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Mountaineering

Mountaineering

:If you were looking for the car, please see Mercury Mountaineer. Mountaineering is the sport or hobby or profession of walking, hiking and climbing up mountains. It is also sometimes known as alpinism, particularly in Europe. It may be said to consist of two main aspects, rock-craft and snow-craft, depending on whether the route chosen is over rock or over snow and ice. Both require great gymnastic and technical ability, but experience is also very important part of the latter.
Hazards
The craft of climbing has been developed to avoid two main types of danger: the danger of things falling on the traveller and the danger of the climber falling himself. The things that may fall are rocks, ice and snow; the mountaineer may fall from rocks, ice or snow, or into crevasses in ice or snow. There are also dangers from weather. Thus in all there are eight chief dangers: falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, falls from difficult rocks, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, dangers from weather. To select and follow a route avoiding these dangers is to exercise the climber's craft.
Falling Rocks
Every rock mountain is falling apart due to erosion, the process being especially rapid above the snow-line. Rock faces are constantly swept by falling stones, which are generally possible to dodge. Falling rocks tend to form furrows in a mountain face, and these furrows (couloirs) have to be ascended with caution, their sides often being safe when the middle is stoneswept. Rocks fall more frequently on some days than on others, according to the recent weather. Ice formed during the night may temporarily bind rocks to the face but warmth of the day or direct sun exposure may easily dislodge these rocks. Local experience is a valuable help on determining typical rockfall on such routes. The direction of the dip of rock strata often determines whether a particular face is safe or dangerous; the character of the rock must also be considered. Where stones fall frequently debris will be found below, whilst on snow slopes falling stones cut furrows visible from a great distance. In planning an ascent of a new peak mountaineers must look for such traces. When falling stones get mixed in considerable quantity with slushy snow or water a mud avalanche is formed (common in the Himalaya). It is vital to avoid camping in their possible line of fall.
Falling Ice
The places where ice may fall can always be determined beforehand. It falls in the broken parts of glaciers (seracs) and from overhanging cornices formed on the crests of narrow ridges. Large icicles are often formed on steep rockfaces, and these fall frequently in fine weather following cold and stormy days. They have to be avoided like falling stones. Seracs are slow in formation, and slow in arriving (by glacier motion) at a condition of unstable equilibrium. They generally fall in or just after the hottest part of the day, and their debris seldom goes far. A skillful and experienced ice-man will usually devise a safe route through a most intricate ice-fall, but such places should be avoided in the afternoon of a hot day. Hanging glaciers (i.e. glaciers perched on steep slopes) often discharge themselves over steep rock-faces, the snout breaking off at intervals. They can always be detected by their debris below. Their track should be avoided.
Snow Avalanches
The avalanche is the most underestimated danger in the mountains. People generally think that they will be able to recognise the hazards and survive being caught. The truth is a somewhat different story. Every year, 120 - 150 people die in small avalanches in the Alps alone. The vast majority are reasonably experienced male skiers aged 20-35 but also include ski instructors and guides. There is always a lot of pressure to risk a snow crossing. Turning back takes a lot of extra time and effort, supreme leadership, and most importantly there seldom is an avalanche to prove the right decision was made. Making the decision to turn around is especially hard if others are crossing the slope, but any next person could become the trigger. There are two types of avalanche: #The slab avalanche: This type of avalanche occurs when a plate of snow breaks loose and starts sliding down; these are the largest and most dangerous. #The powder avalanche: This type of avalanche is triggered by a small amount of moving snow that accumulates into a big slide. Also known as a "loose snow" avalanche. Dangerous slides are most likely to occur on the same slopes preferred by many skiers: long and wide open, few trees or large rocks, 35 to 40 degrees of angle, large load of fresh snow, soon after a big storm, on a sunny afternoon. This is a recipe for disaster. Ninety percent of reported victims are caught in avalanches triggered by themselves or others in their group. When going off-piste or travelling in alpine terrain, parties have a moral responsibility to always carry: #avalanche beacons #probes #shovels (retrieving victims with a shovel instead of your hands is five times faster) and to have had avalanche training! Paradoxically, expert skiers who have avalanche training make up a large percentage of avalanche fatalities; perhaps because they are overly confident. Even with proper rescue equipment and training, there is a one-in-five chance of dying if caught in a significant avalanche, and only a 50/50 chance of being found alive if buried more than a few minutes. The best solution is to learn how to avoid risky conditions. :See also avalanche article for further information on the dangers and precautions.
Falls from rocks
The skill of a rock climber is shown by his choice of handhold and foothold, and his adhesion to those he has chosen. Much depends on a correct estimate of the firmness of the rock where weight is to be thrown upon it. Many loose rocks are quite firm enough to bear a person's weight, but experience is needed to know which can be trusted, and skill is required in transferring the weight to them without jerking. On rotten rocks the rope must be handled with special care, lest it should start loose stones on to the heads of those below. Similar care must be given to handholds and footholds, for the same reason. When a horizontal traverse has to be made across very difficult rocks, a dangerous situation may arise unless at both ends of the traverse there be firm positions. Mutual assistance on hard rocks takes all manner of forms: two, or even three, men climbing on one another's shoulders, or using for foothold an ice axe propped up by others. The great principle is that of co-operation, all the members of the party climbing with reference to the others, and not as independent units; each when moving must know what the man in front and the man behind are doing. After bad weather steep rocks are often found covered with a veneer of ice (verglas), which may even render them inaccessible. Crampons are useful on such occasions.
Ice Slopes
For travel on slopes consisting of ice or hard snow, crampons are a standard part of a mountaineer's equipment. While step-cutting can sometimes be used on snow slopes of moderate angle, this can be a slow and tiring process, which does not provide the higher security of crampons. However, in soft snow or powder, crampons are easily hampered by balling of snow which reduce their effectiveness. In either case, an ice axe not only assists with balance but provides the climber with the possibility of self-arrest in case of a slip or fall. On a true ice slope however, an ice axe is rarely able to effect a self-arrest. As an additional safety precaution on steep ice slopes, the climbing rope is attached to ice screws buried into the ice. True ice slopes are rare in Europe, though common in mountains located in the tropics, where newly-fallen snow quickly thaws on the surface and becomes sodden below, so that the next night's frost turns the whole mass into a sheet of solid ice.
Snow Slopes
Europe, Swiss border; two alpinists can be seen following the trail in the snow.]] Snow slopes are very common, and usually easy to ascend. At the foot of a snow or ice slope is generally a big crevasse, called a bergschrund, where the final slope of the mountain rises from a snow-field or glacier. Such bergschrunds are generally too wide to be stridden, and must be crossed by a snow bridge, which needs careful testing and a painstaking use of the rope. A steep snow slope in bad condition may be dangerous, as the whole body of snow may start as an avalanche. Such slopes are less dangerous if ascended directly than obliquely, for an oblique or horizontal track cuts them across and facilitates movement of the mass. New snow lying on ice is especially dangerous. Experience is needful for deciding on the advisability of advancing over snow in doubtful condition. Snow on rocks is usually rotten unless it be thick; snow on snow is likely to be sound. A day or two of fine weather will usually bring new snow into sound condition. Snow cannot lie at a very steep angle, though it often deceives the eye as to its slope. Snow slopes seldom exceed 40°. Ice slopes may be much steeper. Snow slopes in early morning are usually hard and safe, but the same in the afternoon are quite soft and possibly dangerous; hence the advantage of an early start.
Crevasses
Crevasses are the slits or deep chasms formed in the substance of a glacier as it passes over an uneven bed. They may be open or hidden. In the lower part of a glacier the crevasses are open. Above the snow-line they are frequently hidden by arched-over accumulations of winter snow. The detection of hidden crevasses requires care and experience. After a fresh fall of snow they can only be detected by sounding with the pole of the ice axe, or by looking to right and left where the open extension of a partially hidden crevasse may be obvious. The safeguard against accident is the rope, and no one should ever cross a snow-covered glacier unless roped to one, or even better to two companions. Anyone venturing onto crevasses should be trained in crevasse rescue.
Weather
The primary dangers caused by bad weather centre around the changes it causes in snow and rock conditions, making movement suddenly much more arduous and hazardous than under normal circumstances. Whiteouts make it difficult to retrace a route while rain may prevent taking the easiest line only determined as such under dry conditions. In a storm the mountaineer who uses a compass for guidance has a great advantage over a merely empirical observer. In large snow-fields it is, of course, easier to go wrong than on rocks, but intelligence and experience are the best guides in safely navigating objective hazards. Summer thunderstorms may produce intense lightning which are attracted to the highest points on the ground. If a climber happens to be standing on or near the summit, they may now in fact be the highest point. There are many cases where people have been struck by lightning while climbing mountains. In most mountainous regions, local storms develop by late morning and early afternoon. Many climbers will often begin ascents "alpine style"; that is before or by first light so as to be on the way down when storms are intensifying in activity and lightning and other weather hazards are a distinct threat to safety.
Altitude
Rapid ascents can lead to altitude sickness. The best (and very effective) cure is to descend immediately. The climber's motto in high altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regiment of climbing higher to acclimitize but returning to lower elevation to sleep. An alternative, traditionally used in South America is the chewing of coca leaves. Lack of oxygen can start to be a problem for many people at heights below 5,000 m. Everyone needs to acclimatise, even those who can summit Everest without bottled oxygen. Generally speaking, experienced mountaineers do not normally start using bottled oxygen until they reach around 7,000 - 8,000 m. In 2005, researcher and mountaineer John Semple established that above-average ozone concentrations on the Tibetan plateau may pose an additional risk to climbers.[http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin6/051207-1892.asp]
History

