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Juniper

Juniper


50-55 species; see text. Junipers are coniferous plants in the genus Juniperus of the cypress family Cupressaceae. Depending on taxonomic viewpoint, there are between 50-67 species of juniper, widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, from the arctic, south to tropical Africa in the Old World, and to the mountains of Central America in the New World. Central America Junipers vary in size and shape from tall trees, 20-40 m tall, to columnar or low spreading shrubs with long trailing branches. They are evergreen with either needle-like and/or scale-like leaves. They can be either monoecious or dioecious. The female seed cones are very distinctive, with fleshy, fruit-like coalescing scales which fuse together to form a "berry"-like structure, 4-27 mm long, with 1-12 unwinged, hard-shelled seeds. In some species these "berries" are red-brown or orange but in most they are blue; they are often aromatic (for their use as a spice, see Juniperus communis). The seed maturation time varies between species from 6-18 months after pollination. The male cones are similar to those of other Cupressaceae, with 6-20 scales; most shed their pollen in early spring, but some species pollinate in the autumn. Juniperus communis Many junipers (e.g. J. chinensis, J. virginiana) have two types of leaves: seedlings and some twigs of older trees have needle-like leaves 5-25 mm long; and the leaves on mature plants are (mostly) tiny (2-4 mm long), overlapping and scale-like. When juvenile foliage occurs on mature plants, it is most often found on shaded shoots, with adult foliage in full sunlight. Leaves on fast-growing 'whip' shoots are often intermediate between juvenile and adult. In some species (e.g. J. communis, J. squamata), all the foliage is of the juvenile needle-like type, with no scale leaves. In some of these (e.g. J. communis), the needles are jointed at the base, in others (e.g. J. squamata), the needles merge smoothly with the stem, not being jointed. The needle-leaves of junipers are hard and sharp, making the juvenile foliage very prickly to handle. This can be a valuable identification feature in seedlings, as the otherwise very similar juvenile foliage of cypresses (Cupressus, Chamaecyparis) and other related genera is soft and not prickly. Juniper is the exclusive food plant of the larva of the Juniper Carpet moth and is also eaten by the larvae of other Lepidoptera species such as Juniper Pug and Pine Beauty.

Classification

The number of juniper species is disputed, with two recent studies giving very different totals, Farjon (2001) accepting 52 species, and Adams (2004) accepting 67 species. The junipers are divided into several sections, though (particularly among the scale-leaved species) which species belong to which sections is still far from clear, with research still on-going. The section Juniperus an obvious monophyletic group though.
- Juniperus sect. Juniperus: Needle-leaf junipers. The adult leaves are needle-like, in whorls of three, and jointed at the base (see below right).
  - Juniperus sect. Juniperus subsect. Juniperus: Cones with 3 separate seeds; needles with one stomatal band.
    - Juniperus communis - Common Juniper
      - Juniperus communis subsp. alpina - Alpine Juniper
    - Juniperus conferta - Shore Juniper (syn. J. rigida var. conferta)
    - Juniperus rigida - Temple Juniper or Needle Juniper
  - Juniperus sect. Juniperus subsect. Oxycedrus: Cones with 3 separate seeds; needles with two stomatal bands.
    - Juniperus brevifolia - Azores Juniper
    - Juniperus cedrus - Canary Islands Juniper
    - Juniperus deltoides - Eastern Prickly Juniper
    - Juniperus formosana - Chinese Prickly Juniper
    - Juniperus luchuensis - Ryukyu Juniper
    - Juniperus navicularis - Portuguese Prickly Juniper
    - Juniperus oxycedrus - Western Prickly Juniper or Cade Juniper
    - Juniperus macrocarpa (J. oxycedrus subsp. macrocarpa) - Large-berry Juniper
  - Juniperus sect. Juniperus subsect. Caryocedrus: Cones with 3 seeds fused together; needles with two stomatal bands.
    - Juniperus drupacea - Syrian Juniper Juniperus drupacea Juniperus drupacea]] Juniperus drupacea
- Juniperus sect. Sabina: Scale-leaf junipers. The adult leaves are mostly scale-like, similar to those of Cupressus species, in opposite pairs or whorls of three, and the juvenile needle-like leaves are not jointed at the base (including in the few that have only needle-like leaves; see below right).
  - Provisionally, all the other junipers are included here, though they form a paraphyletic group.
    - Juniperus angosturana - Mexican One-seed Juniper
    - Juniperus ashei - Ashe Juniper
    - Juniperus barbadensis - West Indies Juniper
    - Juniperus bermudiana - Bermuda Juniper
    - Juniperus blancoi - Blanco's Juniper
    - Juniperus californica - California Juniper
    - Juniperus chinensis - Chinese Juniper
      - Juniperus chinensis var. sargentii - Sargent's Juniper
    - Juniperus coahuilensis - Coahuila Juniper
    - Juniperus comitana - Comitán Juniper
    - Juniperus convallium - Mekong Juniper
    - Juniperus deppeana - Alligator Juniper
    - Juniperus durangensis - Durango Juniper
    - Juniperus excelsa - Greek Juniper
      - Juniperus excelsa subsp. polycarpos - Persian Juniper
    - Juniperus flaccida - Mexican Weeping Juniper
    - Juniperus foetidissima - Stinking Juniper
    - Juniperus gamboana - Gamboa Juniper
    - Juniperus gaussenii - Gaussen's Juniper
    - Juniperus horizontalis - Creeping Juniper
    - Juniperus indica - Black Juniper
    - Juniperus jaliscana - Jalisco Juniper
    - Juniperus komarovii - Komarov's Juniper
    - Juniperus monosperma - One-seed Juniper
    - Juniperus monticola - Mountain Juniper
    - Juniperus occidentalis - Western Juniper
      - Juniperus occidentalis subsp. australis - Sierra Juniper
    - Juniperus osteosperma - Utah Juniper
    - Juniperus phoenicea - Phoenicean Juniper
    - Juniperus pinchotii - Pinchot Juniper
    - Juniperus procera - East African Juniper
    - Juniperus procumbens - Ibuki Juniper
    - Juniperus pseudosabina - Xinjiang Juniper
    - Juniperus recurva - Himalayan Juniper
      - Juniperus recurva var. coxii - Cox's Juniper
    - Juniperus sabina - Savin Juniper
      - Juniperus sabina var. davurica - Daurian Juniper
    - Juniperus saltillensis - Saltillo Juniper
    - Juniperus saltuaria - Sichuan Juniper
    - Juniperus scopulorum - Rocky Mountain Juniper
    - Juniperus semiglobosa - Russian Juniper
    - Juniperus squamata - Flaky Juniper
    - Juniperus standleyi - Standley's Juniper
    - Juniperus thurifera - Spanish Juniper
    - Juniperus tibetica - Tibetan Juniper
    - Juniperus virginiana - Eastern Juniper
      - Juniperus virginiana subsp. silicicola - Southern Juniper
    - Juniperus wallichiana - Himalayan Black Juniper

