracles lead to the tubular tracheal system. Air reaches internal tissues via this system of branching trachea. The circulatory system of insects, like that of other arthropods, is open: the heart pumps the hemolymph through arteries to open spaces surrounding the internal organs; when the heart relaxes, the hemolymph seeps back into the heart. Insects hatch from eggs, and undergo a series of moults as they develop and grow in size. This manner of growth is necessitated by the exoskeleton. Moulting is a process by which the individual escapes the confines of the exoskeleton in order to increase in size, then grows a new outer covering. In most types of insects, the young, called nymphs, are basically similar in form to the adults (an example is the grasshopper), though wings are not developed until the adult stage. This is called incomplete metamorphosis. Complete metamorphosis distinguishes the Endopterygota, which includes many of the most successful insect groups. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a larva, which is generally worm-like in form. The larva grows and eventually becomes a pupa, a stage sealed within a cocoon or chrysalis in some species. In the pupal stage, the insect undergoes considerable change in form to emerge as an adult, or imago. Butterflies are an example of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis. imago.]]

Behavior

Many insects possess very refined organs of perception. In some cases, their senses can be more capable than humans. For example, bees can see in the ultraviolet spectrum, and male moths have a specialized sense of smell that enables them to detect the pheromones of female moths over distances of many kilometers. Social insects, such as the ant and the bee, are the most familiar species of eusocial animal. They live together in large well-organized colonies that are so tightly integrated and genetically similar the colonies are sometimes considered superorganisms.

Roles in the environment and human society

Many insects are considered pests by humans, because they transmit diseases (mosquitos, flies), damage structures (termites), or destroy agricultural goods (locusts, weevils). Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control, often using insecticides, but more and more relying on methods of biocontrol. Although pest insects attract the most attention, many insects are beneficial to the environment and to humans. Some pollinate flowering plants (for example wasps, bees, butterflies, ants). Pollination is a trade between plants which need to reproduce, and pollinators which receive rewards of nectar and pollen. A serious environmental problem today is the decline of populations of pollinator insects, and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily for pollination management in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field, orchard or greenhouse at bloom time. Insects also produce useful substances such as honey, wax, lacquer or silk. Honeybees, (pictured above) have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey, although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for beekeepers. The silkworm has greatly affected human history as silk-driven trade established relationships between China and the rest of the world. Fly larvae (maggots) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop gangrene, as they would only consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals. Insect larvae of various kinds are also commonly used as fishing bait. In some parts of the world, insects are used for human food ("Entomophagy"), while being a taboo in other places. There are proponents of developing this use to provide a major source of protein in human nutrition. Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects already are present in many foods, especially grains. Most people do not realize that food laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit the quantity. According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris, the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have protein sources that require less work like farm birds or cattle. Many insects, especially beetles, are scavengers, feeding on dead animals and fallen trees, recycling the biological materials into forms found useful by other organisms. The ancient Egyptian religion adored beetles and represented them as scarabeums. Although mostly unnoticed by most humans, arguably the most useful of all insects are insectivores, those that feed on other insects. Many insects, such as grasshoppers can potentially reproduce so fast that they could literally bury the earth in a single season. However there are hundreds of other insect species that feed on grasshopper eggs, and some that feed on grasshopper adults. This role in ecology is usually assumed to be primarily one of birds, but insects, though less glamorous, are much more significant. For any pest insect one can name, there is a species of wasp that is either a parasitoid or predator upon that pest, and plays a significant role in controlling it. Human attempts to control pests by insecticides can backfire, because important but unrecognized insects already helping to control pest populations are also killed by the poison, leading eventually to population explosions of the pest species.

Fossils and evolution

predator The relationships of insects are unclear. Although traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes, evidence has emerged favoring a relationship with the crustaceans. Apart from some tantalizing Devonian fragments, insects first appear suddenly in the fossil record during the very start of the Late Carboniferous period, Early Bashkirian age, about 350 million years ago. As they are already specialized, and represented by more than half a dozen different orders, their anscestry must be sought earlier the Carboniferous, if not the Devonian. Little is known about the origin of insect flight, since the earliest winged insects appear to be capable fliers. Wings themselves are now thought to be highly modified gills, and some insects (e.g. the Palaeodictyoptera) had an additional pair of winglets attaching to the first segment of the thorax, for a total of three pairs. Late Carboniferous and Early Permian insect orders include both several current very long-lived groups (mayflies, (Ephemeroptera), dragonflies (Odonata), cockroaches (Blattodea), and Orthoptera (grasshoppers and their relatives)) and a number of Paleozoic forms. During this time, some giant dragonfly-like forms - e.g. Meganeura and Meganeuropsis (Order Protodonata) and Mazothairos (Order Palaeodictyoptera) - reached wingspans of 55 to 70 cm, making them far larger than any living insect. The Permian, around 270 million years, saw the development of most extant orders; while many of the early groups became extinct during the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction in the history of the earth. The remarkably successful Hymenopterans appeared in the Cretaceous but achieved their diversity more recently, in the Cenozoic. A number of highly successful insect groups — especially the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera (butterflies), as well as many types of Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles) — evolved in conjunction with flowering plants, a powerful illustration of co-evolution. Many modern insect genera developed during the Cenozoic; from this period on we find insects preserved in amber, often in perfect condition and easily compared with modern species. The study of fossilized insects is called paleoentomology.