- Though it is unlikely that his intention was to reach a summit, Ötzi ascended at least 3,000 m in the Alps about 5300 years ago. His remains were found at that altitude, preserved in a glacier.
- The first recorded mountain ascent in the Common Era is Roman Emperor Hadrian's ascent of Etna (3,350 m) to see the sun rise in 121.
- Peter III of Aragon climbed Canigou in the Pyrenees in the last quarter of the 13th century.
- On April 26, 1336 the Italian poet Petrarch together with his brother and two other companions climbed to the top of Mont Ventoux (1,909 m). He wrote an account of the trip, composed considerably later as a letter to his friend Francesco Dionigi. Therefore, April 26, 1336 is regarded as the "birthday of alpinism", and Petrarch (Petrarca alpinista) as the "father of alpinism".
- The Rochemelon (3,538 m) in the Italian Alps was climbed in 1358.
- In 1492 the ascent of Mont Aiguille was made by order of Charles VIII of France. The Humanists of the 16th century adopted a new attitude towards mountains, but the disturbed state of Europe nipped in the bud the nascent mountaineering of the Zurich school.
- Leonardo da Vinci climbed to a snow-field in the neighborhood of the Val Sesia and made scientific observations.
- In 1642 Darby Field made the first recorded ascent of Mount Washington, then known as Agiocochook, in a part of Maine later called New Hampshire in New England.
- Konrad Gesner and Josias Simler of Zurich visited and described mountains, and made regular ascents. The use of ice axe and rope were locally invented at this time. No mountain expeditions of note are recorded in the 17th century.
- Pococke and Windham's historic visit to Chamonix was made in 1741, and set the trend of visiting glaciers.
- In 1744 the Titus was climbed, the first true ascent of a snow-mountain.
- The first attempt to ascend Mont Blanc was made in 1775 by a party of natives. In 1786 Dr Michel Paccard and Jacques Balmat gained the summit for the first time. Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, the initiator of the first ascent followed next year.
- The Jungfrau was climbed in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813. Thereafter, tourists showed a tendency to climb, and the body of Alpine guides began to come into existence as a consequence.
- Systematic mountaineering, as a sport, is usually dated from Sir Alfred Willss ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854. The first ascent of Monte Rosa was made in 1855.
- The Alpine Club was founded in London in 1857, and was soon imitated in most European countries. Edward Whymper's ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marks the close of the main period of Alpine conquest, during which the craft of climbing was invented and perfected, the body of professional guides formed and their traditions fixed.
- Passing to other ranges, the exploration of the Pyrenees was concurrent with that of the Alps. The Caucasus followed, mainly owing to the initiative of D. W. Freshfield; it was first visited by exploring climbers in 1868, and most of its great peaks were climbed by 1888.
- Trained climbers turned their attention to the mountains of North America in 1888, when the Rev. W. S. Green made an expedition to the Selkirk Mountains. From that time exploration has gone on apace, and many English and American climbing parties have surveyed most of the highest groups of snow-peaks; Pikes Peak (14,147 ft.) having been climbed by Mr. E. James and party in 1820, and Mt. Saint Elias (18,024 ft.) by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party in 1897. The exploration of the highest Andes was begun in 1879-1880, when Whymper climbed Mount Chimborazo and explored the mountains of Ecuador. The Cordillera between Chile and Argentina was attacked by Dr. Gussfeldt in 1883, who ascended Maipo (17,752 ft.) and attempted Aconcagua (23,393 ft.). That peak was first climbed by the Fitzgerald expedition in 1897.
- The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898. Chilean and Argentine expeditions revealed the structure of the southern Cordillera in the years 1885-1898. Conway visited the mountains of Tierra del Fuego.
- The Alps of New Zealand were first attacked in 1882 by the Rev. W. S. Green, and shortly afterwards a New Zealand Alpine Club was founded, and by their activities the exploration of the range was pushed forward. In 1895 Mr. E. A. Fitzgerald made an important journey in this range. Tom Fyfe and party climbed Mount Cook on Christmas Day 1894, denying Fitzgerald the first ascent. Fitzgerald was en route from Britain with Swiss guide Matthias Zubriggen to claim the peak. So piqued at being beaten to the top of Mt. Cook, he refused to climb it and concentrated on other peaks in the area. Later in the trip Zubriggen soloed Mt. Cook up a ridge that now bears his name.
- The first mountains of the arctic region explored were those of Spitzbergen by Sir W. M. Conway's expeditions in 1896 and 1897.
- Of the high African peaks, Kilimanjaro was climbed in 1889 by Dr. Hans Meyer, Mt. Kenya in 1889 by Halford John Mackinder, and a peak of Ruwenzori by H. J. Moore in 1900.
- The Asiatic mountains were initially surveyed on orders of the British Empire. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalaya, and climbed a peak of 23,000 ft. In 1895 Albert F. Mummery made a fatal attempt to ascend Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 D. W. Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim. In 1899, 1903, 1906 and 1908 Mrs Fannie Bullock Workman made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft.). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Major the Hon. C. G. Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them.
- The American Alpine Club was founded in 1902.
- In 1902, the Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition, lead by mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and occultist Aleister Crowley, was the first to attempt to scale Chogo Ri (known as K2 in the west). They made 22,000 feet before having to turn back do to weather and other mishaps.
- In 1905, Aleister Crowley led the first expedition to Kanchenjunga, the third largest mountain in the world. Four members of that party were killed in an avalanche. Some claims say they reached around 21,300 feet before turning back, however Crowley's autobiography claims they reached about 25,000 feet.
- The 1950s saw the first ascents of all the eight-thousanders but two, starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal. The world's highest mountain (above mean sea level), Mount Everest (8,850m) was first climbed on May 29 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal. Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125m), which was even more remarkable considering he accomplished it solo, which ended up being the only eight-thousander to be solo'd on the first ascent. K2 (8,611m), the second highest peak in the world was first scaled in 1954. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013m), the lowest of all the 8,000 metre peaks.
See also

