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Savanna

Savanna

:This article is about grasslands. For other possible meanings, see savannah. Savanna is a grassland dotted with trees, and occurs in several types of biomes. In savannas, grasses form the predominant vegetation type, usually mixed with herbs and shrubs, with trees scattered individually or in small clumps. Savannas are sometimes a transitional zone, occurring between forest or woodland regions and grassland regions. Although the term savanna is believed to have originally come from an Amerindian word describing "land which is without trees but with much grass either tall or short" (Oviedo y Valdes, 1535), by the late 1800s it was used to mean "land with both grass and trees". It now refers to land with grass and either scattered trees, or an open canopy of trees. Native Americans created subtropical savannas by periodic burning in some areas of the US southeastern coast where fire-resistant Longleaf Pine was the dominant species. Most other tree species were killed, resulting in widely-spaced longleaf pines with grassland between the trees. Savannah, Georgia is named after such an area. Farther north, as in between Seneca Lake and Cayuga Lake in the Finger Lakes of New York, such burning killed all the trees and created prairie instead. Savanna ecoregions are of several different types: ecoregions]] Tropical and subtropical savannas are classified with tropical and subtropical savannas and shrublands as the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. The savannas of Africa, including the Serengeti, famous for its wildlife, are typical of this type. Temperate savannas are mid-latitude savannas with wetter summers and drier winters. They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Mediterranean savannas are mid-latitude savannas in Mediterranean climate regions, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, part of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub biome. The oak savannas of California, part of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, fall into this category. Flooded savannas are savannas that are flooded seasonally or year-round. They are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome, which occurs mostly in the tropics and subtropics. Montane savannas are high-altitude savannas, located in a few spots around the world's high mountain regions, part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome. The highland savannas of the Angolan scarp savanna and woodlands ecoregion are an example. Category:Grasslands ja:サバナ

Grassland

Grassland is one of several types of terrestrial biomes, where grasses form the predominant vegetation, usually mixed with herbs and sometimes with shrubs, but usually without trees. Grasslands dotted with trees are called savanna. Grasslands usually get 25-75 cm (10-30 inches) of rainfall annually. Fires, natural and human-caused, are important in the maintenance of many grasslands. Grasslands may occur naturally or as the result of human activity. Grasslands created and maintained by human activity are called anthropogenic grasslands. Hunting peoples around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands, and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass prairies in the American Midwest may have been extended eastward into Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio by human agency. Other anthropogenic grasslands include pasture, where forest or shrublands were cleared to create land for intensive grazing. Tropical and subtropical grasslands are classified with tropical and subtropical savannas and shrublands as the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Notable tropical and subtropical grasslands include the Llanos grasslands of northern South America. Temperate grasslands are mid-latitude grasslands, including the Prairie of North America, the Pampa of Argentina, calcerous downland, and the steppes of Eurasia. They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Flooded grasslands are grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like the Everglades of Florida or the Pantanal of Bolivia and Paraguay. They are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome, which occurs mostly in the tropics and subtropics. Montane grasslands are high-altitude grasslands located on high mountain ranges around the world, like the Páramo of the Andes Mountains. They are part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome. Xeric grasslands or desert grasslands are sparse grasslands located in deserts and xeric shrublands ecoregions.

Grassland

GRASS

GRASS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System) is an open source, Free Software Geographical information system (GIS) with raster, topological vector, image processing, and graphics production functionality that operates on various platforms through a graphical user interface and shell in the X Window System. It is released under GNU General Public License (GPL). Originally developed by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USA-CERL, 1982-1995), a branch of the US Army Corp of Engineers, as a tool for land management and environmental planning by the military, GRASS has evolved into a powerful utility with a wide range of applications in many different areas of scientific research. GRASS is currently used in academic and commercial settings around the world, as well as many governmental agencies including NASA, NOAA, USDA, DLR, CSIRO, the National Park Service, the U.S. Census Bureau, USGS, and many environmental consulting companies. The recent GRASS 6 release introduces a new topological 2D/3D vector engine and support for vector network analysis. Attributes are managed in a dbf files or SQL-based DBMS such as MySQL, PostgreSQL, and SQLite. The system is capable to visualize 3D vector graphics data and voxel volumes. GRASS supports an extensive range of raster and vector formats, including OGC-conformal (Open Geospatial Consortium) Simple Features for interoperability with other GIS. The GRASS Development Team has grown into a multi-national team consisting of developers at numerous locations.