References

- — a classic textbook in North America
- — an up to date review of the evolutionary history of the insects

Quotes

- "Something in the insect seems to be alien to the habits, morals, and psychology of this world, as if it had come from some other planet: more monstrous, more energetic, more insensate, more atrocious, more infernal than our own." ::—Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949)

External links

- [http://cmave.usda.ufl.edu/~rmankin/soundlibrary.html Bug Bytes] A reference library of digitized insect sounds.
- [http://www.sonoma.edu/users/r/rank/Bio355/BIOL355inslinks.html Entomological Links] A long list of links about insects
- [http://www.insects.org/index.html INSECTS .org] A shameless promotion of insect appreciation.
- [http://www.food-insects.com/ Insects as Food] by Gene DeFoliart. Information about insects as a food resource.
- [http://www.kendall-bioresearch.co.uk/index.htm Kendall Bioresearch] Bug Index, Featured Bugs, Classification, ID, Fossils, Body-parts, Micro Views, Life Cycles, Pesticide Safety.
- [http://www.ub.es/dpep/meganeura/meganeura.htm Meganeura] Website about insect evolution and fossil record.
- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Insecta&contgroup=Hexapoda Tree of Life Project] – Insecta
- [http://ufbir.ifas.ufl.edu/ UF Book of Insect Records], documenting "insect champions" in different categories Category:Arthropods Category:Entomology
- ko:곤충 ms:Serangga ja:昆虫類 simple:Insect th:แมลง

Apterygota

- Archaeognatha
- Thysanura Apterygota is a subclass of insects that are small agile insects, distinguised from other insects by their lack of wings now and in their evolutionary history. Their first known occurrence in the fossil record is in the Devonian period, 417-354 million years ago. There are no current species at conservation risk.

Sources

- Firefly Encyclopedia of Insects and Spiders, edited by Christopher O'Toole, ISBN 1-55297-612-2, 2002 Category:Insects Category:Apterygota

Archaeognatha

- Machilidae
- Meinertellidae The Archaeognatha are known as the bristletails, so named because of their three-pronged tails. An alternate name is the Microcoryphia from micro, small and coryphia, head. They are among the least evolutionarily changed insects, appearing in the Devonian period along with the Arachnids. The name Archaeognatha is derived from Greek. Archaeos meaning ancient is combined with gnatha meaning jaw. There are approximately 350 species in the two families. They are distributed worldwide, and unusual in the insect world in that they can even be found in the Arctic where they live in leaf litter and rock crevices. There are no current species at conservation risk.

Sources

- Firefly Encyclopedia of Insects and Spiders, edited by Christopher O'Toole, ISBN 1-55297-612-2, 2002

External links

- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Archaeognatha&contgroup=Insecta Archaeognatha] - Tree of Life Web Project
- [http://www.ento.vt.edu/Facilities/OnCampus/IDLab/insect_orders/microcoryphia.html Microcoryphia] Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State College Department of Entomology Category:Insects Category:Apterygota

Ephemeroptera

Suborder Schistonota
Superfamily Baetoidea
   Siphlonuridae
   Baetidae
   Oniscigastridae
   Ameletopsidae
   Ametropodidae
Superfamily Heptagenioidea
   Coloburiscidae
   Oligoneuriidae
   Isonychiidae
   Heptageniidae
Superfamily Leptophlebioidea
   Leptophlebiidae
Superfamily Ephemeroidea
   Behningiidae
   Potamanthidae
   Euthyplociidae
   Polymitarcydae
   Ephemeridae
   Palingeniidae
Suborder Pannota
Superfamily Ephemerelloidea
   Ephemerellidae
   Leptohyphidae
   Tricorythidae
Superfamily Caenoidea
   Neoephemeridae
   Baetiscidae
   Caenidae
   Prosopistomatidae
The mayflies are an order (Ephemeroptera meaning "but for a day wing") of insects that grow up in fresh water, and live very briefly as adults, as little as a few hours but more typically a day or two. About 2,500 species in 23 families are known. Other names for these insects include dayfly, shadfly, fishfly, and Canadian soldier. The nymphs live on the bottom of lakes and streams, usually under rocks, clinging to vegetation or digging in silt or mud. Most species are vegetarian, with some types being predators. The nymph stage may last from several months to as much as several years, with a number of molts along the way. Mayfly nymphs are distinctive in having external pairs of gills along the abdomen, as well as 2-3 long cerci at the end, giving them a bit of a frilly appearance. In the last aquatic stage, small wings are visible, a feature unique to this order. The adult's one purpose is to reproduce; the mouthparts are useless, and the digestive system filled with air. The wings are large and shiny, with the forewings much larger than the hind wings. The males' eyes are usually large, and the front legs long, used to grasp females and often held in front when resting. In some species, all legs aside from the males' front legs are useless, and adults' entire lives are spent in flight. It often happens that all the mayflies in a population mature at once, and for a day or two in the springtime, mayflies will be everywhere, dancing around each other in large groups, or resting on every available surface. This happens in mid-June on the Tisza River; this kind of mayfly is called the tiszavirág or "Tisza flower". Both immature and adult mayflies are an important part of the food chain, particularly for carnivorous fish like trout. Mayflies are also an industrial nuisance, as the large population of dead adults can clog the intakes of air and water supply systems. A good example of this is found in the nuclear industry when plants located near fresh water can have their cooling water intakes clogged by the corpses. In literature mayflies can sometimes illustrate something hard to find and/or obtain. There are two species, Pecatonica River mayfly and the Robust burrowing mayfly, that have recently become extinct. The Large blue lake mayfly is listed as vulnerable. In certain regions of New Guinea and Africa, mayflies are eaten when they emerge en masse on a certain day.

External link

- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Ephemeroptera&contgroup=Pterygota Tree of Life info for Ephemeroptera]
- [http://www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/ephemeroptera.html CSIRO page for Ephemeroptera] http://www.sg.ohio-state.edu/PDFS/PUBLICATIONS/FS/FS-069.PDF

Sources

- Firefly Encyclopedia of Insects and Spiders, edited by Christopher O'Toole, ISBN 1-55297-612-2, 2002 Category:Insects Category:Exopterygota ja:カゲロウ

Odonata

Epiprocta (dragonflies),
including infraorder Anisoptera (true dragonflies)
Zygoptera (damselflies)