- List of climbers
- Ski mountaineering
- Glossary of climbing terms
- List of climbing topics
- Peak bagging
- Highest unclimbed mountain
- Alpine hut
- The Mountaineers (Pacific NW)
- Outdoor education
Links

- [http://www.csac.org Snow and Avalanche Safety Center]
- [http://www.i-world.net/oma/ Oregon Mountaineering Association]
- [http://www.mountaineers.org The Mountaineers]
References

Quotations

- Mountaineering is a Sport of Urban Man. - Anon
- There are only three sports - bullfighting, motor racing, and mountaineering; all the rest are merely games - attributed to Ernest Hemingway. [http://www.theknese.com/pages/Hemingway.htm] Category:Mountaineering ja:登山

Mercury Mountaineer
:Ford Explorer

Sport

:Sports redirects here. For other senses of that word, see sports (disambiguation). A sport consists of a physical activity or skill carried out with a recreational purpose: for competition, for self-enjoyment, to attain excellence, for the development of a skill, or some combination of these. A sport has physical activity, side by side competition, and a scoring system. The difference of purpose is what characterises sport, combined with the notion of individual (or team) skill or prowess.

History of sport

Main article: History of sport The development of sport throughout history teaches us a great deal about social changes, and about the nature of sport itself. There are many modern discoveries in France, Africa, and Australia of cave art (see, for example, Lascaux) from prehistory which provide evidence of ritual ceremonial behaviour. Some of these sources date from over 30,000 years ago, as established by carbon dating. Although there is scant direct evidence of sport from these sources, it is reasonable to extrapolate that there was some activity at these times resembling sport. There are artifacts and structures which suggest that Chinese people engaged in activities which meet our definition of sport as early as 4000 BC. Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China's past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a range of sports were well developed and regulated several thousands of years ago, including swimming and fishing. Other sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the traditional Iranian martial art of Zurkhaneh had a close connection to the warfare skills. Among other sports which originate in Persia are polo and jousting. A wide range of sports were already established at the time of the Ancient Greece. Wrestling, running, boxing, javelin, discus throwing, and chariot racing were prevalent. This suggests that the military culture of Greece was an influence on the development of its sports and vice versa. The Olympic Games were held every four years in Ancient Greece, at a small village in Pelopponisos called Olympia. Sport has been increasingly organised and regulated from the time of the Ancient Olympics up to the present century. Activities necessary for food and survival became regulated activities done for pleasure or competition on an increasing scale, for example hunting, fishing, horticulture. The Industrial Revolution and mass production brought increased leisure which allowed increases in spectator sports, less elitism in sports, and greater accessibility. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase in sport's popularity. Not only has professionalism helped increase the popularity of sports, but additionally the need to have fun and take a break from a hectic workday or to relieve unwanted stress, as with any profession.

A classification of sports

Main article: List of sports One system for classifying sports is as follows, based more on the sport's aim than on the actual mechanics. The examples given are intended to be illustrative, rather than comprehensive.

Opponent

- Combat (Wrestling, Judo, karate, boxing, fencing, tae kwon do...)
- Court (Tennis, shuttlecock sport, badminton, volleyball, squash, Table tennis...)
- Team (Baseball, cricket and football (soccer) are the most popular globally, with baseball being popular in the Americas and in Japan, cricket in the Commonwealth of Nations and football being popular throughout the world. Other examples include: Rugby, ice hockey, field hockey, softball, basketball, American Football...)

Achievement

- Target (Archery, shooting ...)
- Display (Gymnastics, bodybuilding, equestrianism, diving...)
- Strength (Weight-lifting, triple jump, shot put ...)

Sports that fall into multiple categories

- Biathlon
- Curling
- Paintball

Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship is defined as "conduct and attitude considered as befitting participants, including a sense of fair play, courtesy toward teammates and opponents, a striving spirit, and grace in losing." It is interesting that the motivation for sport is often an elusive element. For example, beginners in sailing are often told that dinghy racing is a good means to sharpen the learner's sailing skills. However, it often emerges that skills are honed to increase racing performance and achievements in competition, rather than the converse. Sportsmanship expresses an aspiration or ethos that the activity will be enjoyed for its own sake. The well-known sentiment by sports journalist Grantland Rice, that it's “not that you won or lost but how you played the game," and the Modern Olympic creed expressed by its founder Pierre de Coubertin: "The most important thing . . . is not winning but taking part” are typical expressions of this sentiment. But often the pressures of competition (See the related article, "Winning isn't everything; it's the only thing." or an obsession with individual achievement - as well as the intrusion of technology - can all work against enjoyment and fair play by participants. People responsible for leisure activities often seek recognition and respectability as sports by joining sports federations such as the IOC, or by forming their own regulatory body. In this way sports evolve from leisure activity to more formal sports: relatively recent newcomers are BMX cycling, snowboarding, wrestling, etc. Some of these activities have been popular but uncodified pursuits in various forms for different lengths of time. Indeed, the formal regulation of sport is a relatively modern and increasing development. Sportsmanship, within any given game, is how each competitor acts before, during, and after the competition. Not only is it important to have good sportsmanship if one wins, but also if one loses. For example, in football it is considered sportsmanlike to kick the ball out of play to allow treatment for an injured player on the other side. Reciprocally, the other team is expected to return the ball from the throw-in. Compare Sportsmanship with Gamesmanship. Violence in sports involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent behaviour on people or property, in misguided shows of loyalty, dominance, anger, or celebration.

Professionalism and the regulation of sport

The entertainment aspect of sport, together with the spread of mass media and increased leisure time, has led to professionalism in sport. This has resulted in some conflict, where the paycheck can be seen as more important than recreational aspects: or where the sport is changed simply to make it more profitable and popular therefore losing some of the traditions valued by some. The entertainment aspect also means that sportsmen and women are often elevated to celebrity status, or in some cases near-god-like. Today the consensus is that David Beckham (England and Real Madrid Footballer) is the most famous sportsman in the world, with a fanatical following particularly in Asia where statues have been erected of his likeness. The successful execution of a sport requires the consensus agreement of the participants on a set of rules for fair competition. This has led to the control of each sport through a regulatory body to define what methods of competition are acceptable and what are considered cheating.

