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Neurosis

Neurosis

The term neurosis was coined by the Scottish doctor, William Cullen in 1769 to refer to “disorders of sense and motion” caused by a “general affection of the nervous system.” The term (also psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder) in modern psychology refers to any mental disorder that, although may cause distress, does not interfere with rational thought or the person's ability to function. This is in contrast to psychosis which refers to more severe disorders. The word derives from two Greek words: neuron (nerve) and osis (diseased or abnormal condition). A neurosis, in psychoanalytic theory, is an ineffectual coping strategy that Sigmund Freud suggested was caused by emotions from past experience overwhelming or interfering with present experience. For example, someone attacked by a dog as a toddler may have a phobia or overwhelming fear of dogs. However, he recognized that some phobias are symbolic and express a repressed fear. In Carl Jung's theory of analytical psychology a neurosis results from the conflict of two psychic contents, one of which must be unconscious. There are many different specific forms of neuroses: pyromania, obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety neurosis, hysteria (in which anxiety may be discharged through a physical symptom), and an endless variety of phobias. Some neuroses may be rooted in ego defense mechanisms but the two concepts are not synonymous. Defense mechanisms are a normal way of developing and maintaining a consistent sense of self (an ego) while only those thought and behavior patterns that produce difficulties in living should be termed neuroses. Although neuroses are targeted by psychoanalysis, psychotherapy/counselling, or other psychiatric techniques, there is still controversy over whether even these professionals can perform accurate and reliable diagnoses, and whether many of the resulting treatments are also appropriate, effective and reliable. Some studies show no extra benefit gained from talk therapies when compared with other kinds of (untrained) personal companionship and discussion. Good evidence has accumulated to show that some or many mental illnesses have a physiological basis and can respond to drugs and medical treatments. Of course, this raises questions about the traditional (Cartesian) distinction between mind and body. If causes of a mental illness are physical, then talk therapies are mere placebo or diversion and cannot effect a cure. On the other hand, if the body is shaped by thought patterns (for example, the creation of new neural pathways), then some ailments may indeed be generated (and curable) by patterns in a person's own thinking, emotion, and behavior. While the traditional talk-therapies (e.g. psychoanalysis) encourage the patient to explore these thought patterns, an argument can be made that cognitive therapy (which offers patients specific guidance on reshaping and replacing old patterns with new, more functional ones) should be more effective. However, since cognitive therapies rely on logical and reasonable communication and thought patterns, it may be that many patients are not sufficiently advanced in intelligence and self-control to benefit from the techniques. More research is needed about the relationship between different types of intelligence, personality, and the patient's responsiveness to different treatment techniques. Despite its long history, the term "neurosis" is no longer in common use. Current classification systems have abandoned the category of neurosis; the DSM-IV has eliminated the category altogether. Disorders formerly termed as neuroses are now described under the headings of anxiety and depressive disorders. The usage of the term neurosis remains controversial, and it has been argued that a more appropriate term is needed to replace it.

References

Karen Horney. The Collected Works. (2 Vols.) Norton, 1937. Category:Freudian psychology Category:Abnormal psychology

William Cullen

William Cullen (April 15, 1710 – February 5, 1790) was a Scottish physician and chemist. Cullen was born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire. He received his early education at the grammar-school of Hamilton, and he appears to have subsequently attended some classes at the university of Glasgow. He began his medical career as apprentice to John Paisley, a Glasgow surgeon, and after completing his apprenticeship he became surgeon to a merchant vessel trading between London and the West Indies. On his return to Scotland in 1732 he settled as a practitioner in the parish of Shotts, Lanarkshire, and in 1734-1736 studied medicine at Edinburgh, where he was one of the founders of the Royal Medical Society. In 1736 he began to practise in Hamilton, where he rapidly acquired a high reputation. From 1737 to 1740 William Hunter was his resident pupil, and at one time they proposed to enter into partnership. In 1740 Cullen took the degree of M.D. at Glasgow, whither he removed in 1744. During his residence at Hamilton, besides the arduous duties of medical practice, he found time to devote to the study of the natural sciences, and especially of chemistry. On coming to Glasgow he appears to have begun to lecture in connection with the university, the medical school of which was as yet imperfectly organized. Besides the subjects of theory and practice of medicine, he lectured systematically on botany, materia medica and chemistry. His great abilities, enthusiasm and power of conveying instruction made him a successful and highly popular teacher, and his classes increased largely in numbers. At the same time he diligently pursued the practice of his profession. Chemistry was the subject which at this time seems to have engaged the greatest share of his attention. He was himself a diligent investigator and experimenter, and he did much to encourage original research among his pupils, one of whom was Dr Joseph Black. In 1751 he was appointed professor of medicine, but continued to lecture on chemistry, and in 1756 he was elected joint professor of chemistry at Edinburgh along with Andrew Plummer, on whose death in the following year the sole appointment was conferred on Cullen. This chair he held for ten years his classes always increasing in numbers. He also practised his profession as a physician with eminent success. From 1757 he delivered lectures on clinical medicine in. the Royal Infirmary. This was a work for which his experience, habits of observation, and scientific training peculiarly fitted him, and in which his popularity as a teacher, no less than his power as a practical physician, became more than ever conspicuous. On the death of Charles Alston in 1760, Cullen at the request of the students undertook to finish his course of lectures on materia medica; he delivered an entirely new course, which were published in an unauthorized edition in 1771, but which he re-wrote and issued as A Treatise on Materia Medica in 1789. On the death of Robert Whytt (1714-1766), the professor of the institutes of medicine, Cullen accepted the chair, at the same time resigning that of chemistry. In the same year he had been an unsuccessful candidate for the professorship of the practice of physic, but subsequently an arrangement was made between him and John Gregory, who had gained the appointment, by which they agreed to deliver alternate courses on the theory and practice of physic. This arrangement proved eminently satisfactory, but it was brought to a close by the sudden death of Gregory in 1773. Cullen was then appointed sole professor of the practice of physic, and he continued in this office till a few months before his death. As a lecturer Cullen appears to have stood unrivalled in his day. His clearness of statement and power of imparting interest to the most abstruse topics were the conspicuous features of his teaching, and in his various capacities as a scientific lecturer, a physiologist, and a practical physician, he was ever surrounded with large and increasing classes of intelligent pupils, to whom his eminently suggestive mode of instruction was specially attractive. Living at the time he did, when the doctrines of the humoral pathologists were carried to an extreme extent, and witnessing the ravages which disease made on the solid structures of the body, it was not surprising that he should oppose a doctrine which appeared to him to lead to a false practice and to fatal results, and adopt one which attributed more to the agency of the solids and very little to that of the fluids of the body. His chief works were First Lines of the Practice of Physic; Institutions of Medicine (1710): and Synopsis Nosologicae Medicae (1785), which contained his classification of diseases into four great classes( 1) Pyrexiae, or febrile diseases, as typhus fever; (2) Neuroses, or nervous diseases, as epilepsy; (3) Cachexiae, or diseases resulting from bad habit of body, asscurvy; and (4) Locales, or local diseases, ascancer. Cullen's eldest son Robert became a Scottish judge in 1796 under the title of Lord Cullen, and was known for his powers of mimicry. The first volume of an account of Cullen's Life, Lectures and Writings was published by Dr John Thomson in 1832, and was reissued with the second volume (completing the work) by Drs W. Thomson and D. Craigie in 1859.

External link

- [http://www.chem.ed.ac.uk/welcome/history_cullen.html William Cullen] Cullen, William Cullen, William Cullen, William Cullen, William Cullen, William

Neuron

Neurons (also spelled neurones or called nerve cells) are the primary cells of the nervous system. In vertebrates, they are found in the brain, the spinal cord and in the nerves and ganglia of the peripheral nervous system.

Classes

There are three classes of neurons: afferent neurons, efferent neurons, and interneurons.
- Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system.
- Efferent neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to the effector cells.
- Interneurons connect neurons within the central nervous system. Structural classification
- Pseudounipolar- single dendrite longer than single axon
- Bipolar - single axon and single dendrite equal length
- Multipolar - more than two dendrites
- Golgi I- pyramidal cell
- Golgi II- granule (stellate) cell

Anatomy and histology

Golgi II Many highly specialized types of neurons exist, and these differ widely in appearance. Characteristically, neurons are highly asymmetric in shape. Neurons consist of:
- The dendrite, a short, branching arbour of cellular extensions. Each neuron has very many dendrites with profuse dendritic branches. These structures form the main information receiving network for the neuron.
- The soma, or cell-body, the relatively large central part of the cell between the dendrites and the axon.
- The axon, a much finer, cable-like projection which may extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. This is the structure which carries nerve signals away from the neuron. Neurons have only one axon, but this axon may - and usually will - undergo extensive branching, enabling communication with many target cells. Axons and dendrites in the central nervous system are typically only about a micrometre thick, while some of those in the peripheral nervous system are much thicker. The soma is usually about 25 micrometres in diameter and not much larger than the cell nucleus it contains. The axon of a human motoneuron can be over a metre long, reaching from the base of the spine to the toes, while giraffes have single axons running along the whole length of their necks, several feet in length. Much of what we currently know about axonal transport comes from studying the squid neuron, an ideal neuron for research due to it's relatively immense size (0.5 - 1 millimetres thick, several centimetres long).