References

- Neteler, M. and H. Mitasova "Open Source GIS: A GRASS GIS Approach. Second Edition." Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers/Springer. 424pp, 2004. ISBN 1402080646, [http://mpa.itc.it/grasstutor/index.phtml Online Supplement]

External links

- [http://grass.itc.it/ GRASS GIS main web site, Italy]
- [http://grass.ibiblio.org/ GRASS GIS mirror at ibiblio, USA]
- [http://grass.gdf-hannover.de/twiki/bin/view/GRASS/WebHome GRASS GIS Wiki]
- [http://www.opensourcegis.org Open Source GIS] Master Index of Open Source GIS Software
- [http://www.freegis.org FreeGIS] Master Index of Free GIS Software Category:Free software Category:Geographic Information Systems

Forest

:This article is about forests as communities of trees. For other uses of the word, see Forest (disambiguation). Forest (disambiguation) A forest is an area with a high density of trees (or, historically, a wooded area set aside for hunting). These plant communities cover large areas of the globe and function as carbon dioxide sinks, animal habitats, hydrologic flow modulators, and soil conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the Earth's biosphere. Forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the tree-line, except where natural fire frequency is too high, or where the tree growing environment has been impaired by natural processes or humans. Forests sometimes contain many tree species in a small area (e.g. tropical rain and temperate deciduous forests), but other forest types have relatively few species over large areas (e.g. taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). As a general rule, forests dominated by angiosperms are species-rich, while those dominated by gymnosperms are not so rich, although exceptions do exist (e.g., species-poor aspen and birch stands in northern latitudes). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation types. Much of this biomass occurs below-ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant detritus. The woody component of forests contains lignin, which is relatively slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate. Forests are differentiated from woodlands by the extent of canopy coverage: in a forest the branches and foliage of separate trees often meet or interlock, although there can be gaps of varying sizes within an area referred to as forest. A woodland has a more continuously open canopy, with trees spaced further apart, which allows more sunlight to penetrate to the ground between them (see also: savanna). savanna Among the major forested biomes are:
- rain forest (tropical and temperate)
- taiga
- temperate hardwood forest
- tropical dry forest

Classification

tropical dry forest Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the biome in which they exist combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.
- Boreal forests occupy the subarctic zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous.
- Temperate zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (e.g., temperate deciduous forest) and evergreen coniferous forests (e.g., Temperate coniferous forests and Temperate rainforests). Warm temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including laurel forests.
- Tropical and subtropical forests include tropical rainforests, tropical and subtropical moist forests, tropical and subtropical dry forests, and tropical and subtropical coniferous forests.
- Physiognomy classifies forests based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g. old growth vs. second growth).
- Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different forest types (e.g., ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest).

Forest management

The scientific study of forests is referred to as forest ecology, while the management of forests is often referred to as forestry, often with the goal of sustainable resource extraction. Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause and effect relationships. Foresters often focus on wood extraction and silviculture, including tree regeneration and growth processes. Forests can be damaged by logging, forest fires, acid rain, herbivores, and diseases, among other things. In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years environmental protection has helped regulate or moderate large scale or severe impacts. For more comprehensive information on this sub-topic visit the [http://www.iifm.ac.in Indian Institute of Forest Management] in India.

Grassland

1535

Events

- January 18 - Lima, Peru founded by Francisco Pizarro
- April - Jacques Cartier discovers the Iroquois city of Stadacona, Canada (now Quebec) and in May, the even greater Huron city of Hochelaga (now Montreal)
- June 24 - The Anabaptist state of Münster (see Münster Rebellion) is conquered and disbanded.
- May 19 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail for his second voyage to North America with 3 ships, 110 men, and Chief Donnacona's 2 sons (who Cartier kidnapped during his first voyage).
- October 2 - Jacques Cartier discovers Montreal, Quebec.
- October 4 - The first complete English-language Bible is printed, with translations by William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale.
- Combined Swedish and Danish fleets defeat the Hanseatic navy.
- Manco II appointed puppet Inca Emperor by Spanish Conquistadors
- Second unsuccessful attempt by Spanish forces to conquer Yucatan
- Carlos Quinto conquers Tunis
- anabaptist rebellion in some cities in the Netherlands, including a famous incident of seven men and five woman walking nude in the streets of Amsterdam.
- The Charterhouse London is closed, as part of Henry VIIIs dissolution of the monasteries.