Reference: [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=101593 ITIS 101593]
as of 2002-07-26 Odonata is an order in the class Insecta, encompassing those insects commonly known as dragonflies (either when referring to the group as a whole, or for the species in the suborder Epiprocta in a general or the infraorder Anisoptera in a strict sense) and damselflies (for the species in the suborder Zygoptera). The term Odonate has been coined to provide an English name for the group as a whole, in an attempt to resolve the problem caused by the dual meaning of the term dragonfly. This term is not however in common usage, and instead most Odonata enthusiasts solve the problem by using the term true dragonfly when referring to just the Anisoptera. It was long believed that the Anisoptera were a suborder and that there existed a third one, the Anisozygoptera (ancient dragonflies). However, they were combined in the suborder Epiprocta (in which Anisoptera is an infraorder) after it was revealed that the Anisozygoptera are a paraphyletic group composed of mostly extinct offshoots of dragonfly evolution. These insects characteristically have large rounded heads covered mostly by well-developed, faceted eyes, legs that facilitate catching prey (other insects) in flight, two pairs of long, transparent wings that move independently, and elongated abdomens. In most families there is a a structure on the leading edge near the tip of the wing called the pterostigma, which actually is a thickened, blood–filled and often colorful area called a cell. Cell in this case means a closed area of an insect wing bounded by veins. The functions of the pterostigma are not fully known, but it most probably has an aerodynamic effect and also a visual function. More mass at the end of the wing may also reduce the energy needed to move the wings up and down. The right combination of wing stiffness and wing mass could reduce the energy consumption of flying. A pterostigma is also found among other insects, like bees. Although generally fairly similar, dragonflies differ from damselflies in several, easily recognizable traits. Dragonflies are strong fliers with fairly robust bodies and at rest hold their wings either out to the side or out and downward (or even somewhat forward). Damselflies tend to be less robust, even rather weak appearing in flight, and when at rest most species hold their wings folded back over the abdomen (see photograph below, left). Dragonfly eyes occupy much of the animal's head, touching (or nearly touching) each other across the face. In damselflies, there is typically a gap between the eyes. pterostigma Odonates are aquatic or semi-aquatic as juveniles. Thus, adults are most often seen near bodies of water and are frequently described as aquatic insects. However, many species range far from water, seeking open fields and hilltops where they prey on smaller insects, catching these in flight. Dragonflies in particular are the raptors of the insect world and absolute masters of maneuverings in flight. Eggs are laid in water or on vegetation near water or wet places, and hatch to produce nymphs that become (in most species) voracious predators on other aquatic organisms, including small fishes. The nymphs grow and transform into the adult flying insect. Male odonates have an organ near the back of the thorax in which they store spermatozoa; they mate by holding the female behind the head with claspers located at the tip of the male abdomen; the female bends her abdomen forward to touch the male organ and receive sperm. Some very large species have been found in fossils. The largest odonates extant in the world today are the giant Central American damselfly, Megaloprepus coerulatus and Anax strenuus, a Hawaiian endemic dragonfly.

External links

- [http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/distr/insects/dfly/dflyusa.htm Dragonflies and Damselflies (Odonata) of the United States] - from U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). State-by-state listing of species with distribution maps, images and other information.
- [http://www.ups.edu/biology/museum/worldodonates.html Odonata of the World]
- [http://powell.colgate.edu/wda/dragonfly.htm Worldwide Dragonfly Association]
- [http://www.afn.org/~iori/index.html Dragonflies and damselflies] at the Odonata Information Network
- [http://www.goliathus.cz/en/museum-odonata-12.html Odonata] - Dragonflies and damselflies in [http://www.goliathus.cz/en/museum-homepage-0.html Online insect museum]. category:Insects category:Odonata Category:Exopterygota
- [http://www.sankey.ws/odonata.html Odonata of Ottawa Canada] ja:トンボ zh-min-nan:Chhân-eⁿ

Damselfly

Amphipterygidae
Calopterygidae - Demoiselles
Chlorocyphidae - Jewels
Dicteriadidae - Barelegs
Euphaeidae - Gossamerwings
Polythoridae - Bannerwings
Synlestidae - Sylphs
Lestidae - Reedlings
Lestoididae
Megapodagrionidae - Flatwings
Perilestidae - Shortwings
Hemiphlebidae - Reedlings
Coenagrionidae - Pond Damselflies
Isosticidae - Narrow-wings
Platycnemidae - Brook Damselflies
Platystictidae - Forest Damselflies
Protoneuridae - Pinflies
Pseudostigmatidae - Forest Giants The Damselfly (Suborder Zygoptera) is an insect in the Order Odonata. Damselflies are similar to dragonflies, but the adults can be differentiated by the fact that the wings of the former are held along the body when at rest. Damselflies are also usually smaller, and weaker fliers, than dragonflies, and their eyes are separated.

Biology

Damselflies undergo incomplete metamorphosis. The female lays eggs in water, sometimes in underwater vegetation. Nymphs are carnivorous, feeding on daphnia, mosquito larvae, and other small aquatic organisms. After molting a couple of times, the adult emerges and eats flies, mosquitoes, and other small insects. dragonflies dragonflies

External links

- [http://www.sankey.ws/odonata.html Damselflies of Ottawa Canada] Category:Odonata

Blattodea

Blaberidae
Blattellidae
Blattidae
Cryptocercidae
Polyphagidae
Nocticolidae
Cockroaches are insects of the order Blattodea (the name Blattaria is also seen). The names of the order are derived from Greek blatta, meaning "cockroach". There are roughly 3,500 species in 6 families. Cockroaches exist worldwide, with the exception of the polar regions and in elevations above 2,000 m (6,500 ft). Among the most well-known species are the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana, which is about 3 cm long, and the German cockroach, Blattella germanica, about 1.5 cm long. Tropical cockroaches are often much bigger. When infesting buildings, cockroaches are considered pests. The earliest fossils of cockroaches are from the Carboniferous period between 354–295 million years ago.