Additional notes

Some junipers are susceptible to Gymnosporangium rust disease, and can be a serious problem for those growing Apples, the alternate host of the disease. The Rocky Mountain Juniper (J. scopulorum), One-seed Juniper (J. monosperma), Western Juniper (J. occidentalis), Utah Juniper (J. osteosperma) and California Juniper (J. californica) occur in the western United States. In the southwest United States there are four more species, including the Alligator Juniper (J. deppeana) with its thick bark checkered into scaly squares. Many of the earliest prehistoric people lived in or near juniper forests which furnished them food, fuel, and wood for shelter or utensils. Many species (such as J. chinensis (Chinese Juniper, 柏) from East Asia) are extensively used in landscaping and horticulture, it is also a symbol of longevity. Juniper berries are used in the distillation of gin and the brewing of sahti. Some junipers are sometimes misleadingly called cedars, correctly the vernacular name for species in the genus Cedrus, family Pinaceae.

References and external links


- Adams, R. P. 2004. Junipers of the World: The genus Juniperus. [http://www.trafford.com/4dcgi/view-item?item=7594&1335646-30936aaa Trafford]. ISBN 1-4120-4250-X
- Farjon, A. 2001. World Checklist and Bibliography of Conifers. Kew. ISBN 1-84246-025-0
- [http://www.juniperus.org/ R. P. Adams Juniper website]
- [http://www.conifers.org/cu/ju/index.htm Gymnosperm Database - Juniperus]
- [http://www.pinetum.org/cones/JUcones.htm Arboretum de Villardebelle] Photos of cones and foliage of selected species
- [http://www.armeniapedia.org/index.php?title=Juniperus Medicinal uses of Juniper in Armenia] Category:Cupressaceae

Conifer

Cordaitales †
Pinales
  Pinaceae - Pine family
  Araucariaceae - Araucaria family
  Podocarpaceae - Yellow-wood family
  Sciadopityaceae - Umbrella-pine family
  Cupressaceae - Cypress family
  Cephalotaxaceae - Plum-yew family
  Taxaceae - Yew family
Vojnovskyales †
Voltziales † The conifers, division Pinophyta, are one of 13 or 14 division level taxa within the Kingdom Plantae. They are cone-bearing seed plants with vascular tissue; all extant conifers are woody plants, the great majority being trees with just a few being shrubs. Typical examples of conifers include cedars, cypresses, douglas-firs, firs, junipers, kauris, larches, pines, redwoods, spruces, and yews. Species of conifers can be found growing naturally in almost all parts of the world, and are frequently dominant plants in their habitats, as in e.g. the taiga. Conifers are of immense economic value, primarily for timber and paper production; the wood of conifers is known as softwood.

Taxonomy and naming

The division name Pinophyta conforms with the rules of the ICBN, which state (Art 16.1) that the names of higher taxa in plants (above the rank of family) are either based on the name of the type genus, in this case, Pinus (pines), or are descriptive. In the latter case the name for the conifers is Coniferae (Art 16 Ex 2), which is in widespread use as well. Older scientific names (no longer allowed) are Coniferophyta and Coniferales. In an older, broader sense of the name, the conifers were often considered equivalent to the Gymnosperms, although this grouping is polyphyletic as it includes distinct, only distantly related plants like the cycads and ginkgos not in the Pinophyta, but excludes the Magnoliophyta (flowering plants), equally or perhaps more closely related. The division contains just one class of living plants, class Pinopsida. Subdivision of the conifers into two or more orders has been proposed from time to time. The most commonly seen in the past was a split into two orders, Taxales (Taxaceae only) and Pinales (the rest), but recent genetic evidence has shown that this interpretation leaves the Pinales without Taxales as polyphyletic, and the latter order is no longer regarded as distinct. A more accurate division would be to split the division into three orders, Pinales containing only Pinaceae, Araucariales containing Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae, and Cupressales (including Taxales) containing the remaining families, but there has not been any significant support for any division, with the majority of opinion preferring retention of all the families within a single order Pinales, despite their antiquity and diverse morphology. polyphyletic The conifers are now accepted as comprising six to eight families, with a total of 65-70 genera and 600-650 species. The seven most distinct families are linked in the box above right and phylogenetic diagram left. In other interpretations, the Cephalotaxaceae may be better included within the Taxaceae, and some authors additionally recognise Phyllocladaceae as distinct from Podocarpaceae (in which it is included here). A further family Taxodiaceae was widely recognised in the past, but is now normally included within Cupressaceae. The conifers are an ancient group, with a fossil record extending back about 300 million years to the Paleozoic in the late Carboniferous period; even many of the modern genera are recognisable from fossils 60-120 million years old. Other classes and orders, now long extinct, also occur as fossils, particularly from the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. Fossil conifers included many diverse forms, the most dramatically distinct from modern conifers being some herbaceous conifers with no woody stems. Major fossil orders of conifers or conifer-like plants include the Cordaitales, Vojnovskyales, Voltziales and perhaps also the Czekanowskiales (possibly more closely related to the Ginkgophyta).

Morphology

All living conifers are woody plants, and most are trees, the majority having monopodial growth form (a single, straight trunk with side branches). The size of mature conifers varies from less than one metre, to over 100 metres. The world's tallest, largest, thickest and oldest living things are all conifers. The tallest is a Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), with a height of 112.34 metres. The largest is a Giant Sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), with a volume 1486.9 cubic metres. The thickest, or tree with the greatest trunk diameter, is a Montezuma Cypress (Taxodium mucronatum), 11.42 metres in diameter. The oldest is a Great Basin Bristlecone Pine (Pinus longaeva), 4,700 years old.

Foliage

Great Basin Bristlecone Pine (Pseudotsuga menziesii)]] Great Basin Bristlecone Pine (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana); scale in mm]] The leaves of many conifers are long, thin and needle-like, but others, including most of the Cupressaceae and some of the Podocarpaceae, have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. Some, notably Agathis in Araucariaceae and Nageia in Podocarpaceae, have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves. In the majority of conifers, the leaves are arranged spirally, exceptions being most of Cupressaceae and one genus in Podocarpaceae, where they are arranged in decussate opposite pairs or whorls of 3 (-4). In many species with spirally arranged leaves, the leaf bases are twisted to present the leaves in a flat plane for maximum light capture (see e.g. photo of Grand Fir Abies grandis). Leaf size varies from 2 mm in many scale-leaved species, up to 400 mm long in the needles of some pines (e.g. Apache Pine Pinus engelmannii). The stomata are in lines or patches on the leaves, and can be closed when it is very dry or cold. The leaves are often dark green in colour which may help absorb a maximum of energy from weak sunshine at high latitudes or under forest canopy shade. Conifers from hotter areas with high sunlight levels (e.g. Turkish Pine Pinus brutia) often have yellower-green leaves, while others (e.g. Blue Spruce Picea pungens) have a very strong glaucous wax bloom to reflect ultraviolet light. In the great majority of genera the leaves are evergreen, usually remaining on the plant for several (2-40) years before falling, but three genera (Larix, Taxodium and Metasequoia) are deciduous, shedding the leaves in autumn and leafless through the winter. The seedlings of many conifers, including most of the Cupressaceae, and Pinus in Pinaceae, have a distinct juvenile foliage period where the leaves are different, often markedly so, from the typical adult leaves.