Connectivity

Neurons communicate with one another and to other cells through synapses, where the axon tip of one cell impinges upon a dendrite or soma of another, or less commonly to an axon. Neurons of the cortex in mammals, such as the Purkinje cells, can have over 1000 dendrites each, enabling connections with tens of thousands of other cells.

Adaptations to carrying action potentials

The narrow cross-section of axons and dendrites lessens the metabolic expense of carrying action potentials, although thicker axons convey the impulses more rapidly, generally speaking. Many neurons have insulating sheaths of myelin around their axons. The sheaths are formed by glial cells: oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. The sheath enables the action potentials to travel faster than in unmyelinated axons of the same diameter whilst simultaneously spending less energy to "recharge" the action potential after. The myelin sheath in peripheral nerves normally runs along the axon in sections about 1 mm long, punctuated by unsheathed nodes of Ranvier. Multiple sclerosis is a neurological disorder which results from abnormal demyelination of peripheral nerves. Neurons with demyelinated axons do not conduct electrical signals properly. Neurons and glia make up the two chief cell types of the central nervous system. There are far more glial cells than neurons, and recent experimental results have suggested that glial cells play a vital role in information processing among neurons. It has been estimated that Glial cells outnumber neurons by as many as 50:1.

Histology and internal structure

Nerve cell bodies stained with basophilic dyes will show numerous microscopic clumps of Nissl substance (named after German psychiatrist and neuropathologist Franz Nissl, 1860–1919), which consists of rough endoplasmic reticulum and associated ribosomes. The prominence of the Nissl substance can be explained by the fact that nerve cells are metabolically very active, and hence are involved in large numbers of protein synthesis. The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex meshwork of structural proteins called neurofilaments, which are assembled into larger neurofibrils. Some neurons also contain pigment granules, such as neuromelanin (a brownish-black pigment, byproduct of synthesis of catecholamines) and lipofuscin (yellowish-brown pigment that accumulates with age).

Neurons of the brain

The nematode worm (Caenorhabditis elegans) has 302 neurons. Scientists have mapped all of the nematode's neurons. As a result, such worms are ideal candidates for neurobiological experiments and tests. The human brain has about 100 billion (

10^

) neurons and 100 trillion (

10^

) connections (synapses) between them.

External links

- [http://primate-brain.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases]
- [http://purl.net/net/neurowiki NeuroWiki], a wiki website for Neuroscience related topics.
- [http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/CCDB/index.shtml Cell Centered Database] UC San Diego images of neurons. Category:Neuroscience Category:Neurons ja:ニューロン simple:Neuron

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods within the field of psychotherapy that seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental processes, and to do so in a systematic way through a process of tracing out associations. In classical psychoanalysis, the fundamental subject matter of psychoanalysis is the unconscious patterns of life as they become revealed through the analysand's (the patient's) free associations. The analyst's goal is to help liberate the analysand from unexamined or unconscious barriers of transference and resistance, that is, past patterns of relatedness that are no longer serviceable or that inhibit freedom. More recent forms of psychoanalysis seek, among other things, to help patients gain self-esteem through greater trust of the self, overcome the fear of death and its effects on current behavior, and maintain several relationships that appear to be incompatible.

History

Psychoanalysis was first devised in Vienna in the 1890s by Sigmund Freud, a neurologist interested in finding an effective treatment for patients with neurotic or hysterical symptoms. As a result of talking with these patients, Freud came to believe that their problems stemmed from culturally unacceptable, thus repressed and unconscious, desires and fantasies of a sexual nature, and as his theory developed, he included desires and fantasies of an aggressive nature, as well. Freud considered these aspects of life instinctive drives, libidinal energy/Eros Italic textand the death instinct/Thanatos. Freud's description of Eros/Libido included all creative, life-furthering instincts. The Death Instinct represented an instinctive drive to return to a state of calm, or non-existence. Since Freud's day, psychoanalysis has developed in many ways especially as a study of the personal, interpersonal and intersubjective sense of self. Prominent current schools of psychoanalysis include ego psychology, which emphasizes defense mechanisms and unconscious fantasies; self psychology, which emphasizes the development of a stable sense of self through mutually empathic contacts with other humans; Lacanian psychoanalysis, which integrates psychoanalysis with semiotics and Hegelian philosophy; analytical psychology, which has a more spiritual approach; object relations theory, which stresses the dynamics of one's relationships with internal, fantasized, others; interpersonal psychoanalysis, which accents the nuances of interpersonal interactions; and relational psychoanalysis, which combines interpersonal psychoanalysis with object-relations theory. Although these schools have dramatically different theories, most of them continue to stress the strong influence of self-deception and the influence a person's past has on their current mental life. A few of the most influential psychoanalysts are Jacob Arlow, Wilfred Bion, Charles Brenner, Erik Erikson, Ronald Fairbairn, Sandor Ferenczi, Sigmund Freud, Andre Green, Heinz Hartmann, Carl Jung, Otto Kernberg, Melanie Klein, Heinz Kohut, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Jacques Lacan, Margaret Mahler, Stephen A. Mitchell, David Rapaport, Roy Schafer, Daniel N. Stern, Donald Winnicott, Theodor Reik, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Slavoj Zizek.

Theories

Psychoanalysis is theoretically diverse. Most analysts use some selection of the following psychoanalytic models of the mind.

The topographical model

The topographical model of the mind was intended to help analysts understand how patients repress wishes, fantasies, and thoughts. In the topographical model, the mind is divided into conscious, preconscious, and unconscious systems. The conscious system includes all that we are subjectively aware of in our minds. The preconscious includes material that we are capable of becoming aware of, but do not happen to be aware of currently. The unconscious system includes material that we have defensively removed from our awareness by means of repression and other defense mechanisms. In clinical work, analysts try to move unconscious material to the preconscious and then to the conscious mind, to increase the patient's self-awareness. Although the topographic model remains in use in various clinical formulations and discussions, Freud realized its inherent limitations and paradoxes. In particular he observed that conflict occurs not only between consciousness and the unconscious, but also between separate mental process within the unconscious. A new theory, Freud felt, was needed to account for the fact that the defenses and the defended against material could both be in the repressed unconscious. It was this insight that led him to the reconsiderations of the Structural model in 1923.

The structural model

Perhaps the most famous psychoanalytic model of the mind, the structural model divides the mind into the id, ego, and superego. The id is the source of our motivation, and includes sexual and aggressive drives. The superego includes our moral code and ideals. The ego is made up of a group of mechanisms (reality-testing, judgment, impulse control, etc.) that help us deal with the real world. Analysts who use the structural model commonly focus on helping patients handle conflicts that occur between these three mental agencies. Many also use the structural model for clinical diagnosis. A structural-model diagnosis entails an assessment of the level of functioning of the patient's id, ego, and superego, and the specific areas of weakness and strength in each. For example, psychoanalysts usually diagnose a patient as psychotic if his or her ego suffers a severe impairment in reality-testing.

The economic model

The economic model of the mind is rarely used today, but is of historical importance. In the economic model, the mind is pictured as an energy system. Mental energy or "libido" may be distributed in a variety of ways thoughout the system, "cathecting" various activities or processes with energy. The vast majority of analysts have abandoned the economic model because it is rather complicated and relies heavily on nineteenth century ideas about hydraulics. Still, a small number of philosophically minded analysts retain the economic model because they believe that its vagueness is helpful in alluding to features of mental life that may lie beyond scientific understanding.

The conflict model

The conflict model of the mind is designed to help analysts understand specific mental conflicts. This model of the mind divides the mind into basic units called compromise-formations. A compromise formation consists of a wish, a feeling of discomfort about the wish, and a defense used to eliminate that feeling of discomfort. For example, a patient might have an aggressive wish to attack authority figures, fear that if he or she were to do so punishment might result, and defensively intellectualize about general problems with authority rather than physically assaulting his or her superiors. The product of the wish, discomfort, and defense takes shape as a compromise between the three. Some influential analysts have argued that the conflict model is the most important psychoanalytic model, distinguishing psychoanalysis from other psychological theories such as humanistic psychology that minimize mental conflict.

The object-relational model

The object-relational model of the mind describes the mind as structured by internalized relationships with others. This model has it that we all internalize our childhood experiences with other people, and our patterns of thinking, wishing, and feeling are organized by these experiences. Psychoanalysts often refer to the internalized other as an "internal object." An analyst might use the object-relational model to understand, for example, a patient who seeks out abusive relationships because of an abusive childhood which has taught her that to be loved, he or she must tolerate abuse. The object-relational model is perhaps the most widely used theory among analysts today.

The intersubjective model

The most recently developed model listed here, intersubjective model is closely related to the object-relational model. Intersubjectivity theory tries to capture the complex ways in which the subjective points of view of different people interact. According to intersubjectivity theory, all of our experiences are heavily influenced by the interface between our own subjectivities and those of others. Among other things, the intersubjective model has led many analysts to revise their understanding of the origins of repression and other defense mechanisms. Intersubjectivity theory proposes that between people, intersubjective fields are established in which some experiences can be conscious and some must be kept out of awareness. Defense mechanisms, from an intersubjective perspective, take shape in formative intersubjective interactions in which particular experiences are treated as unspeakable.