Biology

Cockroaches are generally either scavengers or omnivores. The exception to this is the wood eating Cryptocercus species found in China and the United States. Although they are incapable of digesting the cellulose themselves, they have a symbiotic relationship with a protozoan that digests the cellulose, allowing them to extract the nutrients. In this, they are similar to termites. They are most common in tropical and subtropical climates. Some species are in close association with human dwellings and widely found around garbage or in the kitchen. Female cockroaches are sometimes seen carrying egg cases on the end of their abdomen; the egg case of the German Cockroach holds about 30–40 long, thin eggs, packed like frankfurters in the case called an ootheca. The eggs hatch from the combined pressure of the hatchlings gulping air and are initially bright white nymphs that continue inflating themselves with air and harden and darken within about four hours. Their transient white stage while hatching and later while molting has led to many individuals claiming to have seen albino cockroaches. A female German cockroach carries an egg capsule containing around 40 eggs. She drops the capsule prior to hatching. Development from eggs to adults takes 3–4 months. Cockroaches live up to a year. The female may produce up to eight egg cases in a lifetime. In other words, in favorable conditions it can produce 300–400 offspring. A regular cockroach, however, can produce an extremely high number of eggs in her lifetime. She lays up to 100 eggs in each egg sac. She only needs to be impregnated once to be able to lay eggs for the rest of her life, allowing one single cockroach to lay over a million eggs in her lifetime. The world's largest cockroach is the Australian giant burrowing cockroach, which can grow to 9 cm in length and weigh more than 30 grams. Comparable in size is the giant cockroach Blaberus giganteus, which grows to a similar length but is not as massive. Cockroaches are mainly nocturnal, and will run away when exposed to light. A peculiar exception is the Oriental Cockroach which is attracted to light, thus making it a far more annoying pest. Roaches are actually very clean insects, even though they eat garbage. They are called the custodians of nature. They only live in houses where there are crumbs to eat or the garbage can is uncovered. They lay eggs inside the house's hollow walls. The roach is also one of the hardiest insects on the planet, capable of living for a month without food and remaining alive headless for up to a week. It can also hold its breath for 45 minutes and has the ability to slow down its heart rate. Cockroaches also have a very high resistance to radiation[http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/hortnews/1996/12-13-1996/bomb.html] garbage

Select species

- Periplaneta americana, American cockroach
- Eurycotis floridana, Florida woods cockroach
- Blatta orientalis, Oriental cockroach
- Blattella germanica, German cockroach
- Blattella asahinai, Asian cockroach
- Pycnoscelus surinamensis, Surinam cockroach
- Supella longipalpa, Brown-banded cockroach
- Periplaneta australasiae, Australian cockroach
- Periplaneta fuliginosa, Smokybrown cockroach
- Parcoblatta pennsylvanica, Pennsylvania woods cockroach
- Periplaneta brunnea, Brown cockroach

Madagascar Hissing Cockroach

The Madagascar hissing cockroach (Gromphadorhina portentosa) is a large flightless insect from the forests of Madagascar. It lives under the bark of trees or in leaf litter, feeding on plant matter including leaves and fallen fruit. It is a ovoviviparous organism. It is one of the largest cockroaches in the world and can reach 8 cm (3 inches). Any predator that catches one of these cockroaches is in for a double shock. The legs of this insect are covered in needle-sharp spines and the cockroach can make a loud hissing sound. It does this by forcing air out of the breathing holes that run along the side of its body. Although they live in the forest, they are attracted by house lights, and will sometimes creep through open windows. However, they are harmless and will soon leave when disturbed. The Madagascan Hissing Cockroach is often used in television programmes and films where a large scary-looking insect is required. They are frequently used in the television program "Fear Factor" where they are used to scare contestants or they have to be eaten. One Madagascan Hissing Cockroach has the privilege of being the driver of a Cockroach Controlled Mobile Robot [http://www.conceptlab.com/control/]

Behavior

New research being conducted at the University of Florida shows that cockroaches leave chemical trails in their feces. Other cockroaches will follow these trails to discover sources of food, water, and where other cockroaches are hiding. One of the major implications of this research is a new technique in cockroach pest control. Cockroaches could be potentially removed from a home by leaving a chemical trail that leads away from the home. forest

History

Some of the earliest writings with regards to cockroaches, encourage their use as medicine. Pedanius Dioscorides (1st century), Kamal al-Din al-Damiri and Abu Hanifa ad-Dainuri (9th century) all offered medicines that either suggest grinding them up with oil or boiling. The list of ailments included earaches, open wounds and "gynaecological disorders".

Miscellaneous

- The largest known cockroach by wingspan is a Megaloblatta longipennis, with an 18-cm wingspan.
- The largest by weight is a 50g Macropanesthia rhinoceros.
- The smallest species is Attaphila fungicola, reaching only 4 mm.

External link

- [http://www.hissingcockroach.com Hissing Cockroach guide]
- [http://www.cockroach-pictures.com cockroach pictures] shares pictures and facts on cockroaches and their behavior, feeding habits and life cycle.
- [http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7467.html UC Davis on Cockroaches]
- [http://pested.unl.edu/chapter1.htm Online Book about Cockroaches]
- [http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/kunkel/cockroach_faq.html The Cockroach FAQ.]

Sources

- Firefly Encyclopedia of Insects and Spiders, edited by Christopher O'Toole, ISBN 1-55297-612-2, 2002
- Insects: Their Biology and Cultural History, Bernhard Klausnitzer, ISBN 0-87663-666-0, 1987 Category:Cockroaches Category:Insects Category:Extremophiles ja:ゴキブリ th:แมลงสาบ

Mantodea

Chaeteessidae
Metallyticidae
Mantoididae
Amorphoscelidae
Eremiaphilidae
Hymenopodidae
Mantidae
Empusidae
The order Mantodea (or Praying mantis) consists of between 1,800 and 2,000 species, of which a majority are in Mantidae. Mantids are notable for their large size and nimble reflexes. Their diet usually consists of living insects, including flies and aphids; larger species have been known to prey on small lizards, frogs, birds and even rodents. A mantid's prey is caught and held securely with its grasping forelegs. Mantids are masters of camouflage and make use of protective coloration to blend in with the foliage, both to avoid predators themselves, and to better snare their victims. Some species in Africa and Australia are able to turn black within a few days of a fire in the region to blend in with the fire ravaged landscape. In addition to this adaptation, they have adapted to not only blend with the foliage, but to mimic it, appearing as leaves, blades of grass or even stones.