Reproduction

deciduous See conifer cones for a more detailed discussion. Most conifers are monoecious, but some are subdioecious or dioecious; all are wind-pollinated. Conifer seeds develop inside a protective cone called a strobilus (or, very loosely, "pine cones", which technically occur only on pines, not other conifers!). The cones take from four months to three years to reach maturity, and vary in size from 2 mm to 600 mm long. In Pinaceae, Araucariaceae, Sciadopityaceae and most Cupressaceae, the cones are woody, and when mature the scales usually spread open allowing the seeds to fall out and be dispersed by the wind. In some (e.g. firs), the cones disintegrate to release the seeds, and in others (e.g. the pines that produce pine nuts) the nut-like seeds are dispersed by birds (mainly nutcrackers and jays) which break up the specially adapted softer cones. Ripe cones may remain on the plant for a varied amount of time before falling to the ground; in some fire-adapted pines, the seeds may be stored in closed cones for up to 60-80 years, being released only when a fire kills the parent tree. jay In the families Podocarpaceae, Cephalotaxaceae, Taxaceae, and one Cupressaceae genus (Juniperus), the scales are soft, fleshy, sweet and brightly coloured, and are eaten by fruit-eating birds, which then pass the seeds in their droppings. These fleshy scales are (except in Juniperus) known as arils. In some of these conifers (e.g. most Podocarpaceae), the cone consists of several fused scales, while in others (e.g. Taxaceae), the cone is reduced to just one seed scale or (e.g. Cephalotaxaceae) the several scales of a cone develop into individual arils, giving the appearance of a cluster of berries. The male cones have structures called microsporangia which produce yellowish pollen. Pollen is released and carried by the wind to female cones. Pollen grains from living pinophyte species produce pollen tubes, much like those of angiosperms. When a pollen grain lands near a female gametophyte, it undergoes meiosis and fertilizes the female gametophyte. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, which along with its surrounding integument, becomes a seed. Eventually the seed may fall to the ground and, if conditions permit, grows into a new plant. In forestry, the terminology of flowering plants has commonly though inaccurately been applied to cone-bearing trees as well. The male cone and unfertilized female cone are called "male flower" and "female flower", respectively. After fertilization, the female cone is term "fruit", which undergoes "ripening" (maturation).

Life cycle

# To fertilize the ovum, the male cone releases pollen that is carried on the wind to the female cone. # A fertilized female gamete (called a zygote) develops into an embryo. # Along with integument cells surrounding the embryo, a seed develops containing the embryo. # Mature seed drops out of cone onto the ground. # Seed germinates and seedling grows into a mature plant. # When mature, the adult plant produces cones.

Other facts

seed Although the total number of species is relatively small, conifers are of immense ecological importance. They are the dominant plants over huge areas of land, most notably the boreal forests of the northern hemisphere, but also in similar cool climates in mountains further south. Many conifers have distinctly scented resin, secreted to protect the tree against insect infestation and fungal infection of wounds. Fossilised resin hardens into amber.

External link


- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Conifers&contgroup=Spermatopsida ToLweb: Conifers] Category:Conifers ko:구과식물 ja:球果植物門

Arctic

The Arctic is the area around the Earth's North Pole. The Arctic includes parts of Russia, Alaska (United States), Canada, Greenland (a territory of Denmark), Iceland, and Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland), as well as the Arctic Ocean. There are numerous definitions for the Arctic region. The boundary is generally considered to be north of the Arctic Circle (66° 33’N), which is the limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Other definitions are based on climate and ecology, such as the 10°C (50°F) July isotherm, which also roughly corresponds to the tree line in most of the Arctic. Socially and politically, the Arctic region includes the northern territories of the eight Arctic states, including Lapland, although by natural science definitions much of this territory is considered subarctic. The Arctic is mostly a vast, ice-covered ocean, surrounded by tree-less, frozen ground, that teems with life, including organisms living in the ice, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals and human societies. The Arctic region is by its nature a unique area. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. From the perspective of the physical, chemical and biological balance in the world, the Arctic region is in a key position. It reacts sensitively particularly to changes in the climate, which reflect extensively back on the global state of the environment. From the perspective of research into climatic change, the Arctic region is considered a so-called-early warning system. The Arctic is also known as the Land of the Midnight Sun as it is within the Arctic Circle. The name Arctic comes from the ancient Greek αρκτος, meaning 'bear', and is a reference to the constellations of the Great Bear and Little Bear, which are located near the North Star (which is actually part of the Little Bear).

Nature and natural resources

Nature in the Arctic is comparatively clean although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people’s health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fall out region for long-range transport pollutants and in some places the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. The Arctic region includes sizeable potential natural resources (oil, gas, minerals, forest and fish) to which modern technology and the opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry in the cold and exotic Arctic is also on the increase. This is for example, seen in the rise in international tourism as a significant opportunity but also as a threat. The Arctic region is one of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of people fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare reproduction places of the animals that are characteristic to the region. External link: [http://amap.no/ AMAP - the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme]

Arctic cultures

Also noteworthy is the fact that a significant proportion of the population in the region are indigenous peoples (e.g. the Nenets, Koms, Khants and Sami) who practice subsistence livelihoods such as reindeer husbandry and fishing and whose rights are many times in jeopardy due to "development".
- Aleut
- Athabaskan
- Chukchi
- Inuit
- Inupiaq
- Nenets
- Pomor
- Saami
- Yup'ik External link: [http://www.allthingsarctic.com/people/index.aspx Native peoples]

The changing Arctic

Along with increasing utilization, it is likely that in the coming decades, new investments, industry and building an infrastructure as well as the increasing mobility of goods, services, people and capital are to be expected. These will all have an effect on the environment of the region and on the local conditions of the population and indigenous peoples. The above-described global change is expected to have the overwhelmingly large impact in the near future on the diversity of nature and cultures in the arctic and northern regions and on the recreational value of the Arctic and its natural resources. The impacts from the changes will reflect in many ways on the ecosystems of the region, its biodiversity, livelihoods, social and legal structures and indirectly on almost all life in the region. The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA), released in November 2004, details some of the future scenarios for long-term climate change that are already beginning to be seen in the Arctic region today. NOAA tracks the [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/overview.shtml current state of the Arctic ecosystems and climate] on the near-realtime [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ Arctic Change website]. A narrative style is used to highlight land and marine ecosystems, the cryosphere, Arctic and sub-Arctic human impacts, and an overall [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/indicators.shtml summary] evaluates recent reports against historical information. External links:
- [http://www.acia.uaf.edu/ ACIA Report]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ Arctic Change website] - NOAA website provides up-to-date information on the current state of Arctic ecosystems and climate in historical context.