Techniques

The basic method of psychoanalysis is the transference and resistance analysis of free association. The patient, in a relaxed posture, is directed to say whatever comes to mind. Dreams, hopes, wishes, and fantasies are of interest, as are recollections of early family life. Generally the analyst simply listens, making comments only when, in his or her professional judgment, an opportunity for insight on the part of the patient arises. In listening, the analyst attempts to maintain an attitude of empathic neutrality, a nonjudgmental stance designed to create a safe environment. The analyst asks that the analysand speak with utter honesty about whatever comes to awareness while interpreting the patterns and inhibitions that appear in the patient's speech and other behavior. empathic A general rule of thumb in psychoanalytic treatment is that more insight-oriented techniques are to be used with healthier patients, whereas more supportive techniques are to be used with more disturbed patients. The most common example of an insight-oriented technique is an interpretation, in which the analyst delivers a comment to the patient that describes one or more cluster of unconscious wishes, anxieties, and defenses. An example of a supportive technique might be reassurance, in which the analyst tries to lower the patient's level of anxiety by assuring he/she that what he or she fears will not come to pass, or will be manageable. Analysts usually prefer to make more insight-oriented interventions when possible, as they feel that such interventions are usually less judgmental than other techniques. Currently, most psychoanalysts claim that analysis is most useful as a method in cases of neurosis and with character or personality problems. Psychoanalysis is believed to be most useful in dealing with ingrained problems of intimacy and relationship and for those problems in which established patterns of life are problematic. As a therapeutic treatment, psychoanalysis generally takes three to five meetings a week and requires the amount of time for natural or normal maturational change (three to seven years). Randomized controlled studies have suggested that psychodynamic treatment is helpful in cases of depressive disorders (4 randomized controlled trials (RCTs)), anxiety disorders (1 RCT), post-traumatic stress disorder (1 RCT), somatoform disorder (4 RCTs), bulimia nervosa (3 RCTs), anorexia nervosa (2 RCTs), borderline personality disorder (2 RCTs), Cluster C personality disorder (1 RCT), and substance-related disorders (4 RCTs). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16096078&query_hl=2] Much recent psychoanalytic work has been devoted to exploring the use of psychoanalytic principles and techniques in shorter face-to-face psychodynamic psychotherapy, and integrating psychoanalysis with other psychotherapeutic techniques such as those of cognitive behavior therapy. Empirical research on the efficacy of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy has also become prominent among psychoanalytic researchers. An open-door review of outcome studies of psychoanalysis can be found [http://eseries.ipa.org.uk/prev/research/R-outcome.htm here]

Cost and length

Although psychoanalytic treatment used to be expensive, cost today ranges from as low as ten dollars a session (with an analytic candidate in training at an institute) to over 250 dollars a session with a senior training analyst. Length of treatment varies. Some psychodynamic approaches, such as Brief Relational Therapy (BRT), Brief Psychodynamic Therapy (BPT), and Time-Limited Dynamic Therapy (TLDP) limit treatment to 20-30 sessions. Full-fledged psychoanalysis, however, may last 3-30 years. Which treatment length is optimal depends on the individual's needs.

Training

Throughout the history of psychoanalysis, most psychoanalytic organizations have existed outside of the university setting, with a few notable exceptions. Psychoanalytic training usually occurs at a psychoanalytic institute and may last approximately 4-10 years. Training includes coursework, supervised psychoanalytic treatment of patients, and personal psychoanalysis lasting 4 or more years. Most psychoanalytic institutes require that applicants already possess a graduate degree. Applicants usually have degrees in clinical social work (MSW or DSW), clinical psychology (PhD or Psy.D), or medicine (MD). A handful of institutes also accept applicants who have graduate degrees in nonclinical disciplines. An ongoing debate in professional psychoanalysis concerns the prior qualifications candidates must have to enter analytic training. Freud believed that applicants from the humanities and many nonmedical disciplines are as well prepared as physicians for psychoanalytic training. Early in the history of psychoanalysis, prominent analytic organizations tried to limit psychoanalytic training to physicians. Later, after extensive debates and legal battles, psychoanalytic training in most institutes was opened to nonmedical mental health professionals, such as psychologists and clinical social workers. Currently, access to training by applicants from nonclinical disciplines, such as literary studies and philosophy, is limited. A small number of institutes, citing Freud's belief that training in the humanities provides good preparation for analytic training, admit nonclinical applicants. However, there is an ongoing effort by analysts with prior training in mental health to restrict access to analytic institutes by such applicants, repeating the early monopoly on psychoanalytic training by physicians.

Other definitions

Psychoanalysis is:
- A therapeutic technique for the treatment of neurosis.
- A technique used to train psychoanalysts. A basic requirement of psychoanalytic training is to undergo a successful analysis.
- A technique of critical observation. The successors and contemporaries of Freud—Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Wilhelm Reich, Melanie Klein, Wilfred Bion, Jacques Lacan, and many others—have developed Freud's theories and advanced new theories using the basic method of quiet critical observation and study of individual patients and other events.
- A body of knowledge so acquired.
- A clinical theory. See, for example, [http://www.sdp.org/sdp/papers/wynn_ess.html "Ordinary Language Essentials of Clinical Psychoanalytic Theory"] by Wynn Schwartz.
- A movement, particularly as led by Freud, to secure and defend acceptance of the theories and techniques. Psychoanalysis involves extended exploration of the self, a realization of the Delphian motto, "Know thyself". In this it resembles the extended meditative practices of Buddhist monastic schools such as Zen. If successful, it gives a person the capacity to be present in the moment, responding authentically to circumstances, being free of infantile responses inappropriate to the situation. Today psychoanalytic ideas are imbedded in the culture, especially in childcare, education, literary criticism, and in psychiatry, particularly medical and non-medical psychotherapy. Though there is a mainstream of evolved analytic ideas, there are groups who more specifically follow the precepts of one or more of the later theoreticians.

Psychoanalyses in groups

Though the most commonly held image of a psychoanalytic session is one in which a single analyst works with a single client, 'group' sessions with two or more clients are not unknown. Carrying out psychoanalysis in groups can be motivated by economic factors (individual analysis is time-consuming and expensive) or by the belief that clients may benefit from witnessing the various client-client and analyst-client interactions. In most forms of group-based analysis, the group is initially an artefact created by the analyst selecting the various members; the assumption is that the common relationship to the analyst will lead to the formation of a genuine group situation. Group psychotherapy of 'natural' groups (e.g. of whole families) seems to be a relative rarity.

Cultural Adaptations

Psychoanalysis can be adapted to different cultures, as long as the therapist or counseling understands the client’s culture. For example, Tori and Blimes found that defense mechanisms were valid in a normative sample of 2,624 Thais. The use of certain defense mechanisms was related to cultural values. For example Thais value calmness and collectiveness (because of Buddhist beliefs), so they were low on regressive emotionality. Psychoanalysis also applies because Freud used techniques that allowed him to get the subjective perceptions of his patients. He takes an objective approach by not facing his clients during his talk therapy sessions. He met with his patients’ where ever they were, such as when he used free association—where clients would say whatever came to mind without self-censorship. His treatments had little to no structure for most cultures, especially Asian cultures. Therefore, it is more likely that Freudian constructs will be used in structured therapy (Thompson, et al., 2004). In addition, Corey postulates that it will be necessary for therapist to help clients develop a cultural identity as well as an ego identity. Since Freud has been criticized for not accounting for external/societal forces, it seems logical that therapist or counselors using his premises will work with the family more. Psychoanalytic constructs fit with constructs of other more structured therapies, and Firestone (2002) thinks psychotherapy should have more depth and involve both psychodynamic and cogitative-behavioral approaches. For example, Corey states, that Ellis, the founder of Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) would allow his clients to experience depression over a loss, such an emotion would be rational—often people will be irrational deny their feelings. Since Freudian constructs can fit with other psychotherapeutic and counseling approaches, it can also be adapted to a variety of cultures, but it can not be employed in its widest use as Freud and Firestone would advocate (Firestone, 2002; Tori and Blimes 2002,).

Adaptations for age and managed care

Play Therapy for different ages

Psychoanalytic constructs can be adapted and modified to both age and managed care through the use of play therapy such as art therapy, creative writing, Sand Tray Therapy, storytelling, bibliotherapy, and analytical psychodrama. In the 1920's, Anna Freud (Sigmund Freud's daughter) adapted psychoanalysis for children through play. Using toys and games, she was able to enhance relationship with the child - Freud has been criticized for his, objective and disengaged, approach. When children play, they often engage in a make believe world where they can express their fears and fantasies, and they do so without censorship, so it resembles very much the technique of free association. Psychoanalytic play therapy allows the child and the counselor to access material in the unconscious, material that was avoided and forgotten. This material is re-integrated into the conscience, and the counselor is able to work with the child and the family to address the trauma or issue that was forgotten. With adults, the term art therapy is used, instead of play, however they are synonymous. The counselor simply adapts art therapy to the age of the client. With children, a counselor may have a child draw a portrait of his self, and then tell a story about the portrait. The counselor watches for re-occurring themes - regardless of whether it is with art or toys. With adults, the counselor may work one on one or in a group and have clients do various art activities like painting or clay to express themselves - toys here would not probably not be age appropriate, and children stop pretend play as they transition into adolescence. Since play is considered appropriate in Occidental (Western) culture, it allows people to deal with personal/social issues that they would normally avoid - it allows them to drop their defenses without anxiety and fear.