Reproduction

Mantids are also known to be cannibals. They are not only known to eat other insects, but also other mantids, sometimes even their mating partners (though the frequency of this is often overstated). During the mating season, which typically begins in autumn, male mantids are cautious when approaching female mantids. The male usually approaches from behind and hangs onto the female's back with his front legs. He then deposits and stores sperm cells into a special chamber in the female abdomen. The danger may occur during the mating process or afterwards where the female mantis devours her male mate, sometimes starting by biting off his head. Usually the male mantids will try to get the job done before they are eaten, even if it means performing the task while they are being eaten. Aldous Huxley made philosophical observations about the nature of death while two mantids mated in the sight of two characters in the novel Island. The species was Gongylus gongylodes. Gongylus gongylodes Depending on the species, the female then lays between 10 to 400 eggs. These are deposited in a frothy mass that is produced by glands in the abdomen. This froth then hardens, creating a protective capsule with a further protective coat. Depending on the species these can be attached to a flat surface, wrapped around a plant or even deposited in the ground. In spite of the versatility and durability of the eggs, they are often preyed on, especially by several species of wasps. Variability in the species also determines whether or not the mother guards the egg pod or leaves it. The praying mantis goes through three stages of metamorphosis: egg, nymph, and adult. Scientists also refer to this as an incomplete metamorphosis because the nymph and adult insect look essentially alike, except that the nymph is smaller and has no wings. A mantis nymph increases in size by replacing its outer body covering with a sturdy, flexible exoskeleton and molting when needed. This can happen up to five to ten times, depending on the species. After the final molt it should have full grown wings.

Human perceptions

molting Many gardeners consider mantises to be desirable insects, as they prey upon many harmful insect species. Organic gardeners who avoid pesticides may encourage mantises as a form of biological pest control. Mantis egg cases are sold in some garden stores for this purpose.

Conservation status

Only one Spanish species, Apteromantis aptera, is listed as Lower Risk/Near Threatened.

History

One of the earliest illustrations of a mantid appears in the ancient Chinese text Erh Ya, where its attributes in poetry (representing courage and fearlessness) are given, as well as a brief description. A later text, Pen ts'ao from 1108, is impressively correct on the construction of the egg packages, the development cycle, the anatomy and even the function of the antennae. By the 18th century the biology and morphology of the mantids became relatively accurate. Roesel von Rosenhof accurately illustrated and described them in the Insekten-Belustigungen (Insect Entertainments).

External links

- [http://www.maskedflowerimages.com/mantis.htm Natures's Best Masked Flower Image]
- [http://www.tiptopbio.com Seller of insects (including mantids) for bio control]

Sources

- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Mantodea Tree of Life - Mantodea]
-
-
- [http://www.earthlife.net/insects/mantchek.html Checklist of Mantodea originally compiled by the Los Angeles County Museum] Category:Insects

Plecoptera

Plecoptera are an order of insects, commonly known as stoneflies. There are some 2,000 species worldwide. These are aquatic insects whose nymphs (immatures) live in streams (running waters) while the adults live in the air.

External links

- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Plecoptera&contgroup=Neoptera Tree of Life project page] category:Insects Category:Exopterygota

Orthoptera

- Suborder Ensifera - crickets
- Superfamily Gryllacroidea
- Gryllacrididae - camel crikets
- Rhaphidophoridae - cave crickets
- Schizodactylidae - dune crickets
- Stenopelmatidae - king crickets
- Superfamily Grylloidea
- Gryllidae - true crickets
- Gryllotalpidae - mole cricket
- Mogoplistidae
- Myrmecophilidae
- Superfamily Tettigonioidea
- Anostostomatidae - king crickets
- Bradyporidae - armoured crickets
- Haglidae
- Phaneropteridae
- Tettigoniidae - katydids, koringkrieks
- Suborder Caelifera - grasshoppers, locusts
- Superfamily Acridoidea
- Acrididae - grasshoppers, locusts
- Arcypteridae
- Catantopidae
- Charilaidae
- Chrotogonidae
- Lathiceridae
- Lentulidae
- Pamphagidae - toad grasshoppers
- Pneumoridae - bladder grasshoppers
- Proscopiidae
- Pyrgomorphidae - gaudy grasshoppers
- Tetrigidae - pygmy grasshoppers
- Superfamily Eumastacoidea
- Eumastacidae
- Superfamily Tetrigoidea
- Batrachididae
- Tetrigidae - grouse locusts
- Superfamily Tridactyloidea
- Cylindrachetidae
- Rhipipterygidae
- Tridactylidae - pigmy mole crickets The Orthoptera are an order of insects with incomplete metamorphosis, including the grasshoppers, crickets, locusts, and katydids. Many insects in this order produce sound (known as a "stridulation") by rubbing their wings against each other or their legs, the wings or legs containing rows of corrugated bumps. Their ears, located in the front legs, are interconnected in such a way that they are able to locate each other by sound.

Characteristics

Orthopterans have two pairs of wings, the forewings are narrower than the hind wings and hardened at the base. They are held overlapping the abdomen at rest. The hind wing is membranous and held folded fan-like under the forewings when at rest. They have mandibulate mouthparts, large compound eyes, antennae length varies with species. Their hind legs are enlarged for jumping.

Life cycle

Orthopterans develop by incomplete metamorphosis. Most orthopterans madona lay their eggs in the ground or on vegetation. The eggs hatch and the young nymphs resemble adults but lack wings and at this stage are often called hoppers. Through successive moults the nymphs develop wings buds until their final moult into a mature adult with fully developed wings. The number of moults varies between species; growth is also very variable and may take a few weeks to some months depending on food availability and weather conditions.

Orthoptera As Food

The Orthoptera are the only insects considered kosher in Judaism. Although the Bible may be read as stating that all Orthoptera are kosher except those, such as the mole cricket, that do not jump, halakhic authorities state that only four species known in Yemen are kosher.