Environmental impact assessment

From the perspective of positive development in the Arctic region, an environmental impact assessment (EIA) is in a key position. In the Arctic region, it is important that in a process, special attention is given to assessing social impacts. It is generally known that scientific information focused on the Arctic region is insufficient, so the actors conducting an EIA do not get sufficient material in order to compile a precise assessment. Developing a dialogue between new actors in the region, business life and the local population is important so that mutual understanding and often conflicting needs for development can be improved. Improving access to information by local inhabitants, well functioning participatory planning and ensuring the optimum use of its results are part of this activity. The horizontal processing of administration by different sectors in society that is required for an EIA necessitates for its support the production of strong multidisciplinary information. Managing and analyzing the above-mentioned multidimensional and demanding process requires combining many scientific fields and methods and further scientific analysis and development of functional models.

International cooperation and politics

The Arctic region is one of the important focuses of international political interest. International Arctic cooperation got underway on a broad scale well over ten years ago. The International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, the Barents Council and its regional cooperation have compiled high quality information

A strategic military region

The Arctic has never been under the political control of any nation although some nations' militaries have attached a strategic importance to the region. In the 1950s and 1960s, the arctic was often used by submarines to test new weapons, sonar equipment, and depth testing. During the Cold War, the Arctic region was extensively monitored by the United States military, since it was the opinion of the said military that the first warnings of a Soviet Union nuclear strike would have been indicated by ICBMs launched over the North Pole towards the United States. The United States placed such importance on the region that two military decorations, the Arctic Service Ribbon and Coast Guard Arctic Service Medal, were established for military duty performed within the arctic circle.

References


- [http://www.arcticcentre.org Arctic Centre, Rovaniemi] Arctic research
- [http://www.wordreference.com/english/definition.asp?en=arctic WordReference.com Dictionary] Etymology
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/reference_maps/pdf/arctic.pdf CIA World Factbook 2002 - Arctic Region] Large version of the arctic region map
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov Arctic Theme Page] Comprehensive Arctic Resource from NOAA.
- [http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem] Current state of the Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem. Comprehensive resource on the Bering Sea with viewable oceanographic, atmospheric, climatic, biological and fisheries data with ecosystem relevance, recent trends, essays on key Bering Sea issues, maps, photos, animals and more. From NOAA.
- [http://www.unaami.noaa.gov Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection] Viewable interdisciplinary, diverse collection of Arctic variables from different geographic regions and data types.
- [http://www.allthingsarctic.com/exploration/index.aspx Arctic exploration and history]
- [http://www.allthingsarctic.com/science/index.aspx Arctic research]

External links


- [http://www.arctic-council.org Arctic Council]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov Arctic]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ Near-Realtime Arctic Change Indictors]
- [http://maps.grida.no/arctic Arctic Environmental Atlas] Circum-Arctic interactive map, with multiple layers of information
- [http://www.globio.info/region/polar/#arctic GLOBIO Human Impact maps] How does humans influence one of the last remaining wild places on the globe
- [http://www.vitalgraphics.net/arctic.cfm Vital Arctic Graphics] Overview and case studies of the Arctic environment and the Arctic Indigenous Peoples.
- [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=artic&lang=En Arctic and Taiga Canadian Atlas]

See also


- Arctic Ocean
- North Pole
- Antarctica
- Polar climate
- Canadian Arctic
- Canadian arctic islands
- Svalbard
- Jan Mayen
- Finnmark Category:Arctic ko:북극 ja:北極 simple:Arctic



Central America

Commonly, Central America is the region of North America located between the southern border of Mexico and the northwest border of Colombia, in South America. Some geographers classify Central America as a large isthmus, and in this geographic sense it sometimes includes the portion of Mexico east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, namely the Mexican states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán and Quintana Roo. However, Central America is much more commonly understood to correspond with the nations between Mexico and Colombia. The UN subregion of Central America includes all mainland states of North America south of the US, including Mexico. US

Countries

In one common definition, Central America consists of the following countries (located between the the northwest border of Colombia and the southern border of Mexico—roughly east to west):
- Panama
- Costa Rica
- Nicaragua
- Honduras
- El Salvador
- Guatemala
- Belize

Geography

Central America thus has an area of about 540,000 km² (208,500 mi²), and a width between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea ranging from about 560 km to about 50 km (350 to 30 mi). Caribbean Sea.]] The geology of Central America is active, with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1931 and 1972 earthquakes devastated Managua, the capital of Nicaragua. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas. The Caribbean Plate is a tectonic plate upon which Central America rests. The narrowest part of The Americas, Central America is the site of the Panama Canal as well as the proposed, but never-completed Nicaragua Canal.

History

There was a nation of Central America in the early 19th century, consisting of the present day nations of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (and a portion of the modern Mexican state of Chiapas). This was sometimes known as the United Provinces of Central America or the United States of Central America.

See also


- The related term Mesoamerica (occasionally also called "Middle America") is used in English mostly restricted to referring to the Pre-Columbian Native American cultures of this region, which extended north into central Mexico.
- Central American Parliament

External links


- [http://www.fssca.net/ Foundation for Self-Sufficiency in Central America] Category:Americas Category:North America zh-min-nan:Tiong Bí-chiu ko:중앙아메리카 ja:中央アメリカ simple:Central America

Tree

, the tallest tree species on earth]] A tree can be defined as a large, perennial, woody plant. Though there is no set definition regarding minimum size, the term generally applies to plants at least 6 m (20 ft) high at maturity and, more importantly, having secondary branches supported on a single main stem or trunk (see shrub for comparison). Compared with most other plant forms, trees are long-lived. A few species of trees grow to 100 m tall, and some can live for several thousand years. Trees are important components of the natural landscape and significant elements in landscaping, and in agriculture supplying orchard crops (such as apples). Trees also play an important role in many of the world's mythologies (see Tree (mythology)).

Classifications

Tree (mythology)]] A tree is a plant form and trees occur in many different orders and families of plants. Trees thus show a wide variety of growth form, leaf type and shape, bark characteristics, reproductive structures, etc. The earliest trees were tree ferns and horsetails, which grew in vast forests in the Carboniferous Period; tree ferns still survive, but the only surviving horsetails are not of tree form. Later, in the Triassic Period, conifers, ginkgos, cycads and other gymnosperms appeared, and subsequently flowering plants in the Cretaceous Period. Most species of trees today are flowering plants and conifers. The listing below gives examples of many well-known trees and how they are typically classified. A small group of trees growing together is called a grove or copse, and a landscape covered by a dense growth of trees is called a forest. Several biotopes are defined largely by the trees that inhabit them; examples are rainforest and taiga (see ecozones). A landscape of trees scattered or spaced across grassland (usually grazed or burned over periodically) is called a savanna.