Births

- February 11 - Pope Gregory XIV (died 1591)
- May 31 - Alessandro Allori, Italian painter (died 1607)
- June 2 - Pope Leo XI (died 1605)
- June 21 - Leonhard Rauwolf, German physician and botanist (d. 1596)
- July 22 - Katarina Stenbock, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (died 1621)
- August 21 - Shimazu Yoshihiro, Japanese samurai and warlord (died 1619)
- September 6 - Emanuel van Meteren, Flemish historian (died 1612)
- October 16 - Niwa Nagahide, Japanese warlord (died 1585)
- James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, consort of Mary I of Scotland (died 1578)
- Roger Dudley, British soldier (died 1590)
- James Melville, English historian (died 1617)
- Thomas North, English translator (died 1601)
- Giaches de Wert, Flemish composer (died 1596)

Deaths

- February 18 - Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, German alchemist and occult writer (born 1486)
- June 22 - John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (executed)
- July 6 - Sir Thomas More, English lawyer, writer, and politician (executed) (born 1478)
- July 11 - Elector Joachim I of Brandenburg (born 1484)
- August 10 - Ippolito de' Medici, ruler of Florence (poisoned) (born 1509)
- September 23 - Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (born 1513)
- December 31 - William Skeffington, Lord Deputy of Ireland (born 1465)
- Jodocus Badius, pioneer of printing (born 1462)
- Colin Campbell, 3rd Earl of Argyll, Scottish nobleman and soldier (born 1486)
- Cangali khan, khan of Qasim and Kazan
- Saint John Houghton, Prior of the London Charterhouse (executed)
- George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny (born 1469)
- Wolter von Plettenberg, Master of Livonian Order
- Bartolomeo Tromboncino, Italian composer (born 1470)
- Feliks Zamoyski, Polish nobleman Category:1535 ko:1535년 th:พ.ศ. 2078

Longleaf Pine

The Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) is a pine native to the southeast United States, found along the coastal plain from eastern Texas to southeast Virginia. It reaches a height of 30-35 m (100-115 ft) and a diameter of 0.7 m (28"). In the past, they reportedly grew to 47 m (154 ft) with a diameter of 1.2 m (47"). The bark is thick, reddish-brown, and scaly. The dark green, needle-like leaves occur in bundles of three. They are often twisted and are remarkably long 20-45 cm (8-18") in length. It is one of the two southern pines with long needles, the other being Slash Pine. The cones, both male (catkins) and female (cones), are initiated during the growing season before buds emerge. Male cones begin forming in their buds in July, while female conelets are formed during a relatively short period of time in August. Pollination occurs early the following spring, with the male cones 3-8 cm (1-3") long. The female (seed) cones mature in about 20 months from pollination; when mature they are yellow-brown in color, 15-25 cm long, 5-7 cm broad opening to 12 cm (6-10" long, 2-2½" broad opening to 5" broad), and have a small but sharp downward-pointing spine on the middle of each scale. The seeds are 7-9 mm long, with a 25-40 mm wing (¹/₃" long, with a 1 - 1¾" wing). Longleaf Pine takes 100 to 150 years to become full size and can live to 300 years old. When young, they grow a long taproot, which is usually 2-3 m (6-10 ft) long; by maturity they have a wide spreading lateral root system with several deep 'sinker' roots. It grows on well-drained, usually sandy soil, often in pure stands. The scientific name meaning "of marshes" is a misunderstanding on the part of Philip Miller who described the species, from seeing Longleaf Pine forests with temporary winter flooding. Longleaf Pine is also known as Southern Yellow Pine or Longleaf Yellow Pine, and in the past as Pitch Pine (dropped as it caused confusion with Pitch Pine, Pinus rigida). Long leaf pines are found in the upland pine forest habitat

Ecology

Pitch Pine] Longleaf Pine is highly resistant to fire. Periodic natural wildfire selects for this species by killing other trees, leading to open Longleaf Pine forests or savannas. New seedlings do not appear at all tree-like and resemble a green fountain of needles. This form is called the grass stage. During this stage, which lasts for 5-12 years, growth is very slow, and the tree may take a number of years simply to grow ankle-high. Then it makes a growth spurt, especially if the is no tree canopy above it. In the grass stage, it is very resistant to grass fires, which burn off the ends of the needles, but the fire cannot penetrate the tightly packed needle bases to reach the bud. Longleaf Pine forests are rich in biodiversity. The Red-cockaded Woodpecker is dependent on Longleaf Pine forests, and is now endangered as a result of this decline. Longleaf Pines seeds are large and nutritious, forming a significant food source for birds (notably the Brown-headed Nuthatch) and other wildlife.