Sport and politics

There have been many dilemmas for sports where a difficult political context is in place. When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sportspeople adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects. The 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin was an illustration, perhaps best recognised in retrospect, where an ideology was developing which used the event to strengthen its spread through propaganda. In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were connected with cultural nationalism. Even until the mid 20th century a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football, hurling, or other sports administered by the GAA if s/he played or supported Football, or other games seen to be of British origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of soccer and Rugby union at Gaelic venues under the controversial Rule 42, although Gaelic games are frequently played on soccer and rugby arenas, particularly outside of Ireland. Until recently, under Rule 21, the GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the RUC, now reconstituted as the PSNI, from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 led to the eventual removal of the ban. Nationalism in general is often evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. These trends are seen by some as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own sake, for the enjoyment of its participants. See also: List of countries by national sport

Art and sport

Sport has many affinities with art. Ice skating and Tai chi, for example, are sports that come close to artistic spectacles in themselves: to watch these activities comes close to the experience of spectating at a ballet. Similarly, there are other activities that have elements of sport and art in their execution, such as performance art, artistic gymnastics, Bodybuilding, Parkour, Yoga, dressage, etc. The fact that art is so close to sport in some situations is probably related to the nature of sport. The definition of "sport" above put forward the idea of an activity pursued not just for the usual purposes, for example, running not simply to get places, but running for its own sake, running as well as we can. This is similar to a common view of aesthetic value, which is seen as something over and above the strictly functional value coming from an object's normal use. So an aesthetically pleasing car is one which doesn't just get from A to B, but which impresses us with its grace, poise, and charisma. In the same way, a sporting performance such as jumping doesn't just impress us as being an effective way to avoid obstacles or to get across streams. It impresses us because of the ability, skill, and style which is shown. Art and sport were probably more clearly linked at the time of Ancient Greece, when gymnastics and calisthenics invoked admiration and aesthetic appreciation for the physical build, prowess and 'arete' displayed by participants. The modern term 'art' as skill, is related to this ancient Greek term 'arete'. The closeness of art and sport in these times was revealed by the nature of the Olympic Games which, as we have seen, were celebrations of both sporting and artistic achievements, poetry, sculpture and architecture.

The terms 'sport' and 'sports'

In Commonwealth English, sporting activities are commonly denoted by the collective noun "sport". In American English, "sports" is more common for this usage. In all English dialects, "sports" is the term used for more than one specific sport. For example, "football and swimming are my favourite sports" would sound natural to all English speakers, whereas "I enjoy sport" would sound less natural than "I enjoy sports" to many North Americans.

External links

- [http://www.sports.ie Sports.ie - Live Sports news and RSS feeds]
- [http://www.thefamousquotations.com/subjects/sports-and-competition-quotations.htm Sports Quotations]
- [http://www.newworldsports.net New World Sports - Sports Commentary]
- [http://www.pressboxnews.com/ Sports News Aggregator]
- [http://dmoz.org/Sports/ Open Directory Project - Sports]
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Sports/ Yahoo! - Sports]
- [http://news.google.com/news?topic=s Google - Sports News]
- [http://uk.newsbot.msn.com/s/?id=2 MSN - Sports News] (UK)
- [http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=index&cid=755 Yahoo! - Sports News]
- [http://www.sportsfilter.com SportsFilter - Community Weblog]
- [http://www.kungfufollowme.com/ Chinese Kung Fu: Tai Chi And Shaolin Kung Fu]
- [http://www.sports-facts.com/ Sports-Facts.Com!] Category:Games
- Category:Technology ko:스포츠 ms:Sukan ja:スポーツ simple:Sport th:กีฬา

Hobby

A hobby is a spare-time recreational pursuit. In the Middle Ages, falconry was a very popular pastime (what today might be called a hobby), and of all the different birds used for it, the Eurasian Hobby was perhaps the most popular. It is said that the modern use of hobby to indicate a pastime followed from this. An alternative explanation is that the usage grew from another recreational animal called hobby: which was a type of small ambling or pacing horse. A hobby-horse was a wooden or wickerwork toy made to be ridden just like the real hobby. From this came the expression "to ride one's hobby-horse", meaning "to follow a favourite pastime", and in turn, hobby in the modern sense of recreation. Hobbies are practised for interest and enjoyment, rather than financial reward. Examples include collecting, making, tinkering, sports and adult education. Engaging in a hobby can lead to acquiring substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. However, personal fulfillment is the aim. What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: a game tester may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy playing (and helping to debug) computer games. Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun, not remuneration, is called an amateur (or hobbyist), as distinct from a professional. An important determinant of what is considered a hobby, as distinct from a profession (beyond the lack of remuneration), is probably how easy it is to make a living at the activity. Almost no one can make a living at cigarette card or stamp collecting, but many people find it enjoyable; so it is commonly regarded as a hobby. Astronomy is an interesting hobby in that the amateurs often make meaningful contributions to the professionals. It is not entirely uncommon for an amateur astronomer to be the first to discover a celestial body or event. In the UK, the pejorative noun anorak (similar to the Japanese "otaku", meaning a geek or enthusiast) is often applied to people who obsessively pursue a particular hobby. Whilst some hobbies strike many people as trivial or boring, hobbyists have found something compelling and entertaining about them (see geek). Much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; more recently, Linux began as a student's hobby. A hobby may not be as trivial as it appears at a point in time when it has relatively few followers. Thus a British conservationist recalls that when seen wearing field glasses at a London station in the 1930s he was asked if he was going to the (horse) races. The anecdote indicates that at the time an interest in wildlife was not widely perceived as a credible hobby. Practitioners of that hobby went on to become the germs of the conservation movement that flourished in Britain from 1965 onwards and became a global political movement within a generation. Conversely, the hobby of aircraft spotting probably originated as part of a serious activity designed to detect arriving waves of enemy aircraft entering English airspace during World War II. In peacetime it clearly has no such practical or social purpose. Pursuit of a hobby may have calming or helpful therapeutic side effects. In some cases, however, (for example in collecting) the line between a hobby and an obsession can become blurred. There is more than one documented case of violence over things as simple as coin collecting.

Walking

Walking is the main form of animal locomotion on land, distinguished from running and crawling. When executed in shallow water, it is usually described as wading and when executed vertically it becomes scrambling or climbing. The word walking is derived from the Old English walcan (to roll). Walking is generally distinguished from running in that only one foot at a time leaves contact with the ground: for humans and other bipeds running begins when both feet are off the ground with each step. (This distinction has the status of a formal requirement in competitive walking events, often resulting in disqualification even at the Olympic level.) For horses and other quadrupedal species, the running gaits may be numerous, and walking keeps three feet at a time on the ground. While not strictly bipedal, several primarily bipedal human gaits (where the long bones of the arms support at most a small fraction of the bodies' weight) are generally regarded as variants of walking. These include:
- walking on crutches (usually executed by alternating between standing on both legs, and rocking forward "on the crutches" (i.e., supported under the armpits by them);
- walking with one or two canes/walking sticks, staves, or trekking poles (reducing the load on one or both legs, or supplementing the body's normal balancing mechanisms by also pushing against the ground through at least one arm that holds a long object); and
- scrambling, using the arms (and hands or some other extension to the arms) not just as a backup to normal balance, but, as when walking on talus, to achieve states of balance that would be impossible or unstable when supported solely by the legs. For humans, walking is the main form of transportation without a vehicle or riding animal. A pedestrian is a walking person, in particular on a road (if available on the sidewalk/path/pavement).

Walking as a leisure activity

sidewalk] Many people walk as a hobby, and in our post-industrial age it is often enjoyed as a form of exercise. Fitness walkers and others may use a pedometer to count their steps. The types of walking include bushwalking, racewalking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking and hiking on long-distance paths. In some countries walking as a hobby is known as hiking (the typical North American term), rambling (a somewhat dated British expression, but remaining in use because it is enshrined in the title of the important Ramblers' Association), or tramping (the invariable term in New Zealand). Hiking is a subtype of walking, generally used to mean walking in nature areas on specially designated routes or trails, as opposed to in urban environments; however, hiking can also refer to any long-distance walk. More obscure terms for walking include "to go by Marrow-bone stage", "to ride Shank's pony" or "to go by Walker's bus." Walking in a shopping mall is often called "trolling." The average child achieves independent walking ability between 9 and 15 months old. The world's largest registration walking event is the International Four Days Marches Nijmegen. The annual Labor Day walk on Mackinac Bridge draws over 60,000 participants. The Chesapeake Bay Bridge walk annually draws over 50,000 participants. Walks are often organized as charity events with walkers seeking sponsors to raise money for a specific cause. Charity walks range in length from 2 mile or 5 km walks to as far as 50 miles (80 km). The MS Challenge 50 is an example of a 50 mile walk which raises money to fight muscular dystrophy. In Britain, the Ramblers' Association is the biggest organisation that looks after the interests of walkers. A registered charity, it has 139,000 members.