Other play therapy techniques

Bibliocounseling involves selecting stories from books that children can identify with (similar issues). Through this story, a child will be more likely to not feel defensive and will work to find alternative solutions to problems. Storytelling is similar, the counselor may tell a story but not use a name, and instead he may address the child with each new sentence using his name. For example, He may say, "next, Eric, the little boy had dream about a mouse that was not like the other mice..."

Play therapy for managed care

Unlike traditional psychoanalysis, play therapy takes much shorter time span; which allow insurance companies to cover it for their clients. Even more, it provides more structure to the process allowing for specific measurable goals. Psychoanalytic theory will be applied in more preventative ways, such as educating parents on how to best meet the needs of the child and enhance the child's development and growth. Lastly, more advocates may use homework assignments such as journal writing to save time (Thompson et al., 2004).

Expressive writing for managed care

According to a book, review by Berman (2003) the writing cure provides an analysis of research that supports expressive writing as a way to integrate cognitions and work through trauma. People who write about traumatic events experience more self control. The Writing Cure offers new, cost-effective ways to treat clients; clients can even use expressive writing to work through their own personal/social issues.

Criticisms

Psychonalysis has been criticized on a variety of grounds by Karl Popper, Adolf Grünbaum, Peter Medawar, Ernest Gellner, Frank Cioffi, Frederick Crews, and others. Popper argues that it is not scientific because it is not falsifiable. Grünbaum argues that it is falsifiable, and in fact turns out to be false. Exchanges between critics and defenders of psychoanalysis have often been so heated that they have come to be characterized as the Freud Wars. Some defenders of psychoanalysis suggest that its logics and formulations are more akin to those found in the humanities than those proper to the physical and biological sciences, though Freud himself tried to base his clinical formulations on a hypothetical neurophysiology of energy transformations, an approach that was systematized by David Rapaport. Rapaport argued that psychoanalytic theory can be organized systematically if it is seen in relation to the dynamics of libidinal energy that emerge from the drives and conflict with controls and defenses. By the 1970's, psychoanalytic writers like Roy Schafer and George Klein treated psychoanalysis as two separate theories, one, a theory of energy transformations that lacked empirical validation and the other, an "experience-near" theory of human intentionality that was philosophically independent of the reductionism and determinism of 19th century science as seen in the works of Helmholz and Hobbes. Reductionism and determinism were recognized as contrary to the clinical methods and goals of psychological liberation. Psychoanalysis as a collection of clinical theories was recast as a theory of interpretation and development with a focus on understanding how the varieties of nonconscious dispositions and actions influence a person's life in the form of transference and resistance. In a closely related argument, the philosopher Paul Ricouer argued that psychoanalysis can be considered a type of textual interpretation or hermeneutics. Like cultural critics and literary scholars, Ricouer contended, psychoanalysts spend their time interpreting the nuances of language- the language of their patients. Ricouer claimed that psychoanalysis emphasizes the polyvocal or many-voiced qualities of language, focusing on utterances that mean more than one thing. Ricouer classified psychoanalysis as a hermeneutics of suspicion. By this he meant that psychoanalysis searches for deception in language, and thereby destabilizes our usual reliance on clear, obvious meanings. The philosopher Jacques Derrida took a similar position. Derrida used psychoanalytic theory to question what he called the metaphysics of presence, a body of philosophical theory which assumes that the meaning of utterances can be pinned down and made fully evident. Psychoanalysts have often complained about the significant lack of theoretical agreement among analysts of different schools. Many authors have attempted to integrate the various theories, with limited success. An important consequence of the wide variety of psychoanalytic theories is that psychoanalysis is difficult to criticize as a whole. Many critics have attempted to offer criticisms of psychoanalysis that were in fact only criticisms of specific ideas present only in one or more theories, rather than in all of psychoanalysis. For example, it is common for critics of psychoanalysis to focus on Freud's ideas, even though only a fraction of contemporary analysts still hold to Freud's major theses. As the psychoanalytic researcher Drew Westen puts it, "Critics have typically focused on a version of psychoanalytic theory—circa 1920 at best—that few contemporary analysts find compelling...In so doing, however, they have set the terms of the public debate and have led many analysts, I believe mistakenly, down an indefensible path of trying to defend a 75 to 100-year-old version of a theory and therapy that has changed substantially since Freud laid its foundations at the turn of the century." [http://www.psychomedia.it/rapaport-klein/westen99.htm link to Westen article] An early criticism of psychoanalysis was that its theories were based on little quantitative and experimental research, and instead relied almost exclusively on the clinical case study method. An increasing amount of psychoanalytic research from academic psychologists and psychiatrists who have worked to quantify and measure psychoanalytic concepts has begun to address this criticism. Research on psychodynamic treatment of some populations shows mixed results. Research by analysts such as Bertram Karon and colleagues at Michigan State University had suggested that when trained properly, psychodynamic therapists can be effective with schizophrenic patients. More recent research casts doubt on these claims. The [http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/schzpatt1.htm Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT)report] argues in its [http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/schzrec1.htm Recommendaton 22] against the use of psychodynamic therapy in cases of schizophrenia, noting that more trials are necessary to verity its effectiveness. However, it has been noted that the PORT recommendation is based on the opinions of clinicians rather than on empirical data, and empirical data exist that contradict this recommendation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12722885&query_hl=6 link to abstract] A review of current medical literature in The Cochrane Library, ([http://www.update-software.com/Abstracts/ab001360.htm the updated abstract of which is available online]) reached the conclusion that no data exist supporting the view that psychodynamic psychotherapy is effective in treating schizophrenia. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15266545&query_hl=6 Further, data also suggest that psychoanalysis is not effective (and possibly even detrimental) in the treatment of sex offenders.] Although the popularity of psychoanalysis was in decline during the 1980's and early 1990's, prominent psychoanalytic institutes have experienced an increase in the number of applicants in recent years. [http://www.villagevoice.com/arts/0515,edsupptuhus,62905,12.html link to article]

References

- Berman, J. (2003). [Review of the book The writing cure: How expressive writing promotes health
- and well-being. [Electronic version]. Psychoanalytic psychology, 20(3), 575-578.
- Brenner, C. (1954). An elementary textbook of psychoanalysis.
- Corey, G. (2001). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Thompson Learning
- Firestone, R.W. (2002). The death of psychoanalysis and depth therapy. [Electronic version]. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, and Training, 39(3), 223-232.
- Kramer, Peter D., Listening to Prozac : A Psychiatrist Explores Antidepressant Drugs and the Remaking of the Self ISBN 0670841838.
- Luhrmann, T.M., Of Two Minds: The Growing Disorder in American Psychiatry ISBN 0679421912.
- Thomson, C.L, Rudolph L.B., & Henderson, D. (2004). Counseling children. (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Thompson.
- Tori, C.D. & Blimes, M. (Fall 2002). Cross-cultural and Psychoanalytic Psychology: The Validation of defense measure in an Asian population. [Electronic version]. Psychoanalytic psychology, 19(4), 701-421.
- Psychoanalytic Theory: An Introduction by Anthony Elliott, an introduction that explains psychoanalytic theory with interpretations of major theorists [http://www.palgrave-usa.com/catalog/product.aspx?isbn=03339191]
- The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason, by Ernest Gellner. A critical view of Freudian theory. ISBN 0810113708
- [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0465014054/102-7742175-5653764?v=glance Mitchell, S. & Black, M. (1995). Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought]
- Wachtel, P. (1989). Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Toward an Integration. New York: Basic Books.

Online papers about psychoanalytic theory

- [http://www.psychematters.com/papers/benjamin.htm Benjamin, J. (1995). Recognition and destruction: An outline of intersubjectivity]
- [http://www.apsa.org/japa/533/Boesky-P-835-863-PRF.pdf Boesky, D. (2005). Psychoanalytic controversies contextualized]
- [http://www.apsa.org/japa/533/Boston-Nahum-P-693-729.pdf Boston Process of Change Study Group. (2005). The "something more" than interpretation]
- [http://users.rcn.com/brill/egoid.html Brenner, C. (1992). The mind as conflict and compromise formation]
- [http://www.pol-it.org/ital/docum8-i.htm Eagle, M. (1984). Developmental deficit versus dynamic conflict]
- [http://www.pol-it.org/ital/10Gil-aI.htm Gill, M. (1984). Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: A revision]
- [http://www.ijpa.org/kernberg.htm Kernberg, O. (2000). Psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic psychotherapy and supportive psychotherapy: contemporary controversies]
- [http://www.wawhite.org/Journal/mitchell_art3.htm Mitchell, Stephen A. (1984). Object relations theories and the developmental tilt]
- [http://www.sectionfive.org/rubarticle.htm Rubinstein, B. (1975). On the clinical psychoanalytic theory and its role in the inference and confirmation of particular clinical hypotheses]