Uses

Vast forests of Longleaf Pine once were present along the southeastern Atlantic coast and Gulf Coast of North America. These forests were the source of naval stores - resin, turpentine, and timber - needed by merchants and the navy for their ships. They have been cutover since for timber and usually replaced with faster growing Loblolly Pine and Slash Pine, for agriculture, and for urban/suburban development. Due to this deforestation and over-harvesting, only about 3 per cent of the original Longleaf Pine forest remains, and little new is planted. The yellow, resinous wood is used for lumber and pulp. Boards cut years ago from virgin timber were very wide, up to 1 m (3 ft), and a thriving salvage business obtains these boards from demolition projects to be reused as flooring in upscale homes. The stumps and taproots of old trees become saturated with resin and will not rot. Farmers sometimes find old buried stumps in fields, even some that were cleared a century ago, and these are usually dug up and sold as "fat lighter" or "lighter wood" which is in demand as kindling for fireplaces, wood stoves, and barbecue pits. In old growth pine the heartwood of the bole is often saturated in the same way. When boards are cut from the fat lighter wood, they are very heavy and will not rot. But buildings constructed of them are quite flammable and make extremely hot fires. The Longleaf Pine is the official state tree of North Carolina and Alabama.

External links

- [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200005348 Flora of North America Online: Pinus palustris]
- [http://www.conifers.org/pi/pin/palustris.htm Gymnosperm Database: Pinus palustris] Pine, Longleaf

Cayuga Lake

Cayuga Lake is the longest of western New York's glacial Finger Lakes, and is the second largest in surface area (marginally smaller than Seneca Lake) and volume. It is just under 40 miles long. Its average width is 1.7 miles, and it is 3.5 miles wide at its widest point near Aurora. It is approximately 435 feet deep at its deepest point. Seneca Lake]

Location

The lake has one small island near Union Springs, Frontenac Island, which is one of only two islands in all of the Finger Lakes. Ithaca, New York, site of Cornell University, sits at the southern end of Cayuga Lake. Cornell's alma mater or official school song makes reference to its position "Far Above Cayuga's Waters". Villages and settlements along the east shore of Cayuga Lake include Myers, King Ferry, Aurora, Levanna, Union Springs, and Cayuga. Settlements along the west shore of the lake include Sheldrake, Poplar Beach, and Canoga.

Geographical characteristics

Cayuga Lake is located at 42.2 N, 76.1 W; 116.4m above sea level. Its depth, steep east and west sides with shallow north and south ends is typical of the Finger Lakes, as they were carved by glaciers during the last ice age. Length: 61.4 km
Average Width: 2.8 km
Maximum Depth: 132 m
Surface Area: 172 sq.km
Mean Depth: 54.5 m
Catchment Area: 2,033 sq.km (37.1% natural forest, 58% active agricultural)
Main Islands: 1, Frontenac
Main Outflows: 1
The water level is regulated by the Mud Lock at the north end of the lake. It is connected to Lake Ontario by the Erie Canal and Seneca Lake by the Seneca River. The lake is drawn down as winter approaches to minimize ice damage and to maximize its capacity to store heavy spring runoff. The north end is dominated by shallow mudflats and is an important stopover for migratory birds, where Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge is located. The southern end is also shallow and often freezes during the winter. Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge

Human impact

The fish population is managed and substantial sport fishing is practised, including smelt, lake trout and smallmouth bass fishing. Cayuga lake is very popular among recreational boaters. A large state marina and boat launch is located at the southern end of the lake in Ithaca (Allen H. Treman State Marine Park, the largest inland marina in New York). There is also a yacht club on the western shore a few miles north of Ithaca, and several other marinas and boat launches scattered along the lake shore. The lake is used both for drinking water and waste disposal. There are also several lake source cooling systems that are in operation on the lake, whereby cooler water is pumped from the depths of the lake, warmed, and circulated in a closed system back to the surface. One of these systems, which is operated by Cornell University and began operation in 2000, was controversial during the planning and building states for potential negative environmental impact; however, all the environmental impact reports and scientific studies have shown that the Cornell lake source cooling system has not yet and will not likely have any measurably significant environmental impact. Furthermore, Cornell's system pumps significantly less warm water back into the lake than others further north which have been operating for decades.