Walking as transportation

Walking is also the healthiest, most affordable and sustainable mode of transportation. Millions of people in all countries of the world use it as a fun and effective way to get to work, to school, and to do shopping and other errands. When walking is a regular routine, it is imperative that one wears comfortable shoes based upon their own foot structure and comfort needs. Some communities are very pedestrian-friendly, with commuting, shopping and recreation all pleasantly achievable on foot. Others have major flaws in their urban planning and public transit that leaves them entirely dependent on the automobile and fossil fuels, being a major cause of global warming and extreme weather events. When distances are too great to be convenient, walking can be creatively combined with other modes of transportation, such as cycling, public transport, car sharing, carpooling, ride sharing, car rentals and taxis. This is often much more healthy, affordable and sustainable than private car ownership. Some communities are at least partially car-free, making them particularly attractive to walking and other modes of transportation.

External links

- [http://www.bartleby.com/28/15.html Walking, by Henry David Thoreau]
- [http://www.walkable.org/article1.htm Creating Walkable Communities]
- [http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/2004/2/22/article_01.htm Why Take a Walk?], tips for walking
- [http://www.Walking-Routes.co.uk Walking Routes in the UK] ja:歩く

Hiking

:Hiking is a different activity performed when sailing. sailing Hiking is a form of walking, undertaken with the specific purpose of exploring and enjoying the scenery. It usually takes place on trails in areas of relatively unspoiled wilderness. Off-trail hiking is often called 'bushwalking', 'bushwhacking', 'bush-bashing' or 'cross country hiking'. Overnight hiking is more specifically called 'backpacking'. The word 'hiking' is understood in all English-speaking countries, but regional terms also exist. In the United Kingdom, the activity is often simply called 'walking'. Australians use the term bushwalking for both on- and off-trail hiking. New Zealanders commonly employ the word tramping, particularly for overnight trips. Hiking in the mountainous regions of Nepal and India is sometimes called 'trekking'.

Comparison with other forms of touring

Hiking is one of the fundamental outdoor activities on which many others are based. Hiking is the only way to reach many beautiful places overland. Enthusiasts regard hiking as the best way to see nature. It is seen as better than a tour in a vehicle of any kind (or on an animal; see horseback riding) because the hiker's senses are not intruded upon by distractions such as windows, engine noise, airborne dust in large quantities, and fellow passengers. It has an advantage over standing in one place because the hiker may cover a wide area. On the other hand, hiking over long distances or over difficult terrain does require some degree of physical ability and knowledge, as well as a backpack to carry food, water and essential equipment. Hikers may be caught in inclement weather or suffer mishaps. Some jurisdictions (for example New Hampshire) now require inadequately prepared hikers to pay for their own rescues. New Hampshire]

Personal safety issues

Even if hikers do not heedlessly place themselves in harm's way, they face a variety of risks. However, with the correct precautions, hiking can be enjoyable and safe.

Bodily injuries

Cumbersome backpacks increase the risk of missteps and falls, particularly on difficult terrain. Poor judgement on steep or slippery slopes can lead to injury. Carrying a backpack may make a hiker more cumbersome.
- Ankle sprain is a common and debilitating injury. Proper hiking boots can help prevent it.
- Foot blisters are caused by friction and irritation of the skin. Wet socks and poorly-fitting shoes precipitate the occurrence of blisters. Two layers of socks (using liner socks) help prevent blisters, and moleskin can be applied to blister-prone areas as a treatment or preventive measure.
- Back injury may result from packing too much or not having a proper backpack. A pack for backpacking should be bought from a recreational store, and as a rule of thumb, a person should carry no more than one third of their body weight. Hiking poles may also reduce the likelyhood of back injuries by spreading the load across multiple points.
- Frostbite can occur when bare skin is exposed to very low temperatures. For very low-temperature hiking, clothing can be arranged to minimize the amount of exposed skin.

Metabolic imbalances

- Dehydration can rapidly incapacitate a hiker, especially in warm weather. In conditions of low humidity, sweat evaporates so quickly that a hiker may not notice the water loss. Dehydration can be avoided by carrying and drinking an adequate amount of water. Depending on conditions, two liters of water may be enough for a day hike, but in high heat conditions (such as hiking the Grand Canyon in summer, one liter per hour may be required. [http://www.nps.gov/grca/grandcanyon/dayhike/smart.htm]. Extensive sweating may also deplete a hiker's body of sodium. Naturally occurring water is often unfit to drink (see Potability of backcountry water).
- Replenishing water, but not sodium, can result in hyponatremia. Thus, salty snacks along with water are also recommended.
- Heat exhaustion, possibly developing into heatstroke, can occur during high-temperature hikes, particularly if one is dehydrated or dressed too warmly. The risk of heatstroke can be minimized by avoiding hiking in the direct sun if the temperature is too high, and staying wet when possible. This is a life-threatening condition: a victim must be cooled off and transported to a hospital immediately.
- Conversely, hypothermia is a risk particularly to hikers at higher altitudes or latitudes. Wet clothing (due to rain, sweat, stream crossings, etc.) is a major risk factor, and can cause hypothermia even in warm weather. Hypothermia can result in death if the victim's body temperature drops very low. Even if it does not kill the victim directly, it causes confusion, irrationality and impaired judgment, raising the risk of other injuries. Hypothermia risk can be minimized with proper clothing. Cotton clothing is often discouraged for its ability to absorb and hold water. Packing extra layers of clothing decreases the risk of hypothermia.
- If deprived of food for several days, hikers may become malnourished. A human can survive for weeks without food, but malnutrition causes impaired judgment. Low blood sugar may have a similar effect. Carrying extra food will minimize risk to the hiker. malnourished

Losing the way

Hikers may become lost either if a hiking party cannot find its way, or if a hiker becomes separated from the party and cannot find it again. Lost hikers who cannot find their way to their destination on time may run out of food and water, or experience a change in weather, exacerbating the risk of hiking hazards. If a group splits up into several subgroups walking at different speeds, one of the subgrops may take a wrong turn at a trail junction. A common custom to avoid this is for the hikers at the front to stop at junctions and wait for the others. It's even easier to lose the way if trails do not exist. Carrying a map and compass and knowing how to use them will decrease the risk of getting lost. Likewise, a Global Positioning System may prove invaluable, as it can pinpoint a hiker's location, revealing exactly where on the globe they are and the direction to roads, services and cities. A communication device, such as a cell phone or a satellite phone, may help in the case of an emergency. However, cell phone coverage in wilderness areas is often quite poor. Family Radio Service and General Mobile Radio Service radios may be helpful, especially if hikers become separated from others in their group.

Other hazards

- In many areas, hikers may encounter large animals such as bears or cougars. Wild-animal attacks may occur when hikers come upon an unsuspecting animal and surprise it. Also, animals such as bears can become accustomed to gathering food from human property. These encounters can also result in attacks against humans. The risk of surprising an animal can be mitigated by making noise, whether by clapping and yelling regularly, tapping a stick against rocks, or wearing a "bear bell".