Morphology

The basic parts of a tree are the roots, trunk(s), branches, twigs and leaves. Tree stems consist mainly of support and transport tissues (xylem and phloem). Wood consists of xylem cells, and bark is made of phloem and other tissues external to the vascular cambium. Trees may be broadly grouped into exogenous and endogenous trees according to the way in which their stem diameter increases. Exogenous trees, which comprise the great majority of modern trees (all conifers, and all broadleaf trees), grow by the addition of new wood outwards, immediately under the bark. Endogenous trees, mainly in the monocotyledons (e.g. palms), grow by addition of new material inwards. As an exogenous tree grows, it creates growth rings. In temperate climates, these are commonly visible due to changes in the rate of growth with temperature variation over an annual cycle. These rings can be counted to determine the age of the tree, and used to date cores or even wood taken from trees in the past; this practice is known as the science of dendrochronology. In some tropical regions with constant year-round climate, growth is continuous and distinct rings are not formed, so age determination is impossible. Age determination is also impossible in endogenous trees. dendrochronology, Chile]] The roots of a tree are generally embedded in earth, providing anchorage for the above-ground biomass and absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the trunk gives height to the leaf-bearing branches, aiding in competition with other plant species for sunlight. In many trees, the arrangement of the branches optimizes exposure of the leaves to sunlight. Not all trees have all the plant organs or parts mentioned above. For example, most palm trees are not branched, the saguaro cactus of North America has no functional leaves, tree ferns do not produce bark, etc. Based on their general shape and size, all of these are nonetheless generally regarded as trees. Indeed, sometimes size is the more important consideration. A plant form that is similar to a tree, but generally having smaller, multiple trunks and/or branches that arise near the ground, is called a shrub. However, no sharp differentiation between shrubs and trees is possible. Given their small size, bonsai plants would not technically be 'trees', but one should not confuse reference to the form of a species with the size or shape of individual specimens. A spruce seedling does not fit the definition of a tree, but all spruces are trees. Bamboos by contrast, do show most of the characteristics of trees, yet are rarely called trees.

Champion trees

The world's champion trees can be considered on several factors; height, trunk diameter or girth, total size, and age. It is significant that in each case, the top position is always held by a conifer, though a different species in each case; in most measures, the second to fourth places are also held by conifers. ;Tallest trees The heights of the tallest trees in the world have been the subject of considerable dispute and much (often wild) exaggeration. Modern verified measurement with laser rangefinders combined with tape drop measurements made by tree climbers, carried out by the [http://www.uark.edu/misc/ents/home.htm U.S. Eastern Native Tree Society] has shown that most older measuring methods and measurements are unreliable, often producing exaggerations of 5% to 15% above the real height. Historical claims of trees of 114 m, 117 m, 130 m, and even 150 m, are now largely disregarded as unreliable, fantasy or outright fraud. The following are now accepted as the top five tallest reliably measured species: # Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 112.83 m, Humboldt Redwoods State Park, California ([http://www.conifers.org/cu/se/index.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Coast Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii: 100.3 m, Brummit Creek, Coos County, Oregon ([http://www.conifers.org/pi/ps/menziesii2.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Sitka Spruce Picea sitchensis: 96.7 m, Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California ([http://www.conifers.org/pi/pic/sitchensis.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 93.6 m, Redwood Mountain Grove, California ([http://www.conifers.org/cu/se2/index.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Australian Mountain-ash Eucalyptus regnans: 92.0 m, Styx Valley, Tasmania ([http://www.forestrytas.com.au/forestrytas/tasfor/tasforests_12/tasfor_12_09.pdf Forestry Tasmania] [pdf file]) ;Stoutest trees The girth (circumference) of a tree is – or at least should be – much easier to measure than the height, as it is a simple matter of stretching a tape round the trunk, and pulling it taut to find the circumference. Despite this, U.K. tree author Alan Mitchell made the following comment about measurements of yew trees in the British Isles: :"The aberrations of past measurements of yews are beyond belief. For example, the tree at Tisbury has a well-defined, clean, if irregular bole at least 1.5 m long. It has been found to have a girth which has dilated and shrunk in the following way: 11.28 m (1834 Loudon), 9.3 m (1892 Lowe), 10.67 m (1903 Elwes and Henry), 9.0 m (1924 E. Swanton), 9.45 m (1959 Mitchell) .... Earlier measurements have therefore been omitted". As a general standard, tree girth is taken at 'breast height'; this is defined differently in different situations, with most foresters measuring girth at 1.3 m above ground, while ornamental tree measurers usually measure at 1.5 m above ground; in most cases this makes little difference to the measured girth. On sloping ground, the "above ground" reference point is usually taken as the highest point on the ground touching the trunk, but some use the average between the highest and lowest points of ground. Some of the inflated old measurements may have been taken at ground level. Some past exaggerated measurements also result from measuring the complete next-to-bark measurement, pushing the tape in and out over every crevice and buttress. Modern trends are to cite the tree's diameter rather than the circumference; this is obtained by dividing the measured circumference by π; it assumes the trunk is circular in cross-section (an oval or irregular cross-section would result in a mean diameter slightly greater than the assumed circle). This is cited as dbh (diameter at breast height) in tree literature. A further problem with measuring baobabs Adansonia is that these trees store large amounts of water in the very soft wood in their trunks. This leads to marked variation in their girth over the year, swelling to a maximum at the end of the rainy season, minimum at the end of the dry season. Although baobabs have some of the highest girth measurements of any trees, no accurate measurements are currently available, but probably do not exceed 10-11 m diameter. The stoutest species in diameter, excluding baobabs, are: # Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum: 11.42 m, Árbol del Tule, Santa Maria del Tule, Oaxaca, Mexico (A. F. Mitchell, International Dendrology Society Year Book 1983: 93, 1984). # Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 8.85 m, General Grant tree, Grant Grove, California ([http://www.conifers.org/cu/se2/index.htm Gymnosperm Database]) # Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 7.44 m, Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California ([http://www.conifers.org/cu/se/index.htm Gymnosperm Database]) ;Largest trees The largest trees in total volume are those which are both tall and of large diameter, and in particular, which hold a large diameter high up the trunk. Measurement is very complex, particularly if branch volume is to be included as well as the trunk volume, so measurements have only been made for a small number of trees, and generally only for the trunk. No attempt has ever been made to include root volume. The top four species measured so far are ([http://www.conifers.org/topics/biggest.htm Gymnosperm Database]): # Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 1489 m³, General Sherman tree # Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 1045 m³, Del Norte Titan tree # Western Redcedar Thuja plicata: 500 m³, Quinault Lake Redcedar # Kauri Agathis australis: 400 m³, Tane Mahuta tree (total volume, including branches, 516.7 m³)
However, the Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides, as yet un-measured, may well slot in at third or fourth place, and Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum is also likely to be high in the list. The largest angiosperm tree is a Australian Mountain-ash, the 'El Grande' tree of about 380 m³ in Tasmania. ;Oldest trees The oldest trees are determined by growth ring counts in cores taken from the edge to the centre of the tree or from entire cross-sections. Accurate determination is only possible for trees which produce growth rings, generally those which occur in seasonal climates; trees in uniform non-seasonal tropical climates grow continuously and do not have distinct growth rings. It is also only possible for trees which are solid to the centre of the tree; many very old trees become hollow as the dead heartwood decays away. For some of these species, age estimates have been made on the basis of extrapolating current growth rates, but the results are usually little better than guesswork or wild speculation. The verified oldest measured ages are ([http://www.conifers.org/topics/oldest.htm Gymnosperm Database]): # Great Basin Bristlecone Pine Pinus longaeva: 4844 years # Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides: 3622 years # Giant Sequoia Sequoia sempervirens: 3266 years # Huon-pine Lagarostrobos franklinii: 2500 years # Rocky Mountains Bristlecone Pine Pinus aristata: 2435 years Other species suspected of reaching exceptional age include European Yew Taxus baccata (probably over 3000 years) and Western Redcedar Thuja plicata. The oldest verified age for an angiosperm tree is 2293 years for the Sri Maha Bodhi Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa) planted in 288 BC at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; this is also the oldest human-planted tree with a known planting date.