Trivia

- A famous tradition at Wells College in Aurora holds that if the lake completely freezes over, classes are cancelled (albeit for only one day). According to Wells College records, this last happened in 1979. However, other sources suggest that the only time the entire lake froze over in the 20th century was in 1912.

External links

- [http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/nam/nam-17.html World Lakes Database] entry for Cayuga Lake.
- [http://www.cayugalake.org Cayugalake.org]
- [http://www.cldf.org/titlepage.html Cayuga Lake Defense Fund]
- [http://www.winecountrycabins.com/to_do/wine/cayugawine.htm Cayuga Lake Wineries]
- [http://www.stayfingerlakes.com/lastminute/ Cayuga Lake Vacation Accommodations]
- [http://www.fws.gov/r5mnwr Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge]
- [http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/LSC/FAQs/default.htm Cornell's Lake Source Cooling FAQ]
- [http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/EIS/EISTOC.htm Cornell's environmental impact statement for Lake Source Cooling] Category:Lakes of New York

Finger Lakes

The Finger Lakes are glacially formed lakes in upstate New York, mainly linear in shape, each lake oriented on a north-south axis. The longest, Cayuga Lake, is 40 miles from end to end, but never more than 3.5 miles wide and not atypical in shape, reminding early map-makers of the fingers of a hand. Considering their narrow width, both Cayuga and Seneca Lakes have a remarkable trait; they rival much larger Lake Ontario for depth, each more than 400 feet.

The Finger Lakes

The 11 Finger Lakes from east to west: Lake Ontario
- Otisco Lake
- Skaneateles Lake
- Owasco Lake
- Cayuga Lake
- Seneca Lake
- Keuka Lake
- Canandaigua Lake
- Honeoye Lake
- Canadice Lake
- Hemlock Lake
- Conesus Lake Oneida Lake, to the northeast of Syracuse, New York, is sometimes included as the "thumb," although it is shallow and somewhat different in character from the rest. Onondaga Lake, though located just north of the Finger Lakes region, is not considered one of the Finger Lakes. Conesus, Hemlock, Canadice, Honeoye, and Otisco are considered the minor Finger Lakes. Other, smaller lakes, including Silver, Waneta, and Lamoka Lakes, dot this region.

The Finger Lakes Region

Roughly the western half of the Finger Lakes region comprised the Phelps and Gorham Purchase of 1790, the largest land purchase in the world to that date. The Finger Lakes region, together with the Genesee Country of Western New York, has been referred to as the Burned-Over District, where, in the 19th century, the Second Great Awakening was a revival of Christianity, and some new religions were also formed. The Finger Lakes region is an important agricultural belt of New York. The state land grant institution is Cornell University. Its alma mater begins "Far Above Cayuga's Waters", because it is on the hills overlooking the city of Ithaca and the southern end of Cayuga Lake. Cornell also maintains the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station and horticultural gene bank at Geneva on the north end of Seneca Lake. The rolling land between the lakes is occupied with dairy farms, many of them owned by Amish and Mennonite families. These farms raise corn, hay, wheat, oats, barley, and soybeans. Cabbages, sweetcorn, and potatoes are major vegetable crops. Maple syrup and honey are also local products. honey] Especially around Keuka Lake and the south ends of both Canandaigua and Seneca Lakes are many vineyards and wineries where one can often taste the wines before purchasing them. Most of the area was originally forested with oak, maple, chestnut, ask, hemlock, and beech trees, but the Iroquois maintained, by annual burning, the land between Cayuga and Seneca Lakes as prairie, with herds of bison, normally thought of as a western animal. Today the Finger Lakes area is still known for fishing and hunting. Winter sports are also popular, with skiing, snowmobling and ice fishing available. The southern ends of the lakes are characterized by steeper hills and glacial hanging valleys which are tributaries that drop steeply to the lake, often with waterfalls. Taughannock Falls State Park, Fillmore Glen, and Watkins Glen are especially scenic examples that have been made into parks. The Village of Watkins Glen is a producer of table salt and the site of an auto racing course.