General safety measures

A common safety measure, which reduces the risk of most mishaps, is hiking in a group. If one hiker is injured, group members can administer first aid or seek help. A group can avoid poor decisions that a lone hiker might make. If an emergency occurs, a group can pool its muscle power, brain power, and body heat. Another precaution is informing people outside of the hiking group of the itinerary and expected return time.

Ecological impact of hiking

Hikers often seek beautiful environments in which to hike. Ironically, these environments are often fragile: hikers may accidentally destroy the environment that they enjoy. The action of an individual may not strongly affect the environment. However, the mass effect of a large number of hikers can degrade the environment. For example, gathering wood in an alpine area to start a fire may be harmless once (except for wildfire risk). Years of gathering wood can strip an alpine area of valuable nutrients. Generally, protected areas such as parks have regulations in place to protect the environment. If hikers follow such regulations, their impact can be minimized. Such regulations include forbidding wood fires, restricting camping to established camp sites, disposing or packing out fecal matter, imposing a quota on the number of hikers per day. Many hikers espouse the philosophy of Leave No Trace: hiking in a way such that future hikers cannot detect the presence of previous hikers. Practitioners of this philosophy obey its strictures, even in the absence of area regulations. Leave No Trace Human waste is often a major source of environmental impact from hiking. These wastes can contaminate the watershed and make other hikers ill. Bacterial contamination can be avoided by digging catholes 10 to 25 cm deep (4 to 10 inches, depending on local soil composition) and covering after use. If these catholes are dug at least 60 m (200 feet) away from water sources and trails, the risk of contamination is minimized. Sometimes, hikers enjoy viewing rare or endangered species. However, some species (such as martens or bighorn sheep) are very sensitive to the presence of humans, especially around mating season. Hikers should learn the habits and habitats of the endangered species, in order to avoid adverse impact. There is one situation where an individual hiker can make a large impact on an ecosystem: inadvertently starting a wildfire. For example, in 2005, a Czech backpacker burned 7% of Torres del Paine National Park in Chile by knocking over an illegal gas portable stove. Obeying area regulations and setting up cooking devices on bare ground will reduce the risk of wildfire.

Etiquette of hiking

Hiking is a recreational experience. As such, hikers expect it to be pleasant. Sometimes hikers can interfere with each others' enjoyment, or the enjoyment of other users of the land. Such interference can be minimized by hikers who follow good etiquette. Examples of such interference and etiquette include:
- When two groups of hikers meet on a steep trail, there may be contention for use of the trail. To avoid conflict, a custom has developed: the group moving uphill has the right of way. right of way
- Being forced to hike much faster or slower than one's natural pace can be annoying, and difficult to maintain consistently. More seriously, walking unnaturally fast causes dramatically increased fatigue and exhaustion. If a group splits between fast and slow hikers, the slow hikers may be left behind or become lost. A common custom is to encourage the slowest hiker to hike in the lead and have everyone match that speed. Another custom is to have an experienced hiker sweep up the rear, to ensure that everyone in the group is safe and nobody straggles.
- Hikers often enjoy the silence and solitude of their surroundings. This enjoyment is disrupted by loud sounds, such as shouting or loud conversation. Some hikers purposefully avoid loud sounds, out of deference to other hikers. Staying quiet will also increase the likelihood of encountering wildlife. (This is a hazard if dangerous animals are present; see "Personal safety issues" above.)
- Hikers sometimes trespass onto private property. Such trespass can alienate the property owners and close down hiking rights-of-way. To maximize hiking opportunities for everyone, most hikers will understand where private property lies and avoid it—or get permission from the owner. Staying on trails will also minimize the probability of trespass.

External links

- [http://besthike.com/ Best hikes, treks & tramps.]
- [http://i-needtoknow.com/hiking/index.html Need to know hiking information.]
- [http://www.abc-of-hiking.com Hiking information portal.]
- [http://www.hiking-gear-and-equipment-used-for-camping.com Hiking and camping gear guides and tips.]
- [http://www.Walking-Routes.co.uk 100's of links to 1000's of free walks in the UK]
- [http://www.worldhiking.com Thousands of hiking links from around the world.] Category:Hiking ja:ハイキング

Mountain

has one of the largest visible base-to-summit elevation differences anywhere]] A mountain is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain in a limited area. A mountain is generally much higher and steeper than a hill, but there is considerable overlap, and usage often depends on local custom. Some authorities define a mountain as a peak with a topographic prominence over an arbitrary value: for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica requires a prominence of 2,000 feet (610 m). 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous; 10% of the world's 6 billion people live in mountainous regions. All the world's major rivers are fed from mountain sources, and more than half of humanity depends on mountains for water [http://www.animana.org/tab2/22troubleattop.shtml]. The adjective montane is used to describe mountainous areas and the things associated with them.

Heights

Heights of mountains are generally given as heights above mean sea level. The Himalayas average 5km above sea level, whilst the Andes average 4km. Most other mountain ranges average 2-2.5km. The highest mountain on Earth is Everest, 8850 m, set in the world's most significant mountain range, the Himalaya. Other definitions of height are possible. The peak that is farthest from the centre of the Earth is Chimborazo in Ecuador. At 6,272 m above sea level it is not even the tallest peak in the Andes, but because the Earth bulges at the equator and Chimborazo is very close to the equator, it is 2,150 m further away from the Earth's centre than Everest. The peak that rises farthest from its base is Mauna Kea on Hawaii, whose peak is over 9,000 m above its base on the floor of the Pacific Ocean. The tallest known mountain in the solar system is Olympus Mons, located on Mars.

Characteristics

The altitude of mountains means that the tops exist in higher cold layers of the atmosphere. They are consequently often subject to glaciation and erosion through frost action. This produces the classic mountain peak shape. Some mountains have glacial lakes, created by melting glaciers; for example, there are an estimated 3000 in Bhutan. Sufficiently tall mountains have very different climatic conditions at the top than at the base, and will thus have different life zones at different altitudes on their slopes. The plants and animals of a zone are somewhat isolated when the zones above and below are inhospitable, and many unique species occur on mountainsides as a result. Extreme cases are known as sky islands. Cloud forests are forests on mountain sides which attract moisture from the air, creating a unique ecosystem. Mountains are not generally favored for human habitation; the weather is harsher, less food is available, and there is little level ground suitable for farming. At very high altitudes, there is less oxygen in the air, and less protection against solar radiation (UV). Acute mountain sickness (caused by hypoxia - a lack of oxygen in the blood) affects over half of lowlanders who spend more than a few hours above 3500 metres. Despite some biological adaptation by peoples who have lived on mountains for hundreds or thousands of years, babies' average birthweight is reduced by 100 grams for every 1000-metre gain in altitude. Most mountains of the world have been left in their natural state, and are today primarily used for recreation. Some mountains are very difficult to climb, and offer spectacular views. Some people therefore enjoy the sport of mountaineering. Mountains are also the site for the sport of downhill skiing. People engaging in these activities often stay at mountain resorts built for the purpose.