Online papers and links about psychoanalytic research

- [http://www.apsa.org/japa/522/Blatt-PRF-393-447.pdf Blatt, S. & Shahar, G. (2004). Psychoanalysis: With whom, for what, and how? Comparisons with psychotherapy]
- [http://www.apsa.org/japa/524/Brakel-P.1131-1161.pdf Brakel, L. (2005). The psychoanalytic assumption of the primary process: Extrapsychoanalytic evidence and findings]
- [http://www.psychomedia.it/pm/modther/probpsiter/fonagy-2.htm Fonagy,P.(1997) Attachment, the development of the self, and its pathology in personality disorders]
- [http://www.psychomedia.it/rapaport-klein/freedman01.htm Freedman, N, Lasky, R., & Hurvich, M. (2001), Transformation Cycles as Organizers of Psychoanalytic Process: The Method of Sequential Specification]
- [http://www.psychomedia.it/rapaport-klein/masling99.htm Masling, J.(1999). An Evaluation of Empirical Research Linked to Psychoanalytic Theory]
- [http://www.psychomedia.it/rapaport-klein/shaver1-03.htm Shaver, P. & Mikulincer, M. (2002). Attachment-Related Psychodynamics.]
- [http://www.psychoanalysis.org.uk/solms4.htm Solms, M. (1999). The Interpretation of Dreams and the neurosciences]
- [http://www.psychomedia.it/spr-it/artdoc/waller02.htm Wallerstein,R.(2002). Psychoanalytic Therapy Research:An Overview]
- [http://www.psychomedia.it/rapaport-klein/westen99.htm Westen, D. (1999) The scientific status of unconscious processes: Is Freud really dead?]
- [http://www.ijpa.org/westen.exe Westen, D. Towards a clinically and empirically sound theory of motivation]
- [http://www.apsa.org/japa/524/Wilczek-P.1163-1184.pdf Wilczek, A. et al. (2005). Change after long term psychoanalytic psychotherapy]
- [http://www.columbia.edu/~hc137/prs/bulletin.htm Bulletin of the Psychoanalytic Research Society]
- [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/sherwood_waldron/ Psychoanalytic Research Consortium]

Critiques of psychoanalysis

- Erwin, Edward, A Final Accounting: Philosophical and Empirical Issues in Freudian Psychology ISBN 0262050501
- Gellner, Ernest, The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason. A critical view of Freudian theory. ISBN 0810113708
- Grünbaum, Adolf, The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique ISBN 0520050177
- Macmillan, Malcolm, and Frederick Crews, Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc ISBN 0262631717

External links

- [http://www.apsa.org/japa/JAPAIssues.htm Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association online]
- [http://www.tearsofllorona.com/freud.html A Glossary of Freudian Terms]
- [http://nyfreudian.org/abstracts/ Abstracts of the Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud]
- [http://www.freudfile.org Sigmund Freud - Life and Work]
- [http://skepdic.com/psychoan.html The Skeptic's Dictionary Entry on Psychoanalysis]
- [http://www.ipso-candidates.org/ International Psychoanalytical Studies Organization]
- [http://www.ipa.org.uk/site/cms/ International Psychoanalytical Association]
- [http://www.psychoanalysis.asn.au Australian Psychoanalytical Society (component of IPA)]
- [http://www.psychoanalysisdownunder.com Psychoanalysis Downunder - online journal of APAS]
- [http://www.iarpp.org The International Association for Relational Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy]
- [http://www.apsa.org/ The American Psychoanalytic Association]
- [http://www.psychoanalysis.org The New York Psychoanalytic Society & Institute]
- [http://samvak.tripod.com/psychoanalysis.html Essays about the pros and cons of psychoanalysis]
- [http://www.wawhite.org William Alanson White Institute]
- [http://www.nyfreudian.org/ New York Freudian Society]
- [http://www.psychematters.com website with links to many articles on psychoanalysis]
- [http://www.columbiapsychoanalytic.org/ Columbia University Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research]
- [http://www.nyu.edu/fas/program/postdoctoral/ NYU Postdoctoral Program in Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis]