Taxonomy note

Note that the cricket suborder Ensifera will probably be given its own order soon, the Grylloptera.

External links

- [http://www.ent.iastate.edu/imagegal/orthoptera Orthoptera Image Gallery (Iowa State University Entomology Department)]
- [http://www.affa.gov.au/content/output.cfm?ObjectID=D2C48F86-BA1A-11A1-A2200060B0A00383 Australian Plague Locust Commission]
- [http://www.orthoptera.org/ The Orthopterists' Society] Category:Insects Category:Exopterygota

Phasmatodea

See text. Phasmatodea is an order of insects, whose members are variously known as stick insects, walking sticks (the larger forms), ghost insects and leaf insects. The name is derived from the Greek "phasm" meaning an apparition or phantom, and refers to the cryptic appearance and mimetic behavior of these insects. In old classifications they were considered a suborder of Orthoptera.

Notable species

One Australian species Lord Howe Island stick insect is now listed as recently extinct.

Classification

Lord Howe Island stick insect Lord Howe Island stick insect Lord Howe Island stick insect Lord Howe Island stick insect Superfamily Timematoidea Parker, 1982
- Timematidae Caudell, 1903 Timemas Superfamily Phyllioidea Karny, 1923
- Phylliidae Redtenbacher, 1906
- Pseudophasmatidae Kirby, 1896 (striped walking sticks)
- Anisomorphini Redtenbacher, 1906
- Stratocleidini Brunner, 1915
- Pseudophasmatini Günther, 1953
- Xerosomatini Brunner, 1893
- Prisopodini Brunner, 1893
- Heteronemiini Günther, 1953 (common walking sticks)
- Xeropsidini m.
- Korinnidae Günther, 1953
- Aschiphasmatidae Brunner, 1893
- Heteropterygidae Rehn, 1904 (= Obrimidae Rehn & Rehn, 1939)
- Heteropterygini Kirby, 1896
- Obrimini Brunner, 1893
- Anisacanthini Günther, 1953
- Datamini Rehn & Rehn, 1939
- Pygirhynchidae Redtenbacher, 1906
- Bacillidae Redtenbacher, 1906
- Xylicini Günther, 1953
- Antongiliini Günther, 1953
- Bacillini Günther, 1953 Superfamily Phasmatoidea Karny, 1923
- Tropidoderidae Brunner, 1893 (= Podacanthidae Günther, 1953)
- Tropidoderini Brunner, 1893
- Monandropterini Brunner, 1893
- Phasmatidae Karny, 1923 (winged walking sticks)
- Phasmatini Brunner, 1893
- Stephanacridini Günther, 1953
- Achriopterini Günther, 1953
- Acanthomimini Günther, 1953
- Pharnaciini Günther, 1953
- Baculini Günther, 1953
- Acanthoxylini Bradley & Galil, 1977
- Eurycanthidae Brunner, 1893
- Neopromachini Günther, 1953
- Eurycanthini m.
- Xeroderidae Günther, 1953
- Platycranidae Redtenbacher, 1908
- Bacteriidae Brunner, 1893 (= Cladomorphidae Brunner, 1893; = Phibalosomatidae Redtenbacher, 1908)
- Hesperophasmatini Rehn, 1901
- Cladoxerini Karny, 1923
- Craspedoniini Bradley & Galil, 1977
- Bacteriini Brunner, 1893
- Otocraniini m.
- Palophidae Redtenbacher, 1908
- Necrosciidae Brunner, 1893
- Pachymorphidae Brunner, 1893 (= Clitumnidae Brunner, 1907)
- Ramulini Günther, 1953
- Hemipachymorphini Günther, 1953
- Pachymorphini Brunner, 1893
- Lonchodidae Brunner, 1893 (= Prisomeridae Karny, 1923)
- Lonchodini Brunner, 1893
- Menexenini Brunner, 1893
- Diapheromeridae Karny, 1923
- Diapheromerini Zompro, 2001
- Libethrini Günther, 1953
- Ocnophilini Günther, 1953
- Oreophoetini Zompro, 2001

External links

- [http://library.thinkquest.org/C003908/index_e.html Phasmids in Thinqkquest]
- [http://www.phasmatodea.org/ Phasmatodea.org]
- [http://www.phasmidenwelt.de/ German site about Phasmids]
- [http://www.bugsafari.co.uk/ Stick insects for sale]
- http://www.geocities.com/brisbane_hoppers/Phasmatidae.htm category:insects Category:Cryptic animals ja:ナナフシ

Embioptera

There are 3 suborders and 13 families:
Anisembiidae
Oligotomidae
Teratembiidae
... Webspinners or embiids (order Embioptera) are a group of mostly tropical and subtropical insects, classified under the subclass Pterygota. The name Embioptera (lively wings) comes from Greek, embio meaning lively and ptera meaning wings, and refers to the fluttery movement of wings that was observed in the first male specimen described. The group probably first appeared during the early Carboniferous. Category:Insects ja:カゲロウ

Zoraptera

Zorotypus barberi
Zorotypus brasiliensis
Zorotypus buxtoni
Zorotypus caudelli
Zorotypus ceylonicus
Zorotypus congensis
Zorotypus cramptoni
Zorotypus delamarei
Zorotypus guineensis
Zorotypus gurneyi
Zorotypus hamiltoni
Zorotypus hubbardi
Zorotypus huxleyi
Zorotypus javanicus
Zorotypus juninensis
Zorotypus lawrencei
Zorotypus leleupi
Zorotypus longicercatus
Zorotypus manni
Zorotypus medoensis
Zorotypus mexicanus
Zorotypus neotropicus
Zorotypus newi
Zorotypus philippinensis
Zorotypus shannoni
Zorotypus silvestrii
Zorotypus sinensis
Zorotypus snyderi
Zorotypus swezeyi
Zorotypus weidneri
Zorotypus vinsoni
Zorotypus zimmermani The insect order Zoraptera contains one family (Zoratypidae) which in turn contains one extant genus, Zorotypus, though an extinct animal of the Cretaceous era is classified as Xenozorotypus burmiticus within the same family. Commonly called Zorapterans, the members of this order are small ( 3 mm or less) insects that resemble termites (Order Isoptera) in appearance and in their gregarious behavior. About thirty species are found world-wide. They live beneath rotting wood, eating fungal spores and detritus. Although zorapterans have four wings, both sexes have winged and wingless forms, with the wingless forms lacking eyes. They have 9-segmented moniliform antennae. Category:Insects Category:Exopterygota