Major tree genera

Flowering plants (Magnoliophyta; angiosperms)

Dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida; broadleaf or hardwood trees)


- Anacardiaceae (Cashew family)
  - Cashew, Anacardium occidentale
  - Mango, Mangifera indica
  - Pistachio, Pistacia vera
  - Sumac, Rhus species
  - Lacquer tree, Toxicodendron verniciflua
- Annonaceae (Custard apple family)
  - Cherimoya Annona cherimola
  - Custard apple Annona reticulata
  - Pawpaw Asimina triloba
  - Soursop Annona muricata
- Apocynaceae (Dogbane family)
  - Pachypodium Pachypodium species
- Aquifoliaceae (Holly family)
  - Holly, Ilex species
- Araliaceae (Ivy family)
  - Kalopanax, Kalopanax pictus Kalopanax tree (background) in fall]]
- Betulaceae (Birch family)
  - Alder, Alnus species
  - Birch, Betula species
  - Hornbeam, Carpinus species
  - Hazel, Corylus species
- Bignoniaceae (family)
  - Catalpa, Catalpa species
- Cactaceae (Cactus family)
  - Saguaro, Carnegiea gigantea
- Cannabaceae (Cannabis family)
  - Hackberry, Celtis species
- Cornaceae (Dogwood family)
  - Dogwood, Cornus species
- Dipterocarpaceae family
  - Garjan Dipterocarpus species
  - Sal Shorea species
- Ericaceae (Heath family)
  - Arbutus, Arbutus species
- Eucommiaceae (Eucommia family)
  - Eucommia Eucommia ulmoides
- Fabaceae (Pea family)
  - Acacia, Acacia species
  - Honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos
  - Black locust, Robinia pseudoacacia
  - Laburnum, Laburnum species
  - Pau Brasil, Brazilwood, Caesalpinia echinata
- Fagaceae (Beech family )
  - Chestnut, Castanea species
  - Beech, Fagus species
  - Southern beech, Nothofagus species
  - Tanoak, Lithocarpus densiflorus
  - Oak, Quercus species
- Fouquieriaceae (Boojum family)
  - Boojum, Fouquieria columnaris
- Hamamelidaceae (Witch-hazel family)
  - Sweetgum, Liquidambar species
  - Persian Ironwood, Parrotia persica
- Juglandaceae (Walnut family)
  - Walnut, Juglans species
  - Hickory, Carya species
  - Wingnut, Pterocarya species
- Lauraceae (Laurel family)
  - Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum
  - Bay Laurel Laurus nobilis
  - Avocado Persea americana
- Lecythidaceae (Paradise nut family)
  - Brazil Nut Bertholletia excelsa
- Lythraceae Loosestrife family
  - Crape-myrtle Lagerstroemia species
- Magnoliaceae (Magnolia family)
  - Tulip tree, Liriodendron species
  - Magnolia, Magnolia species
- Malvaceae (Mallow family; including Tiliaceae and Bombacaceae) Bombacaceae
  - Baobab, Adansonia species
  - Silk-cotton tree, Bombax species
  - Bottletrees, Brachychiton species
  - Kapok, Ceiba pentandra
  - Durian, Durio zibethinus
  - Balsa, Ochroma lagopus
  - Cacao (cocoa), Theobroma cacao
  - Linden (Basswood, Lime), Tilia species
- Meliaceae (Mahogany family)
  - Neem, Azadirachta indica
  - Bead tree, Melia azedarach
  - Mahogany, Swietenia mahagoni
- Moraceae (Mulberry family)
  - Fig, Ficus species
  - Mulberry, Morus species
- Myristicaceae (Nutmeg family)
  - Nutmeg, Mysristica fragrans
- Myrtaceae (Myrtle family)
  - Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus species
  - Myrtle, Myrtus species
  - Guava, Psidium guajavaGuava in flower]]
- Nyssaceae (Tupelo family; sometimes included in Cornaceae)
  - Tupelo, Nyssa species
  - Dove tree, Davidia involucrata
- Oleaceae (Olive family)
  - Olive, Olea europaea
  - Ash, Fraxinus species
- Paulowniaceae (Paulownia family)
  - Foxglove Tree, Paulownia species
- Platanaceae (Plane family)
  - Plane, Platanus species
- Rhizophoraceae (Mangrove family)
  - Red Mangrove, Rhizophora mangle
- Rosaceae (Rose family)
  - Rowans, Whitebeams, Service Trees Sorbus species
  - Hawthorn, Crataegus species
  - Pear, Pyrus species
  - Apple, Malus species
  - Almond, Prunus dulcis
  - Peach, Prunus persica
  - Plum, Prunus domestica
  - Cherry, Prunus species
- Rubiaceae (Bedstraw family)
  - Coffee, Coffea species
- Rutaceae (Rue family)
  - Citrus, Citrus species
  - Cork-tree, Phellodendron species
  - Euodia, Tetradium species
- Salicaceae (Willow family)
  - Aspen, Populus species
  - Poplar, Populus species
  - Willow, Salix species Willow
- Sapindaceae (including Aceraceae, Hippocastanaceae) (Soapberry family)
  - Maple, Acer species
  - Buckeye, Horse-chestnut, Aesculus species
  - Mexican Buckeye, Ungnadia speciosa
  - Lychee, Litchi sinensis
  - Golden rain tree, Koelreuteria paniculata
- Sapotaceae (Sapodilla family)
  - Gutta-percha, Palaquium species
  - Tambalacoque, or "dodo tree", Sideroxylon grandiflorum, previously Calvaria major
- Simaroubaceae family
  - Tree of heaven, Ailanthus species
- Theaceae (Camellia family)
  - Gordonia, Gordonia species
  - Stuartia, Stuartia species
- Thymelaeaceae (Thymelaea family)
  - Ramin, Gonystylus species
- Ulmaceae (Elm family)
  - Elm, Ulmus species
  - Zelkova, Zelkova species
- Verbenaceae family
  - Teak, Tectona species