Sigmund Freud

:Freud redirects to here. For other Freuds, see Freud (disambiguation) Freud (disambiguation) Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939; ) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of the psychoanalytic school of psychology, based on his theory that unconscious motives determine behavior, that particular kinds of unconscious thoughts and memories, especially sexual and aggressive ones, are the source of neurosis, and that neurosis could be treated through bringing these unconscious thoughts and memories to consciousness in psychoanalytic treatment. He was initially interested in hypnotism and how it could be used to help the mentally ill, but later abandoned hypnotism in favor of free association and dream analysis in developing what is now known as "the talking cure." These became the core elements of psychoanalysis. Freud was initially interested in what was then called hysteria (now known as conversion syndrome), but expanded his work to other forms of neurosis, especially obsessive-compulsive disorder. The name Freud is generally pronounced // in English and // in German. He is commonly referred to as "the father of psychoanalysis."
Life
the father of psychoanalysis.]] Freud was born Sigismund Schlomo Freud, into a Jewish family in Freiberg (Příbor), Moravia, the Austrian Empire (now the Czech Republic) on May 6, 1856. In 1877, at the age of 21, he abbreviated his given name to "Sigmund." Although he was the first-born of three brothers and five sisters among his mother's children, Sigmund had older half-brothers from his father's previous marriage. His family had limited finances and lived in a crowded apartment, but his parents made every effort to foster his intellect (often favoring Sigmund over his siblings), which was apparent from an early age. Sigmund was ranked first in his class in 6 of 8 years of schooling. He went on to attend the University of Vienna at 17, in 1873-1881 despite intense anti-Semitism in Austria. In his 40s, Freud "had numerous psychosomatic disorders as well as exaggerated fears of dying and other phobias" (Corey 2001, p. 67). During this time Freud was involved in the task of self-analysis. He explored his own dreams, childhood memories, and the dynamics of his personality development. During this self-analysis, he came to realize the hostility he felt towards his father (Jacob Freud), and "he also recalled his childhood sexual feelings for his mother (Amalia Freud), who was attractive, warm, and protective" (Corey 2001, p. 67). Corey (2001) considers this time of emotional difficulty to be the most creative time in Freud's life. Overall, little is known of Freud's early life, as he destroyed his personal papers at least twice, once in 1885 and again in 1907. Additionally, his later papers were closely guarded in the Sigmund Freud Archives and only available to Ernest Jones, his official biographer, and a few other members of the inner circle of psychoanalysis. Freud had little tolerance for colleagues who diverged from his psychoanalytic doctrines. For example, he attempted to expel those who disagreed with the movement or even refused to accept certain aspects of his theory which he considered central (Corey, 2001). Following the Nazi German Anschluss, Freud fled Austria with his family with the financial help of his patient and friend Princess Marie Bonaparte. On June 4th, 1938 they were allowed across the border into France and then they traveled from Paris to Hampstead, London, England, where they lived at 20 Maresfield Gardens, now the Freud Museum. As he was leaving Germany, Freud was required to sign a statement that he had been treated respectfully by the Nazis. Freud's daughter Anna Freud was also a distinguished psychologist, particularly in the fields of child and developmental psychology. Sigmund is the grandfather of painter Lucian Freud and comedian, politician and writer Clement Freud, and the great-grandfather of journalist Emma Freud, fashion designer Bella Freud and media magnate Matthew Freud. Sigmund Freud was also both a blood uncle and an uncle-in-law to public relations and propaganda wizard Edward Bernays. Bernays's mother, Anna Freud Bernays, was sister to Sigmund. Bernays's father, Ely Bernays, was brother to Sigmund's wife, Martha Bernays Freud. Freud smoked cigars for most of his life; even after having his jaw removed due to malignancy, he continued to smoke until his death on September 23, 1939. He smoked an entire box of cigars daily. After contracting cancer of the mouth, he underwent over 30 operations to treat the disease; his death was by a physician-assisted morphine overdose.
Innovations
Freud has been influential in two related, but distinct ways. He simultaneously developed a theory of the human mind and human behavior, and clinical techniques for attempting to help neurotics.
Early work
A lesser known interest of Freud's was neurology. He was an early researcher on the topic of cerebral palsy, then known as "cerebral paralysis". He published several medical papers on the topic. He also showed that the disease existed far before other researchers in his day began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during the birth process being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom of the problem. It was not until the 1980s that his speculations were confirmed by more modern research. Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant. He wrote several articles on the antidepressant qualities of the drug, and he was influenced by his friend and confidant, Wilhelm Fliess, who recommended cocaine for the treatment of the "nasal reflex neurosis." Fleiss operated on Freud and a number of Freud's patients whom he believed to be suffering from the disorder. Emma Eckstein underwent disastrous nasal surgery by Fleiss. Freud felt that cocaine would work as a cure-all for many disorders, and wrote a well-received paper, "On Coca", explaining its virtues. He prescribed it to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow to help him beat a morphine addiction he had acquired while treating a disease of the nervous system. Freud also recommended it to many of his close family and friends. He narrowly missed out on obtaining scientific priority for discovering cocaine's anesthetic properties (of which Freud was aware but on which he had not written extensively), after Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud's in Vienna, presented a report to a medical society in 1884 outlining the ways in which cocaine could be used for delicate eye surgery. Freud was bruised by this, especially because this would turn out to be one of the only safe uses of cocaine, as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world. Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished for his early enthusiasm. Furthermore, Freud's friend, Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of "cocaine psychosis" as a result of Freud's prescriptions, and died a few years later. Freud felt great regret over these events, which later biographers have dubbed "The Cocaine Incident". Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring to consciousness repressed thoughts and feelings, in order to allow the patient to develop a stronger ego. Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging the patient to talk in "free association" and to talk about dreams. Another important element of psychoanalysis is a relative lack of direct involvement on the part of the analyst, which is meant to encourage the patient to project thoughts and feelings onto the analyst. Through this process, called "transference," the patient can reenact and resolve repressed conflicts, especially childhood conflicts with (or about) parents.
The unconscious
transference Perhaps the most significant contribution Freud has made to modern thought is his conception of the dynamic unconscious. During the 19th century the dominant trend in Western thought was positivism, the belief that people could ascertain real knowledge concerning themselves and their environment and judiciously exercise control over both. Freud, however, suggested that such declarations of free will are in fact delusions; that we are not entirely aware of what we think and often act for reasons that have little to do with our conscious thoughts. The concept of the unconscious was groundbreaking in that he proposed that awareness existed in layers and that there were thoughts occurring "below the surface." Dreams, which he called the "royal road to the unconscious", provided the best access to our unconscious life and the best illustration of its "logic", which was different than the logic of conscious thought. Freud developed his first topology of the psyche in The Interpretation of Dreams where he proposed the argument that the unconscious exists and described a method for gaining access to it. The Preconscious was described as a layer between conscious and unconscious thought—that which we could access with a little effort. Thus for Freud the ideals of the Enlightenment, positivism, and rationalism could be achieved through understanding, transforming, and mastering the unconscious, rather than through denying or repressing it. Crucial to the operation of the unconscious is "repression." According to Freud, people often experience thoughts and feelings that are so painful that people cannot bear them. Such thoughts and feelings—and associated memories—could not, Freud argued, be banished from the mind, but could be banished from consciousness. Thus they come to constitute the unconscious. Although Freud later attempted to find patterns of repression among his patients in order to derive a general model of the mind, he also observed that individual patients repress different things. Moreover, Freud observed that the process of repression is itself a non-conscious act (in other words, it did not occur through people willing away certain thoughts or feelings). Freud supposed that what people repressed was in part determined by their unconscious. In other words, the unconscious was for Freud both a cause and effect of repression. Later, Freud distinguished between three concepts of the unconscious: the descriptive unconscious, the dynamic unconscious, and the system unconscious. The descriptive unconscious referred to all those features of mental life of which we are not subjectively aware. The dynamic unconscious, a more specific construct, referred to mental process and contents which are defensively removed from consciousness as a result of conflictual forces or "dynamics". The system unconscious denoted the idea that when mental processes are repressed, they become organized by principles different than those of the conscious mind, such as condensation and displacement. Eventually, Freud abandoned the idea of the system unconscious, replacing it with the concept of the id (see below). Thoughout his career, however, he retained the descriptive and dynamic conceptions of the unconscious.
Psychosexual development
repression Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object. He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse," meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that, as humans developed, they fixated on different and specific objects through their stages of development—first in the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in controlling his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage. Freud argued that children then passed through a stage where they fixated on the parent of the opposite sex and thought the same-sexed parent a rival. Freud named his new theory the Oedipus Complex after the famous Greek tragedy by Sophocles.“I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood,” Freud said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification. (see Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality.) Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid. He thus turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud used the Greek tragedy by Sophocles Oedipus Rex to point out how much he believed that people (young boys in particular) desire incest, and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict. No discussion of Sigmund Freud is complete without some mention of his highly influential and controversial views on the role and psychology of women. Freud was an early champion of both sexual freedom and education for women (Freud, "Civilized Sexual Morality and Modern Nervousness"). Some feminists, however, have argued that at worst his views of women's sexual development set the progress of women in Western culture back decades and that at best they lent themselves to the ideology of female inferiority. Believing as he did that women were a kind of mutilated male, who must learn to accept her deformity (the lack of a penis) and submit to some imagined biological imperative, he contributed to the vocabulary of misogyny. Terms such as "penis envy" and "castrating" (both used to describe women who attempted to excel in any field outside the home) contributed to discouraging women from obtaining education or entering any field dominated by men, until the 1970s. On the other hand, feminist theorists such as Juliet Mitchell, Nancy Chodorow, Jessica Benjamin, Jane Gallop and Jane Flax have argued that psychoanalytic theory is essentially related to the feminist project and must, like other theoretical traditions, be adapted by women to free it from vestiges of sexism. Freud's views are still being questioned by people concerned about women's equality. It is interesting to note that originally Freud believed childhood sexual abuse to be the cause of hysteria-- but he then recanted this so-called "seduction theory" (The Index of Sexual Abuse), claiming that he had found many cases in which apparent memories of childhood sexual abuse were based more on imagination than on real events. Instead he began to emphasize the Oedipus Theory, which asserts that everyone unconsciously wishes to have sex with their parents. There is an ongoing controversy among Freud scholars regarding Freud's actual beliefs on this issue.
The id, ego and superego
Freud sought to explain how the unconscious operates by proposing that it has a particular structure. He proposed that the psyche was divided into three parts: Id, Ego, and Superego. The unconscious Id (Latin, = "it" = es in the original German) represented primary process thinking — our most primitive need gratification type thoughts. The Superego (also unconscious) (überich in German) represented our socially-induced conscience and counteracted the Id with moral and ethical thoughts. Freud based the term Id on the work of Georg Groddeck. The largely conscious Ego (ich) stands in between both to balance our primitive needs and our moral/ethical beliefs. A healthy ego provides the ability to adapt to reality and interact with the outside world in a way that accommodates both Id and Superego. The general claim that the mind is not a monolithic or homogeneous thing continues to have an enormous influence on people outside of psychology. Freud was especially concerned with the dynamic relationship between these three parts of the mind. Freud argued that the dynamic is driven by innate drives. But he also argued that the dynamic changes in the context of changing social relationships.
Defense mechanisms
Georg Groddeck According to Freud, the defense mechanisms are the method by which the ego can solve the conflicts between the superego and the id. The use of the mechanisms required Eros (named after the Roman god of love - 'Cupid' in Greek mythology), and they are helpful if moderately used. The use of defense mechanisms may attenuate the conflict between the id and superego, but their overuse or reuse rather than confrontation can lead to either anxiety or guilt which may result in psychological disorders such as depression. His daughter, Anna Freud, had done the most significant work on this field, yet credited Sigmund with Defense Mechanisms as he began the work. The defense mechanisms include, denial, reaction formation, displacement, repression/suppression (the proper term), projection, intellectualisation, rationalisation, compensation, sublimation and regressive emotionality.
- Denial occurs when someone fends off awareness of an unpleasant truth or of a reality that is a threat to the ego. For example, a student may have received a bad grade on a report card but tells himself that grades don't matter. (Some early writers, rather tenuously, argued for a striking parallel between Freudian denial and Nietzsche's ideas of ressentiment and the revaluation of values that he attributed to "herd" or "slave" morality. Most writers now try to argue for a more plausible links between Freud and Nietzsche.)
- Repression occurs when an experience is so painful (such as war trauma) that it is subconsciously forced from consciousness, while suppression is a conscious effort to do the same.
- Intellectualisation involves removing one's self, emotionally, from a stressful event. Intellectualisation is often accomplished through rationalisation rather than accepting reality, one may explain it away to remove one's self.
- Compensation occurs when someone takes up one behavior because one cannot accomplish another behavior. For example, the second born child may clown around to get attention since the older child is already an accomplished scholar.
- Sublimation is the channeling of impulses to socially accepted behaviours. For instance, the use of a dark, gloomy poem to describe life by such poets as Emily Dickinson.
- Reaction formation takes place when someone takes the opposite approach consciously compared to what he wants unconsciously. For example, someone may engage in violence against another race because, he claims, they are inferior, when unconsciously it is he himself who feels inferior.
The life and death instincts
Freud believed that humans were driven by two drives, libidinal energy/Eros and the death drive/Thanatos. Freud's description of Eros/Libido included all creative, life-producing drives. The Death Drive represented an urge inherent in all living things to return to a state of calm, or, ultimately, of non-existence. The presence of the 'death drive' was only recognized in his later years, and the contrast between the two represents a revolution in his manner of thinking.
Psychology of religion
Freud gave explanations of the genesis of religion in various of his writings. In Totem and Taboo he applied the idea of the Oedipus complex (involving unresolved sexual feelings of, for example, a son toward his mother and hostility toward his father) and postulated its emergence in the primordial stage of human development. In Moses and Monotheism Freud reconstructed biblical history in accord with his general theory, but biblical scholars and historians would not accept his account since it was in opposition to the point of view of the accepted criteria of historical evidence. His ideas were also developed in The Future of an Illusion. When Freud spoke of religion as an illusion, he maintained that it is a fantasy structure from which a man must be set free if he is to grow to maturity; and in his treatment of the unconscious he moved toward atheism. Freud's view of the idea of God as being a version of the father image and his thesis that religious belief is at bottom infantile and neurotic do not depend upon the accounts of prehistory and Biblical history with which Freud dressed up his version of the origin and nature of religion. Authoritarian religion, according to Freud, is dysfunctional and alienates man from himself.
Freud's legacy
neurotic Freud trained as a medical doctor, and as such, he believed his research methods and conclusions were scientific. However, his research and practice were condemned by many of his peers, as well as later psychologists and academics. Some, like Juliet Mitchell, have suggested that this is because his basic claim, that many of our conscious thoughts and actions are motivated by unconscious fears and desires, implicitly challenges universal and objective claims about the world (some proponents of science conclude that this invalidates Freudian theory as a means of interpreting and explaining human behavior; some proponents of Freud conclude that this invalidates science as a means of interpreting and explaining human behavior). Psychoanalysis today maintains the same ambivalent relationship with medicine and academia that Freud experienced during his life. Clinical psychologists, who seek to treat mental illness, relate to Freudian psychoanalysis in different ways. Some clinical psychologists have modified this approach and have developed a variety of "psychodynamic" models and therapies. Other clinical psychologists reject Freud's model of the mind, but have adapted elements of his therapeutic method, especially his reliance on patients' talking as a form of therapy. Experimental psychologists generally reject Freud's methods and theories. Psychiatrists train as medical doctors, but—like most medical doctors in Freud's time—most reject his theory of the mind, and generally rely more on drugs than talk in their treatments. Some have argued that this could be more to do with modern drive to a 'quick fix' rather than problems with Freud's theories, however. Freud's psychological theories are hotly disputed today and many leading academic and research psychiatrists regard him as a charlatan - but there are also many leading academic and research psychiatrists who agree with the core of his work. Although Freud was long regarded as a genius, psychiatry and psychology have long since been recast as scientific disciplines. Psychiatric disorders are often considered purely diseases of the brain, the etiology of which is principally genetic. This consideration holds that childhood and environment don't have much influence on the human mind and its well-being. However, many people reject this view as an over-simplification. Freud believed that the vast majority of disorders result from a combination of constitutional and environmental factors, the relative importance of each varying from one person to another. Freud's model of psycho-sexual development has been criticized from different perspectives. Some have attacked Freud's claim that infants are sexual beings (and, implicitly, Freud's expanded notion of sexuality). Others have accepted Freud's expanded notion of sexuality, but have argued that this pattern of development is not universal, nor necessary for the development of a healthy adult. Instead, they have emphasized the social and environmental sources of patterns of development. Moreover, they call attention to social dynamics Freud de-emphasized or ignored (such as class relations). This branch of Freudian critique owes a great deal to the work of Herbert Marcuse. Some criticize Freud's rejection of positivism. The philosopher of science Karl Popper formulated a method to distinguish science from non-science, or "pseudoscience". For Popper, all proper scientific theories are potentially falsifiable. If a theory is incapable of being falsified, then it cannot be considered scientific. Popper pointed out that Freud's theories of psychology can always be "verified", since no type of behaviour could ever falsify them. Although Popper's demarcation between science and non-science is widely accepted among scientists, it remains a controversial one itself within philosophy of science and philosophy in general. In academic psychology, a distinction is generally made between theories -which are considered too abstract to be falsifiable- and specific hypotheses which derive from a theory and may be tested by research. Freud deserves credit for at least three innovations of lasting value to Western culture, despite the controversy surrounding psychoanalysis as a form of psychotherapy.
- He created a model of mental processes that radically alters our concept of "thinking." For Freud, all thought is motivated by occult factors that are virtually impossible for the actor to perceive in himself in real time. (One could say the same for Marx, although Freud and Marx arrived at their discoveries by different means and sought to employ them in different domains.) The bottom line is that psychosexual history and membership in a social class do influence the goals people have and the ideas they use to justify them.
- Freud invented a means for demonstrating that "rationality" (plausible meaning) can be found even in material regarded as thoroughly inscrutable, irrational and meaningless (i.e., dreams, slips, neurotic symptoms, and the verbal productions of psychotics). Moreover, there is "irrationality" (i.e., purely arbitrary and idiosyncratic elements) even in material that is manifestly "rational" (i.e., work activities, political philosophy, conventional social behavior).
- Freud is the first person in the Western world to devise a means for one person to help another that is not based on telling people what to think, what to feel, or what to do. Psychoanalysis enables people to learn things about themselves that are crucially important for mitigating distress. Two features that are unique to psychoanalytic understanding are, first, that it cannot be anticipated because it is "unconscious," and second, that it reveals retrospectively how individuals unconsciously contribute to problems they encounter. Armed with better self-understanding, individuals become capable of making significantly better choices in life. These features of Freud's work are almost never explicitly acknowledged as the durable core of Freud's creativity, but these formulations point to the decisive impact that Freud has had, and will continue to have, on how human beings are understood in Western culture. Behaviourism, evolutionary psychology, and cognitive psychology reject psychoanalysis as a pseudoscience. Humanistic psychology maintains that psychoanalysis is a demeaning and incorrect view of human beings. The other schools of psychology have produced alternative methods of psychotherapy to psychoanalysis, including behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and person centred psychotherapy.
Patients
This is a partial list of patients whose case studies were published by Freud, with pseudonyms substituted for their names: person centred psychotherapy
- Anna O. = Bertha Pappenheim (1859 - 1936)
- Cäcilie M. = Anna von Lieben
- Dora = Ida Bauer (1882-1945)
- Frau Emmy von N. = Fanny Moser
- Fräulein Elizabeth von R.
- Fräulein Katharina = Aurelia Kronich
- Fräulein Lucy R.
- Little Hans = Herbert Graf (1903-1973)
- Rat Man = Ernst Lanzer (1878-1914)
- Wolf Man = Sergei Pankejeff (1887-1979) People on whom psychoanalytic observations were published but who were not patients:
- Daniel Paul Schreber (1842-1911) Other patients:
- H.D. (1886-1961)
- Emma Eckstein
- Gustav Mahler (1860-1911)
Major works

- Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer) (Studien über Hysterie, 1895)
- The Interpretation of Dreams (Die Traumdeutung, 1899)
- The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens, 1901)
- Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie, 1905)
- Totem and Taboo (Totem und Tabu, 1913)
- On Narcissism (Zur Einführung der Narzißmus, 1914)
- Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Jenseits des Lustprinzips, 1920)
- The Ego and the Id (Das Ich und das Es, 1923)
- The Future of an Illusion (Die Zukunft einer Illusion, 1927)
- Civilization and Its Discontents (Das Unbehagen in der Kultur, 1929)
- Moses and Monotheism (Der Mann Moses und die Monotheistische Religion, 1939)
- An Outline of Psycho-Analysis (Abriß der Psychoanalyse, 1940)
See also

- Alfred Adler
- Carl Jung
- Anna Freud, daughter
- Lucien Freud, artist (grandson)
- Clement Freud (grandson)
- Karen Horney
- Ernest Jones
- Erik Erikson
- Otto Rank
- Wilhelm Reich
- Melanie Klein
- Jacques Lacan
- Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson
- Freud Museum
- List of Austrian Scientists
- List of Austrians
- List of Jewish scientists and philosophers
- Psychology of religion
- Shame
- Guilt
- Fear
- Penis envy
Books about Freud and psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis: theory and practice

- Philip Rieff, Freud: The Mind of the Moralist, 3d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979)
- Anthony Bateman and Jeremy Holmes, Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Contemporary Theory & Practice (London: Routledge, 1995)
Conceptual critiques