Geology

mountain resort.]] A mountain is usually produced by the movement of lithospheric plates, either orogenic movement or epeirogenic movement. The compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upwards, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a mountain. The absolute heights of features termed mountains and hills vary greatly according to an area's topography. The major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity. Mountain creation tends to occur in discrete periods, each referred to as an orogeny. The orogeny may last millions of years, and the uplifted region is being eroded away, producing valley-and-peak topography, even while the uplift is taking place. Two types of mountain are formed depending on how the rock reacts to the tectonic forces – block mountains or fold mountains. The compressional forces in continental collisions may cause the compressed region to thicken, so the upper surface is forced upwards. In order to balance the weight, much of the compressed rock is forced downwards, producing deep "mountain roots". Mountains therefore form downwards as well as upwards (see isostasy). However, in some continental collisions part of one continent may simply override part of the other, crumpling in the process. Some isolated mountains were produced by volcanoes, including many apparently small islands that reach a great height above the ocean floor. Block mountains are created when large areas are widely broken up by faults creating large vertical displacements. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The intervening dropped blocks are termed graben: these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range province of Western North America and the Rhine valley. Where rock does not fault it folds, either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines; in asymmetric folding there may also be recumbent and overturned folds. The Jura mountains are an example of folding. Over time, erosion can bring about an inversion of relief: the soft upthrust rock is worn away so the anticlines are actually lower than the tougher, more compressed rock of the synclines.

External links

- [http://www.ga.com.pl/tatry21.htm Pics from the Tatra Mountains - Poland]
- [http://bivouac.com Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia] - an exhaustive index of North American peaks, including thousands of unnamed ones. Includes the United States and Mexico as well as Canada. Category:Landforms Category:Mountains Category:Mountaineering Category:Geomorphology ko:산 ms:Gunung ja:山 simple:Mountain

Snow

) high forests.]] Snow is precipitation in the form of crystalline water ice, consisting of a multitude of snowflakes. Since it is composed of small rough particles it is a granular material. It has an open and therefore soft structure, unless packed by external pressure. Snow is commonly formed when water vapor undergoes deposition high in the atmosphere at a temperature of less than 0°C (32°F), and then falls to the ground.

Types

Flurries are similar to rainshowers and only last for short periods of time. Snow which has partially thawed while falling is called sleet; if this re-freezes on further descent, the resulting small icy pellets or granules of snow are called soft hail. A related phenomenon is freezing rain, where rain falls on ground sufficiently cold for it to freeze on contact, forming black ice on the ground. A snow squall is a brief, very intense snowstorm while a blizzard is a long-lasting snow storm with intense snowfall and usually high winds. Particularly severe storms can create whiteout conditions where visibility is reduced to less than 1 m, while blizzards can also create large snowdrifts. A ground blizzard occurs when a strong wind drives already fallen snow to create drifts and whiteouts. Snow can be also manufactured using snow cannons, which actually create tiny granules more like soft hail (this is sometimes called "grits" by those in the southern U.S. for its likeness to the texture of the food). In recent years, snow cannons have been produced that create more natural looking snow, but these machines are very expensive and are found only on the most prestigious places.

Occurrence

Snowfall varies by time and location, including geographic latitude, elevation and other factors which affect weather in general. In latitudes closer to the equator, there is less chance of snow fall, 35° N and 40°S are often quoted as a rough delimiter. The western coasts of the major continents remain snowless to much higher latitudes. As temperature decreases with altitude, high mountains, even at or near the Equator, have permanent snow cover on their top. Examples include Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and the Tropical Andes in South America; the only snow actually on the Equator is at 4,690 m altitude on the south slope of Volcán Cayambe in Ecuador (Google Earth images). Conversely, many regions of the Arctic and Antarctic receive very little precipitation and therefore little snow despite the bitter cold (below a certain temperature, air essentially loses its ability to carry water vapor). Although density of fresh snow varies widely, a guide is that the depth of snowfall is 10 times that of a rainfall containing the same mass of water. Substantial snowfall sometimes disrupts infrastructure and services even in regions that are accustomed to them. Traffic may be snarled or even completely stop. Basic infrastructure such as electricity, phones and gas supply can be shut down. This can lead to a snow day, a day on which school or other services are cancelled owing to unusually heavy snowfall. In areas that normally have very little snow, this may occur even with light accumulation — something often made fun of by those people used to colder climates, where streets would remain passable given the same amount of snow. The highest seasonally cumulative precipitation of snow ever measured in the world was on Mount Baker, Washington, U.S.A during 1998–1999 season when they received 28.96 meters (1,140 in); this surpassed the previous record holder, Mount Rainier, Washington, U.S.A which during 1971–1972 season received 28.5 meters (1,122 in) of snow; and the world record daily precipitation was recorded in Silver Lake, Colorado, U.S.A in 1921 1.93 meters (76 in). See also: List of Countries receiving snowfall

Recreation

List of Countries receiving snowfall Forms of recreation dependent on snow:
- Many winter sports, such as skiing, snowmobiling, snowshoeing and snowboarding
- Playing with a sled or riding in a sleigh
- Building a snowman or snow fort
- Throwing snowballs mutually in a snowball fight or at others to tease them. (Humans seem to be the only animal that throw their snowballs. Pygmy chimpanzees have been known to carry snowballs around, but never to throw them.) Where snow is scarce but the temperature is low enough, snow cannons may be used to produce an adequate amount for such sports. Tightly packed snow may be used as a construction material in, for example, Inuit snow houses. The world´s biggest snowcastle is built in Kemi, Finland, every winter.

Geometry

Finland An interesting question is why the arms of snowflakes are symmetrical, and why no two snowflakes appear to be identical. The answer is believed to be due to the fact that the distances between snowflakes are much greater than the distances across snowflakes. The symmetry of snowflake arms is always six-fold, which arises from the hexagonal crystal structure of ordinary ice (known as ice I_h) along its 'basal' plane. There are, broadly, two possible explanations for the symmetry of snowflakes. Firstly, there could be communication (information transfer) between the arms, such that growth in each arm affects the growth in each other arm. Surface tension or phonons are among the ways that such communication could occur. The other explanation, which appears to be the prevalent view, is that the arms of a snowflake grow independently in an environment that is believed to be rapidly varying in temperature, humidity and so on. This environment is believed to be relatively spatially homogenous on the scale of a single flake, leading to the arms growing to a high level of visual similarity by responding in identical ways to identical conditions, much in the same way that unrelated trees respond to environmental changes by growing near-identical sets of tree rings. The difference in the environment in scales larger than a snowflake leads to the observed lack of correlation between the shapes of different snowflakes. tree ring However, the concept that no two snowflakes are alike is incorrect; it is entirely possible, but unlikely, that a pair of snowflakes may be visually identical if their environments were similar enough, either because they grew very near one another, or simply by chance. The American Meteorological Society has reported that matching snow crystals were discovered by Nancy Knight of the National Center for Atmospheric Research. The crystals were not flakes in the usual sense but rather hollow hexagonal prisms. ;High-resolution gallery Image:Snow crystals.png Image:Snow crystals 2.png Image:Snow crystals 2b.png Image:LT-SEM snow crystals.jpg Image:LT-SEM snow crystal magnification series-3.jpg

Media

External links

- [http://www.nsdl.arm.gov/Library/glossary.shtml#snowflake National Science Digital Library - Snowflake]
- [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/faqs/faqs.htm Kenneth G. Libbrecht's Snowflake FAQ]
- http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/photos/photos.htm Category:Snow ko:눈 (날씨) ja:雪 simple:Snow th:หิมะ

Ice

] Ice is the solid form of water. The phase transition occurs when liquid water is cooled below 0 °C (273.15 K, 32 °F) at standard atmospheric pressure. An unusual feature of ice frozen at a pressure of one atmosphere is that the solid is some 8% less dense than liquid water. Ice has a density of 0.917 g/cm³ at 0 °C, whereas water has a density of 0.9998 g/cm³ at the same temperature. Liquid water is most dense, essentially 1.00 g/cm³, at 4 °C and becomes less dense as the water molecules begin to form the hexagonal crystals of ice as the temperature drops to 0 °C. (In fact, the word "crystal" derives from the Greek word for frost.) This is due to hydrogen bonds forming between the water molecules, which line up molecules less efficiently (in terms of volume) when water is frozen. The result of this is that ice floats on liquid water, an important factor in Earth's climate. When ice melts, it absorbs as much heat energy (the heat of fusion) as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C, while its temperature remains a constant 0 °C. As a crystalline solid, ice is considered a mineral.