Grylloblattodea

Grylloblatta
Galloisiana Grylloblattodea is a small order of extremophile insects that live in the cold on top of mountains. They are commonly called grylloblattids, but are also sometimes called rock crawlers or icebugs. Their appearance evidently puzzled the scientist who discovered them; the first species named was Grylloblatta campodeiformis, which means "It looks like a cricket, a cockroach, and a Campodea" (a kind of two-pronged bristletail). Most are nocturnal and appear to feed on detritus. They have long antennae (23-45 segments) and long cerci (5-8 segments), but no wings. This order includes a single family with 4 genera and 25 species. ITIS Number 102429

External link

- [http://www.myrmecos.net/insects/Grylloblattid3.html Grylloblattidae] - A very nice picture. Category:Insects Category:Extremophiles Category:Exopterygota

Exopterygota

Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies)
Grylloblattodea
Plecoptera (stoneflies)
Zoraptera
Isoptera (termites)
Dermaptera (earwigs)
Embioptera
Dictyoptera (cockroaches, mantids)
Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, locusts, and katydids)
Phasmatodea (stick insects)
Psocoptera (booklice)
Phthiraptera (lice)
Mallophaga (Chewing lice)
Anoplura (Sucking lice)
Hemiptera (true bugs)
Homoptera (cicadas, hoppers, aphids, scale insects)
Thysanoptera (Thrips, Thunderflies or Thunder bugs)
The Exopterygota, also known as Hemipterodea, are a superorder of insects of the subclass Pterygota, in which the young resemble adults but have externally-developing wings. They undergo a modest change between larva and adult, without going through a pupal stage. The larvae develop gradually into adults through a process of moulting. The Exopterygota are a highly diverse insect superorder, with at least 130,000 known species divided between eighteen orders. They include termites, dragonflies, thrips, lice and stick insects, among many other types of insect. They are distinguished from the Endopterygota (or Holometabola) by the way in which their wings develop. Endopterygota (meaning literally "internal winged forms") develop wings inside the body and undergo an elaborate metamorphosis involving a pupal stage. Exopterygota ("external winged forms") develop wings on the outside of their bodies without going through a pupal stage. ITIS treats [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=100501 Exopterygota] as an Infraclass with a single Superorder - Endopterygota. Endopterygota Category:Exopterygota

Thysanoptera

Suborder Terebrantia
   Merothripidae
   Uzelothripidae
   Aeolothripidae
   Adeheterothripidae
   Heterothripidae
   Thripidae
   Fauriellidae
Suborder Tubulifera
   Phlaeothripidae Thrips (Thysanoptera) are tiny, slender insects with fringed wings (thus the scientific name, from the Greek thysanos (fringe) + pteron (wing)). Other common names include Thunderflies or Thunder bugs. Thrips species feed on a large variety of sources both plant and animal by puncturing them and sucking up the contents. A large number of thrips species are considered pests, because they feed on plants with commercial value. Some species of thrips feed on other insects or mites and are considered beneficial, while some feed on fungal spores or pollen. Thrips are generally tiny (1 mm long or less) and are not good flyers - though they can be carried long distances by the wind. In the right conditions many species can explode in population and swarm everywhere, making them an irritant to humans. The word Thrips is used in both the singular and plural tenses (as in sheep). So while there may be many thrips there can also be a solitary thrips? The word thrips is from the Greek, meaning Wood Louse. (Ref: Kirk, W. D. J. (1996). Thrips. Naturalists’ Handbooks 25. The Richmond Publishing Co. Ltd.).

External links

- [http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7429.html University of California Pest Management Guidelines for Thrips] Category:Insects Category:Exopterygota

Phthiraptera

Anoplura (sucking lice)
Rhyncophthirina
Ischnocera (avian lice)
Amblycera (chewing lice) Lice (singular: louse) (order Phthiraptera) are an order of over 3000 species of wingless parasitic insects. They are all obligate ectoparasites of mammals and birds, excluding the Monotremes (the duck-billed platypus, the Echidna and spiny ant-eater) and bats. A louse egg is commonly called a nit. Lice stick their eggs to their host's hair. A nit comb is a comb with very fine close teeth to scrape nits off the hair. The order has traditionally been divided into two suborders; the sucking lice (Anoplura) and chewing lice (Mallophaga), however, recent classifications suggest that the Mallophaga are paraphyletic and four suborders are now recognised:
- Anoplura: sucking lice, including head and pubic lice (see also Pediculosis or Head lice)
- Rhyncophthirina: parasites of elephants and warthogs
- Ischnocera: avian lice
- Amblycera: chewing lice, a primitive order of lice Lice are highly host specific and many species even prefer specific sites on their host's body. As lice spend their whole life on the host they have developed adaptations which enable them to maintain a close contact with him or her. These adaptations are reflected in their size (0.5 mm to 8 mm), stout legs and claws in order to cling tightly to hair, fur and feathers, wingless and dorsoventrally flattened. They feed on skin (epidermal) debris, feather parts, sebaceous secretions and blood. A louse's colour varies from pale beige to dark grey; however, if feeding on blood, it may become considerably darker. The picture depicts the chewing louse Damalinia limbata found on Angora goats. The male louse (right) is typically smaller than the female (left), whose posterior margin of the abdomen is more rounded than those of male lice.