Monocotyledons (Liliopsida)

Monocotyledon
- Agavaceae (Agave family)
  - Cabbage tree, Cordyline australis
  - Dragon tree, Dracaena draco
  - Joshua tree, Yucca brevifolia
- Arecaceae (Palmae) (Palm family)
  - Areca Nut, Areca catechu
  - Coconut Cocos nucifera
  - Date Palm, Phoenix dactylifera
  - Chusan Palm, Trachycarpus fortunei
- Poaceae (grass family)
  - Bamboos Poaceae subfamily Bambusoideae
- Note that banana 'trees' are not actually trees; they are not woody nor is the stalk perennial.

Conifers (Pinophyta; softwood trees)


- Araucariaceae (Araucaria family)
  - Araucaria, Araucaria species
  - Kauri, Agathis species
- Cupressaceae (Cypress family)
  - Cypress, Cupressus species
  - Cypress, Chamaecyparis species
  - Juniper, Juniperus species
  - Alerce or Patagonian cypress, Fitzroya cupressoides
  - Sugi, Cryptomeria japonica
  - Coast Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens
  - Giant Sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum
  - Dawn Redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides
  - Bald Cypress, Taxodium distichum
- Pinaceae (Pine family)
  - White pine, Pinus species
  - Pinyon pine, Pinus species
  - Pine, Pinus species
  - Spruce, Picea species
  - Larch, Larix species
  - Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga species
  - Fir, Abies species
  - Cedar, Cedrus species
- Podocarpaceae (Yellowwood family)
  - African Yellowwood, Afrocarpus falcatus
  - Totara, Podocarpus totara
- Sciadopityaceae
  - Kusamaki, Sciadopitys species
- Taxaceae (Yew family)
  - Yew, Taxus species

Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta)


- Ginkgoaceae (Ginkgo family)
  - Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba

Cycads (Cycadophyta)


- Cycadaceae family
  - Ngathu cycad, Cycas angulata
- Zamiaceae family
  - Wunu cycad, Lepidozamia hopei

Ferns (Pterophyta)


- Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae families
  - Tree ferns, Cyathea, Alsophila, Dicksonia (not a monophyletic group)

Life stages

The life cycles of trees, especially conifers, are divided into the following stages in forestry for survey and documentation purposes: # Seed # Seedling: the above ground part of the embryo that sprout from the seed # Sapling: After the seedling reaches 1m tall, and until it reaches 7cm in stem diameter # Pole: young trees from 7-30cm diameter # Mature tree: over 30cm diameter, reproductive years begin # Old tree: dominate old growth forest; height growth slows greatly, with majority of productivity in seed production # Overmature: dieback and decay become common # Snag: standing dead wood # Log/debris: fallen dead wood Tree diameters are measured at height of between 1.3-1.5m above the highest point on the ground at its base. The 7cm diameter definition is economically based, from the smallest saleable stem size (for paper production, etc), and the 30cm diameter is the smallest base diameter for sawlogs. Each stage may be uniquely perceptive to different pathogens and suitable for especially adapted arboreal animals.

See also


- Arboretum
  - Pinetum
- Arboriculture (the care of trees)
- Bonsai
- Christmas tree
- Dendrology (the study of trees)
  - Dendrochronology
  - Dendroclimatology
- Ecology
  - Tree-line
- Forestry
  - Deforestation
  - Plantation
  - Urban Forestry
  - Woodland management
- Fruit trees
- List of famous trees
- List of garden plants
- Plants
- Prehistoric plants
- Tree climbing
- Trees in mythology
- Trees of the world
  - Trees of Britain and Ireland
  - Trees of Canada
  - List of U.S. state trees
  - Trees of The Caribbean Basin
  - Trees of Iran
  - List of trees of New Zealand
- Wood
  - List of woods

External links


- [http://www.globaltrees.org/default.asp GLOBAL TREES .org] Campaigning to save the world's most threatened trees
- [http://www.fssca.net/romero/ Romero Memorial Tree Project] Plant a tree in El Salvador

Bibliography


- Pakenham, T. (2002). Remarkable Trees of the World. ISBN 0297843001
- Pakenham, T. (1996). Meetings with Remarkable Trees. ISBN 0297832557 Category:Plants
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- Category:Botany Category: plant morphology ms:Pokok ja:木 simple:Tree th:ต้นไม้

Shrub

:"Shrub" is also a derogatory nickname for United States President George W Bush. George W Bush A shrub or bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of woody plant, distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and lower height, usually less than 6 m tall. A large number of plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. A natural plant community dominated by shrubs is called a shrubland. The word bush can also refer to a type of plant community, as in the Australian bush. This is often characterised by scrubby, open woodland and is a generic term for Eucalyptus dominated woodland in particular. An area of cultivated shrubs in a park or garden is known as a shrubbery. When clipped as topiary, shrubs generally have dense foliage and many small leafy branches growing close together. Many shrubs respond well to renewal pruning, in which hard cutting back to a 'stool' results in long new stems known as "canes". Other shrubs respond better to selective pruning to reveal their structure and character. Shrubs in common garden practice are generally broad-leaved plants, though some smaller conifers such as Mountain Pine and Common Juniper are also shrubby in structure. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.