- Adler, Mortimer J., What Man Has Made of Man: A Study of the Consequences of Platonism and Positivism in Psychology (New York: Longmans, Green, 1937). (A philosophical critique from an Aristotelian/Thomistic point of view.)
- Deleuze, Gilles and Guattari, Félix, Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem and Helen R. Lane (London and New York: Continuum, 2004). (This first volume of the famous two-part work (also subtitled Capitalism and Schizophrenia) polemicises Freud's argument that the Oedipal complex determines subjectivity. It is also, therefore, a staunch critique of the Lacanian 'return to Freud.)
- Ellenberger, Henri F., The Discovery of the Unconscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry (London: Penguin, 1970). (An extensive account and sensitive critique of Freudian metapsychology.)
- Eysenck, H. J. and Wilson, G. D. The Experimental Study of Freudian Theories, Methuen, London (1973)
- Eysenck, Hans, Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire (Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1986).
- Hobson, J. Allan Hobson, Dreaming: An Introduction to the Science of Sleep (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). ISBN 0192804820. (Critique of Freud's dream theory in terms of current neuroscience)
- Johnston, Thomas, Freud and Political Thought (New York: Citadel, 1965). (One of the more accessible accounts of the import of Freudianism for political theory.)
- Marcuse, Herbert, Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1974). (Mentioned above. For a good review, see Stirk, Peter M. R., ‘Eros and Civilization revisited’, History of the Human Sciences, 12 (1), 1999, pp. 73 – 90.)
- Mitchell, Juliet. Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A Radical Reassessment of Freudian Psychoanalysis Originally published in 1974; Basic Books reissue (2000) ISBN 0465046088
- Neu, Jerome (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Freud (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). (A good conceptual overview.)
- Ricoeur, Paul, Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation, trans. Denis Savage (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1972). (Great fun!)
- —————, The Conflict of Interpretations: Essays in Hermeneutics, ed. Don Ihde (London: Continuum, 2004). (A critical examination of the import of Freud for philosophy.)
- Szasz, Thomas. Anti-Freud: Karl Kraus's Criticism of Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry, Syracuse University Press, 1990, ISBN 0815602472.
- Voloshinov, Valentin. Freudianism: A Marxist critique, Academic Press (1976) ISBN 0127232508
- Wollheim, Richard, Freud, 2nd edn. (London: Fontana, 1991). (A good starting point.)
Biographies
The area of biography has been especially contentious in the historiography of psychoanalysis, for two primary reasons: first, the vast majority of historical material on Freud has been, since his death, made available only at the permission of his biological and intellectual heirs (his daughter, Anna Freud, was extremely protective of her father's reputation); second, much of the data and theory of Freudian psychoanalysis hinges upon the personal testimony of Freud himself, and so to challenge Freud's legitimacy or honesty has been seen by many as an attack on the roots of his enduring work. The first biographies of Freud were written by Freud himself — his On the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement (1914) and An Autobiographical Study (1924) provided much of the basis for discussions by later biographers, including "debunkers" (as they contain a number of prominent omissions and potential misrepresentations). A few of the major biographies on Freud to come out over the twentieth century were:
- Helen Walker Puner, Freud: His Life and His Mind (1947) — an associate editor of Parents magazine, Puner's book was for a thoroughly popular audience, and was the source of many long-lasting "myths" about Freud (that psychoanalysis was a religion; that Freud hated his father; etc.)
- Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, 3 vols. (1953-1958) — the first "authorized" biography of Freud, made by one of his former students with the authorization and assistance of Anna Freud, with the hope of "dispelling the myths" from earlier biographies.
- Henri Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious (1970) — was the first book to, in a compelling way, attempt to situate Freud within the context of his time and intellectual thought, arguing that he was the intellectual heir of Franz Mesmer and that the genesis of his theory owed a large amount to the political context of turn of the 19th century Vienna.
- Frank Sulloway, Freud: Biologist of the Mind (1979) — Sulloway, one of the first professional/academic historians to write a biography of Freud, positioned Freud within the larger context of the history of science, arguing specifically that Freud was, in fact, a biologist in disguise (a "crypto-biologist", in Sulloway's terms), and sought to actively hide this.
- Peter Gay, Freud: A Life for Our Time (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1988) — Gay's work was published as a response to the anti-Freudian literature and the "Freud Wars" of the 1980s (see below). The creation of Freud biographies has itself even been written about at some length — see, for example, Elisabeth Young-Bruehl, "A History of Freud Biographies," in Discovering the History of Psychiatry, edited by Mark S. Micale and Roy Porter (Oxford University Press, 1994).
Biographical critiques
Freud himself, and psychoanalysis generally, have proved sufficiently unheimlich[http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~amtower/uncanny.html] (disturbing) to many readers that something of a cottage industry in exposes of Freud's alleged personal faults has grown up, mostly in the USA, and especially starting from the 1980s. For example:
- Bakan, David. Sigmund Freud and the Jewish Mystical Tradition, D. Van Nostrand Company, 1958; New York, Schocken Books, 1965; Dover Publications, 2004. ISBN 0486437671
- Crews, F. C. Unauthorized Freud : doubters confront a legend, New York, Viking 1998. ISBN 0670872210
- Dufresne, T. Killing Freud, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0826468934
- Eysenck, H. J. The Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire, Scott-Townsend Publishers, Washington D. C., (1990) ISBN 1878465015
- Jurjevich, R. M. The Hoax of Freudism: A study of Brainwashing the American Professionals and Laymen Dorrance (1974) ISBN 0805918566
- LaPiere, R. T. The Freudian Ethic: An Analysis of the Subversion of Western Character Greenwood Press (1974) ISBN 0837175437
- MacDonald, K. The Culture of Critique: An Evolutionary Analysis of Jewish Involvement in Twentieth-Century Intellectual and Political Movements Authorhouse (2002) ISBN 0759672229
- Macmillan, Malcolm. Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc MIT Press, 1996 ISBN 0262631717 [originally published by New Holland, 1991]
- Stannard, D. E. Shrinking History: On Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory Oxford University Press, Oxford (1980) ISBN 0195030443
- Thornton, E. M. Freud and Cocaine: The Freudian Fallacy, Blond & Briggs, London (1983) ISBN 0856341398
- Webster, Richard. Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science, and Psychoanalysis BasicBooks, 1995. ISBN 0465095798
External links

- [http://www.freud.org.uk/ Freud Museum in London]
- [http://www.freudfile.org/ Sigmund Freud Life and Work]
- [http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/phil/psychology/ScientificMethodInTheInterpretationOfDreams/Chap1.html Scientific Method in the Interpretation of Dreams]
- [http://books.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4445608-99939,00.html Scientist or storyteller?]
- [http://www.lichtensteiger.de/freud.html Freud Chronologie (dt.) at www.lichtensteiger.de]
- [http://www.iceion.com/philo/philo.php?page=freud Freud's Philosophy]
- [http://www.freud-museum.at/ Sigmund Freud Museum, Berggasse 19, Vienna]
- [http://www.positivehealth.com/permit/Articles/Regular/litt55.htm One Hundred Years of Sigmund Freud]
- [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Freud_e.htm Sigmund Freud Biography and Quotations]
- [http://www.britannica.com/original?content_id=1309 Sigmund Freud's article on Psychoanalysis from the 1926 (Thirteenth) edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica]
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- [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=2196 Freudian Psychology and Judaism] chabad.org Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund Freud, Sigmund ko:지그문트 프로이트 ja:ジークムント・フロイト

Phobia

A phobia, (from Greek φόβος "fear), is an abnormal, persistent fear of situations, objects, activities, of persons. The main symptom of this disorder is the excessive, unreasonable desire to avoid the feared subject. The term phobia is also used in a non-medical sense for aversions of all sorts. A number of neologisms have appeared with the suffix -phobia, which are not phobias in clinical sense, but rather describe a negative attitude towards something, see section Non-clinical uses of the term below. Phobias (in the clinical meaning of the term) are the most common form of anxiety disorder. An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) found that between 5.1% and 21.5% of Americans suffer from phobias. Broken down by age and gender, the study found that phobias were the most common mental illness among women in all age groups and the second most common illness among men older than 25. The opposite of the suffix -phobia is a -philia or -philie (meaning "love of").

Understanding and classifying phobias

Most psychologists and psychiatrists divide phobias into three categories:
- Social phobias - fears to do with other people and social relationships such as performance anxiety, fears of eating in public, etc.
- Specific phobias - fear of a single specific panic trigger, like dogs, flying, running water and so on.
- Agoraphobia - a generalised fear of leaving your home or your small familiar 'safe' area, and of the inevitable panic attacks that will follow. Agoraphobia is the only phobia regularly treated as a medical condition. Many specific phobias, such as fears of dogs, heights, spider bites, and so forth, are extensions of fears that a lot of people have. People with these phobias treat them by avoiding the thing they fear. Many specific phobias can be traced back to a specific triggering event, usually a traumatic experience at an early age. Social phobias and agoraphobia have more complex causes that are not entirely known at this time. It is believed that heredity, genetics and brain-chemistry combine with life-experiences to play a major role in the development of anxiety disorders and phobias. Phobias vary in severity among individuals, with some phobics simply disliking or avoiding the subject of their fear and suffering mild anxiety. Others suffer fully-fledged panic attacks with all the associated disabling symptoms. It is possible for a sufferer to become phobic about virtually anything. The name of a phobia generally contains a Greek word for what the patient fears plus the suffix -phobia. Creating these terms is something of a word game. Few of these terms are found in medical literature. The following broad categories of phobias are recognized:
- Fears that are believed to be rooted in survival instincts. This may include phobias such as arachnophobia, etc., where said fear(s) may be a reaction to a potentially life-threatening situation (ie., being bitten by a poisonous spider)
- Fears that are generally not found to be a survival adjustment, but nevertheless are a result of a traumatic experience (such as the fear of crossing a street), so they are close to the first group.
- Fears of cultural origin, such as triskaidekaphobia.

Treatment

Some therapists use virtual reality to desensitize patients to the feared thing. Other forms of therapy that may be of benefit to phobics are systematic desensitization and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). Anti-anxiety medication can also be of assistance in some cases. Most phobics understand that they are suffering from an irrational fear, but are powerless to override their initial panic reaction. Graduated Exposure and CBT both work towards the goal of desensitising the sufferer, and changing the thought patterns that are contributing to their panic. Gradual desensitisation treatment and CBT are often extremely successful, provided the phobic is willing to endure some discomfort and to make a continuous effort over a long period of time. Practitioners of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) use a procedure of V/K (Visual/Kinaesthetic) Dissociation, known as "Fast Phobia Cure", that is said to alleviate specific phobias in a single therapeutic session, with several studies supporting its efficacy (Einspruch & Forman, 1988; Liberman, 1984; Faist, 1987), though more research is needed in this area. Recent study in the Journal of Clinical Psychology also suggest the Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT) as a potentially effective and fast treatment for specific phobias (Wells et al. 2003)

Hydrophobia and Photophobia

The term hydrophobia, or fear of water, is usually not a psychological condition at all, but another term for the disease rabies, referring to a common symptom. Likewise photophobia, is a physical complaint, aversion to light due to an inflamed or painful eye or excessively dilated pupils).

Phobias not named -phobia

- Penis panic refers to a type of mass hysteria or panic where males grow fearful of removal or shrinking of the penis.
- Taijin kyofusho (対人恐怖症, TKS, for taijin kyofusho symptoms), is a culture-bound syndrome (cultural disorder, or mental illness) (allegedly) specific to Japan. Fear of hurting or offending other people.
- Castration anxiety

Non-clinical uses of the term

A number of neologisms have appeared with the suffix -phobia, in which "phobia" is understood as a negative attitude towards certain categories of people or other things, used in an analogy with the medical usage of the term. Usually these kinds of "phobia" are described as fear, dislike, disapproval, prejudice, hatred, discrimination, or hostility towards the object of the "phobia". Often this attitude is based on prejudices and is a particular case of general xenophobia. A fear or hatred is not always considered a ph