Types of ice

mineral Everyday ice and snow is hexagonal ice (ice I_h). Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in roughly a dozen different phases. Only a little less stable (metastable) than I_h is cubic structure ice (I_c). But cooling I_h causes a different arrangement to form in which the protons move, XI. With both cooling and pressure more types exist, each being created depending on the phase diagram of ice. These are II, III, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X. With care all these types can be recovered at ambient pressure. The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, ordering and density. There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen disordered, these are IV and XII. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. As well as crystalline forms solid water can exist in amorphous states as amorphous solid water (ASW), low density amorphous ice (LDA), high density amorphous ice (HDA), very high density amorphous ice (VHDA) and hyperquenched glassy water (HGW). Kurt Vonnegut's novel Cat's Cradle features Ice IX as a central element of the plot, although real Ice IX does not have the properties of Vonnegut's fictional ice-nine (i.e. the ability to freeze all water on Earth with the introduction of one granule). Rime is a type of ice formed by fog freezing on cold objects. It contains a high proportion of trapped air, making it appear white rather than transparent, and giving it a density about one quarter of that of pure ice. Ice can also form icicles, similar to stalactites in appearance, as water drips and re-freezes. Clathrate hydrates are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice. Pancake ice is a formation of ice generally created in areas with less calm conditions. Some other substances (particularly solid forms of those usually found as fluids) are also called "ice": dry ice, for instance, is a popular term for solid carbon dioxide. carbon dioxide, circa 1905.]]

Human relationship with ice

carbon dioxide, Iran, built during the Middle Ages for storing harvested ice.]] Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling. Until recently, the Hungarian Parliament building used ice harvested in the winter from Lake Balaton as its primary source of energy for air conditioning. Icehouses were used to store ice during the winter so as to preserve perishables during the summer, and early refrigerators were known as iceboxes because they had a block of ice in them. In many cities it was not unusual to have a regular ice delivery service during the summer. The advent of artificial refrigeration technology has since made delivery of ice obsolete. In 400 BC Iran, Persian engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice was brought in during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators, called yakhchal (meaning ice storage). This was a large underground space (up to 5000 m³) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made out of a special mortar called sārooj, composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, and which was resistant to heat transfer. This mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable. The space often had access to a Qanat, and often contained a system of windcatchers that could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels in summer days. The ice was then used to chill treats for royalty during hot summer days.

Sports on ice

Ice also plays a role in winter recreation, in sports such as ice skating, ice hockey, ice fishing, ice climbing and sled racing on bobsled and luge. The human quest for excitement has even led to ice racing, where drivers must go fast on lake ice while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (this is similar in some ways to dirt track racing). The sport has even been modified to work on ice rinks.

Ice travel

ice rink, February 2002.]] Ice can also be an obstacle; for harbors near the poles, being ice-free is an important advantage, ideally all-year round. Examples are Murmansk (Russia), Petsamo (Russia, formerly Finland) and Vardø. Harbors that are not ice-free are opened up using icebreakers. Ice forming on roads is a dangerous winter hazard. Black ice is very difficult to see because it lacks the expected glossy surface. Whenever there is freezing rain or snow that occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the windows of vehicles. Driving safely requires the removal of the ice build-up. Ice scrapers are tools designed to break the ice free and clear the windows, though removing the ice can be a long, labor-intensive, and stressful process—especially when a driver ends up running late for work as a result. Far enough below the freezing point, a thin layer of ice crystals can form on the inside surface of windows. This usually happens when a vehicle has been left alone after being driven for a while, but can happen while driving if the outside temperature is low enough. Moisture from the driver's breath is the source of water for the crystals. It is troublesome to remove this form of ice, so people often open their windows slightly when the vehicle is parked in order to let the moisture dissipate, and it is now common for cars to have rear-window defrosters to combat the problem. A similar problem can happen in homes, which is why many colder regions require double-pane windows for insulation. When the outdoor temperature stays below freezing for extended periods, very thick layers of ice can form on lakes and other bodies of water (although places with flowing water require much colder temperatures). The ice can become thick enough to drive onto with automobiles and trucks. Doing this safely requires a thickness of at least 30 centimeters (one foot).

Other uses of ice

- The manufacture and use of ice cubes or crushed ice is common for drinks.
- Pagophagia, a type of pica eating disorder, is the compulsive consumption of ice.
- Structures are built out of large chunks of ice. They are mostly ornamental (as in the case with ice castles) and not practical for long-term habitation. Ice hotels exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas. Igloos are another example of a temporary structure.

Ice at different pressures

Ice can be formed at higher temperatures in pressurized environments, and water will remain a liquid or gas until -30 °C at lower pressures. Ice formed at high pressure has a different crystal structure and density than ordinary ice. Ice, water, and water vapor can coexist at the triple point, which is 273.16 K at a pressure of 611.73 Pa.

Related terms

- A rusticle is a rust formation similar to an icicle.
- Isaz is the Proto-Germanic rune for "ice".

External links

- [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/ice/ice.htm The phase diagram of water, including the ice variants]
- [http://www.webmineral.com/data/Ice.shtml Webmineral listing for Ice]
- [http://www.mindat.org/min-2001.html MinDat.org listing and location data for Ice]
- [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/ATG/ice.html The physics of ice]
- [http://www.martin.chaplin.btinternet.co.uk/phase.html The phase diagrams of water with some high pressure diagrams]
- [http://www.livescience.com/forcesofnature/050630_melting_discovery.html A recent discovery about how ice melts] Category:Forms of water Category:Water ice Category:Glaciology Category:Minerals als:Eis ja:氷 simple:Ice

Erosion

Erosion is the displacement of solids (soil, mud, rock, and so forth) by the agents of wind, water, ice, movement in response to gravity, or living organisms (in the case of bioerosion). Although the processes may be simultaneous, erosion is to be distinguished from weathering, which is the decomposition of rock. Erosion is an important natural process, but in many places it is increased by human activities. Some of those activities include deforestation, overgrazing and road or trail building. Likewise, humans have sought to limit erosion by terrace-building and tree planting. A certain amount of erosion is natural and in fact healthy for the ecosystem. For example, gravels continually move downstream in watercourses. Too much erosion, however, can cause problems, clogging streams with gravel, filling reservoirs with sediment, reducing soil fertility and water quality.

Causes

water quality] What causes erosion to be severe in some areas and minor elsewhere? It is a combination of many factors, including the amount and intensity of precipitation, the texture of the soil, the steepness of the slope, and ground cover (from vegetation, rocks, etc.). The first three factors do not change much. In general, given the same kind of vegetative cover, you expect areas with high-intensity precipitation, sandy or silty soils, and steep slopes to be the most erosive. Soils with a lot of clay that receive less intense precipitation and are on gentle slopes tend to erode less. The factor that is most subject to change is the amount and type of ground cover. When fires bur

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