External Links

- [http://wiki.ehow.com/Get-Rid-of-Lice How to Get Rid of Lice] informational article at wikiHow Category:Insects Category:Exopterygota Category:Parasites ja:シラミ

Lice

External Links

- [http://wiki.ehow.com/Get-Rid-of-Lice How to Get Rid of Lice] informational article at wikiHow Category:Insects Category:Exopterygota Category:Parasites ja:シラミ

Bug (disambiguation)

:If you want to report a bug with the MediaWiki software which runs Wikipedia, go to [http://bugzilla.wikipedia.org/ MediaZilla]. __NOTOC__ Bug can mean many things:

Zoology

- "True bug" in entomology, the order Hemiptera
- Bug, informally can mean any "creepy-crawly", insect, other arthropod, snail, or slug
- Edible crustacean; the Moreton Bay bug and Balmain bug in Australia, the common lobster in New England
- Pathogen, or the disease caused by one

Technology

- Software bug
- Covert listening device or device for telephone tapping
- Integrated circuit chip, for its buglike appearance
- Manually positioned marker in flight instruments
- TV broadcaster's logo superimposed on the screen; see Digital On-screen Graphic

Gambling

- Bug (poker), a restricted wild card
- A card cheat's bug is a holdout device

Other

- Bug (dog breed), crossbreed of Pug and Boston Terrier
- Bug (movie), directed by Jeannot Szwarc in 1975
- BUG computer magazine, of Croatia
- Bug! and Bug Too! video games
- Bug rivers: Western Bug in Ukraine, Poland, and Belarus, and Southern Buh in Ukraine
- Obsession ("to catch the skiing bug")
- Volkswagen Beetle
- Buginese language (ISO 639 code bug)
- To bug someone is to be an annoyance
- A semi-automated telegraph key

Raphidioptera

See text Snakeflies (order Raphidioptera) are a group of insect, under subclass Pterygota. Raphidioptera is characterized by having an elongate prothorax but no modification of the forelegs (as in Mantispidae). The two families of snakeflies in the United States are Raphidiidae and Inocellidae.

External links

- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Raphidioptera Tree of Life project page] Category:Insects

Battle of Kulm

The Battle of Kulm was a battle of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle was fought on August 30 1813 between French troops (32 000 men commanded by General Dominique Vandamme) and allied Austrian-Russian-Prussian forces of 54,000 men commanded by Field-Marshal Barclay de Tolly. Following the French victory at Dresden, Vandamme pursued the retreating allies, Napoleon sent Marshals Gouvion Saint Cyr and Auguste Marmont to support Vandamme's corps. So with Vandamme in advance; Saint Cyr's and Marmont's corps brought up the rear. Vandamme caught up with Alexander Ostermann-Tolstoy's forces near the town of Kulm (today Chlumec, 8 km N.W. of Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic). Czech Republic Czech Republic

Battle

At 6:00, Vandamme successfully attacked Russian formations under the command of Prince Wittgenstein, capturing Russian troops and artillery. Vandamme then crossed Ore Mountains and at about 12:00 attacked Austrian troops located in Kulm. Initially, the Austrians were forced to withdraw to Teplice. However, Prussian corps commanded by General Kleist attacked Vandamme's rear guard. Kleist then received help from a combined Russian and Austrian attack on Vandamme's front, under the command of General Ostermann-Tolstoy. In an attempt to repulse simultaneous attacks on his front and rear, Vandamme ordered his forces to form squadrons. The inexperienced French troops were unable to fend off the allies, and soon had to escape from the battlefield, with heavy losses.

Losses

The French lost about 5000 soldiers killed or wounded. Between 7000 and 13000 French soldiers were taken prisoner, including Vandamme. The allies lost approximately 11,000 soldiers killed or wounded. In Vandamme's corps were two Polish regiments of Uhlans, part of cavalry divisions under the command of general Jean Corbineau. All these regiments were used by Vandamme to defend against enemy cavalry charges. One regiment was commanded by Colonel Maximilian Fredro (brother of Alexander Fredro, the author of the play "Vengeance") was attacked after withdrawal in defile and was forced to surrender. The other regiment of Uhlans, under command of count Tomasz Łubieński (generally known in English as Thomas Łubieński) successfully withdrew. After the battle Vandamme was accused by Tsar Alexander I of being a brigand and plunderer. He retorted "I am neither a plunderer nor a brigand but in any case, my contemporaries and history will not reproach me for having soaked my hands in the blood of my father." This statement apparently hinted at the widespread belief that Alexander I was implicated in the murder of his father Tsar Paul I (Pavel I).

References

- Jadwiga Nadzieja "Lipsk 1813" historical battles serie published in Warsaw by Bellona 1998 ISBN 83-11-08826-8 pages 57-59

External links

- [http://www.napoleonguide.com/battle_kulm.htm Battle of Kulm]
- [http://www.Peterswald.org/geschichte/Pete_rovigo.html Memoirs] of the Duke Rovigo
- [http://www.histoiredumonde.net/1er_empire/heros/vandamme.html Biography of Dominique Vandamme (in French)] Category:1813 Kulm Kulm Kulm Kulm

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Abolitionist
Abolitionister, personer, som yrkar på, kämpa för avskaffandet av ett bestående missförhållande i lag eller sed. Ursprungligen betecknades därmed i Nord-Amerikas Förenta stater de, som ivrade för slaveriets avskaffande. Denna rörelse utgick från kväkarna, och redan före frihetskrigets slut hade, särskildt i Pennsylvanien, åtskilliga sällskap bildats med detta mål. Vid den stora kompromiss, varigenom unionsförfattningen kom till stånd ( Harriet Tubman föddes 1820 i Dorchester County i Maryland, och dog 10 mars 1913 i Auburn, New York) Hon var också känd som Black Moses eller Grandma Moses och var en afro-amerikansk

Filmer i urval

- (1967) Man lever bara två gånger
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- 1966 What´s Up, Tiger Lily?
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- 1964

Insects

Relationship to other arthropods

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Behavior

Roles in the environment and human society

Fossils and evolution

References

Quotes

See also

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Apterygota

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Archaeognatha

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Damselfly

Biology

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Blattodea

Biology

Select species

Madagascar Hissing Cockroach

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Orthoptera

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Taxonomy note

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Phasmatodea

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Embioptera

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External link

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