List of Shrubs

Incomplete! Those marked
- can also develop into tree form. ;A
- Abelia (Abelia)
- Actinidia (Actinidia)
- Aralia (Angelica Tree, Hercules' Club)
-
- Arctostaphylos (Bearberry, Manzanita)
-
- Aronia (Chokeberry)
- Artemisia (Sagebrush)
- Aucuba (Aucuba) ;B
- Berberis (Barberry)
- Buddleja (Butterfly bush)
- Buxus (Box)
- ;C
- Calia (Mescalbean)
- Callicarpa (Beautyberry)
-
- Callistemon (Bottlebrush)
-
- Calluna (Heather)
- Calycanthus (Sweetshrub)
- Camellia (Camellia, Tea)
-
- Caragana (Pea-tree)
-
- Carpenteria (Carpenteria)
- Caryopteris (Blue Spiraea)
- Cassiope (Moss-heather)
- Ceanothus (Ceanothus)
-
- Celastrus (Staff vine)
-
- Ceratostigma (Hardy Plumbago)
- Cercocarpus (Mountain-mahogany)
-
- Chaenomeles (Japanese Quince)
- Chamaebatiaria (Fernbush)
- Chamaedaphne (Leatherleaf)
- Chimonanthus (Wintersweet)
- Chionanthus (Fringe-tree)
-
- Choisya (Mexican-orange Blossom)
-
- Cistus (Rockrose)
- Clerodendrum (Clerodendrum)
- Clethra (Summersweet, Pepperbush)
-
- Clianthus (Glory Pea)
- Colletia (Colletia)
- Colutea (Bladder Senna)
- Comptonia (Sweetfern)
- Cornus (Dogwood)
-
- Corylopsis (Winter-hazel)
-
- Cotinus (Smoketree)
-
- Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster)
-
- Cowania (Cliffrose)
- Crataegus (Hawthorn)
-
- Crinodendron (Crinodendron)
-
- Cytisus and allied genera (Broom)
- ;D
- Daboecia (Heath)
- Danae (Alexandrian Laurel)
- Daphne (Daphne)
- Decaisnea (Decaisnea)
- Dasiphora (Shrubby Cinquefoil)
- Dendromecon (Tree Poppy)
- Desfontainea (Desfontainea)
- Deutzia (Deutzia)
- Diervilla (Bush Honeysuckle)
- Dipelta (Dipelta)
- Dirca (Leatherwood)
- Drimys (Winter's Bark)
-
- Dryas (Mountain Avens) ;E
- Elaeagnus (Elaeagnus)
-
- Embothrium (Chilean Firebush)
-
- Empetrum (Crowberry)
- Enkianthus (Pagoda Bush)
- Ephedra (Ephedra)
- Epigaea (Trailing Arbutus)
- Erica (Heath)
- Eriobotrya (Loquat)
-
- Escallonia (Escallonia)
- Eucryphia (Eucryphia)
-
- Euonymus (Spindle)
-
- Exochorda (Pearl Bush) ;F
- Fabiana (Fabiana)
- Fallugia (Apache Plume)
- Fatsia (Fatsia)
- Forsythia (Forsythia)
- Fothergilla (Fothergilla)
- Franklinia (Franklinia)
-
- Fremontodendron (Flannelbush)
- Fuchsia (Fuchsia)
- ;G
- Garrya (Silk-tassel)
-
- Gaultheria (Salal)
- Gaylussacia (Huckleberry)
- Genista (Broom)
-
- Gordonia (Loblolly-bay)
-
- Grevillea (Grevillea)
- Griselinia (Griselinia)
- ;H
- Hakea (Hakea)
-
- Halesia (Silverbell)
-
- Halimium (Rockrose)
- Hamamelis (Witch-hazel)
-
- Hebe (Hebe)
- Hedera (Ivy)
- Helianthemum (Rockrose)
- Hibiscus (Hibiscus)
-
- Hippophae (Sea-buckthorn)
-
- Hoheria (Lacebark)
-
- Holodiscus (Creambush)
- Hudsonia (Hudsonia)
- Hydrangea (Hydrangea)
- Hypericum (Rose of Sharon)
- Hyssopus (Hyssop) ;I
- Ilex (Holly)
-
- Illicium (Star Anise)
-
- Indigofera (Indigo)
- Itea (Sweetspire) ;J
- Jamesia (Cliffbush)
- Jasminum (Jasmine)
- Juniperus (Juniper)
- ;K
- Kalmia (Mountain-laurel)
- Kerria (Kerria)
- Kolkwitzia (Beauty-bush) ;L
- Lagerstroemia (Crape-myrtle)
-
- Lapageria (Copihue)
- Lavandula (Lavender)
- Lavatera (Tree Mallow)
- Ledum (Ledum)
- Leitneria (Corkwood)
-
- Lespedeza (Bush Clover)
-
- Leptospermum (Manuka)
-
- Leucothoe (Doghobble)
- Leycesteria (Leycesteria)
- Ligustrum (Privet)
-
- Lindera (Spicebush)
-
- Linnaea (Twinflower)
- Lonicera (Honeysuckle)
- Lupinus (Tree Lupin)
- Lycium (Boxthorn) ;M
- Magnolia (Magnolia)
- Mahonia (Mahonia)
- Malpighia (Acerola)
- Menispermum (Moonseed)
- Menziesia (Menziesia)
- Mespilus (Medlar)
-
- Microcachrys (Microcachrys)
- Myrica (Bayberry)
-
- Myricaria (Myricaria)
- Myrtus and allied genera (Myrtle)
- ;N
- Neillia (Neillia)
- Nerium (Oleander) ;O
- Olearia (Daisy Bush)
- Osmanthus (Osmanthus) ;P
- Pachysandra (Pachysandra)
- Paeonia (Tree-peony)
- Perovskia (Russian Sage)
- Philadelphus (Mock-orange)
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- Phlomis (Jerusalem Sage)
- Photinia (Photinia)
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- Physocarpus (Ninebark)
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- Pieris (Pieris)
- Pistacia (Pistachio, Mastic)
-
- Pittosporum (Pittosporum)
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- Polygala (Milkwort)
- Poncirus
-
- Prunus (Cherry)
-
- Purshia (Antelope Bush)
- Pyracantha (Firethorn) ;Q
- Quassia (Quassia)
-
- Quercus (Oak)
-
- Quillaja (Quillay)
- Quintinia (Tawheowheo)
- ;R
- Rhamnus (Buckthorn)
-
- Rhododendron (Rhododendron, Azalea)
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- Rhus (Sumac)
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- Ribes (Currant)
- Romneya (Tree Poppy)
- Rosa (Rose)
- Rosmarinus (Rosemary)
- Rubus (Bramble)
- Ruta (Rue) ;S
- Sabia
-
- Salix (Willow)
-
- Salvia (Sage)
- Sambucus (Elder)
-
- Santolina (Lavender Cotton)
- Sapindus (Soapberry)
-
- Senecio (Senecio)
- Simmondsia (Jojoba)
- Skimmia (Skimmia)
- Smilax (Smilax)
- Sophora (Kowhai)
-
- Sorbaria (Sorbaria)
- Spartium (Spanish Broom)
- Spiraea (Spiraea)
-
- Staphylea (Bladdernut)
-
- Stephanandra (Stephanandra)
- Styrax (Storax)
-
- Symphoricarpos (Snowberry)
- Syringa (Lilac)
- ;T
- Tamarix (Tamarix)
-
- Taxus (Yew)
-
- Telopea (Waratah)
-
- Thymelaea
- Thymus (Thyme)
- Trochodendron
- ;U
- Ulex (Gorse)
- Ungnadia (Mexican Buckeye) ;V
- Vaccinium (Bilberry, Blueberry, Cranberry)
- Verbena (Vervain)
- Viburnum (Viburnum)
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- Vinca (Periwinkle)
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