Finger Lake history

Hammondsport was the home of aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss, and the favorable air currents make the area a popular spot for glider pilots. Elmira, just to the south, was the home of Mark Twain in his later life, and the site of an infamous Civil War prison. Corning is most noted as the home of Corning Glass Works. Hornell, just southwest of the Finger Lakes was a major railroad center. Locomotives were repaired there until recently. On the northern end of the Finger Lakes is also Seneca Falls, the birthplace of the Women's suffrage movement, Waterloo, the birthplace of Memorial Day, and Palmyra, the birthplace of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, also known as the Mormon Church. An annual outdoor drama, The Hill Cumorah Pageant, produced by the Mormons draws thousands of visitors each year.

Educational institutes

The area is also known for education, with the largest institution being Cornell University in Ithaca. There is also the State University of New York at Geneseo and Cortland, Ithaca College in Ithaca, Hobart and William Smith Colleges in Geneva, Wells College in Aurora, Keuka College, and several community colleges. fddgfh;ujfwrfserwfdzdfredsaasegfgtrh i love chris borwn oh my god

External links

- [http://www.villaserendip.com/ Finger Lakes Bed and Breakfast Accommodations]
- [http://www.fingerlakes.org Finger Lakes information site]
- [http://www.stayfingerlakes.com/lastminute/ Finger Lakes Vacation Accommodations]
- [http://www.ars-grin.gov/gen/ Plant Genetics Resource Unit at Geneva] Category:Lakes of New York Category:U.S. wine regions

Prairie

Prairie refers to an area of land in North America of low topographic relief that principally supports grasses and herbs, with few trees, and is generally of a mesic (moderate or temperate) climate. Most of the Great Plains, most of the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Iowa, and much of Missouri and Minnesota is considered prairie. French explorers called these areas prairie, from the French word for "meadow". Almost all of this area has been converted into farmland in the last two hundred years. Sometimes in the USA and Canada distinction is made between the shortgrass vegetation of the High Plains west of the 100th meridian and the tallgrass vegetation to the east from central Texas to Minnesota and southern Manitoba. When this distinction is made, it is common to limit the word "prairie" to the tallgrass area. Manitoba In Canada, the terms Prairie Provinces and the Prairies refer to the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. (See also Canadian prairies for more on this.) Fire is an important part of prairie ecology; natural and human induced fires were common in historic prairie areas. Grazing by animals such as the American Bison and Prairie dogs also helped maintain the original prairie ecology. Small areas of prairies also exist in eastern North America, and it is possible that these were created by Native Americans by periodic burning. One such area was along the southeastern shore of Lake Erie in what is now Pennsylvania and New York; another was between Seneca Lake and Cayuga Lake in present New York. Prairies are considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the dominant vegetation type. Other temperate grasslands regions include the Pampas of Argentina, and the steppes of Russia and Ukraine. Significant preserved areas of prairie include:
- Bong Recreational Area, in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
- Nine-Mile Prairie, Nebraska
- Konza Prairie, Manhattan, Kansas
- Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, Kansas
- Neal Smith Wildlife Refuge, Iowa Virgin prairie refers to prairie land that has never been plowed. Small virgin prairies exist in the American Midwestern states and in Canada. Restored prairie has been reseeded after plowing or other disturbance.

External links

- [http://www.texasprairie.org/ The Native Prairies Association of Texas]
- [http://www.npsot.org/ The Native Plant Society of Texas]
- [http://chi.vibary.net/WebDigest/digmain.asp?d=BOTAprairie Find A Prairie around Chicago] from the [http://chi.vibary.net Chicagoland Vibary Network]
- ja:プレーリー

Ecoregions

An ecoregion is "a relatively large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities." This description is part of a definition, by World Wildlife Fund that is widely accepted and used. However, the use of the term "relatively large" is interpreted differently in different locales. Another way of looking at an ecoregion is a "recurring pattern of ecosystems associated with characteristic combinations of soil and landform that characterise that region" (Brunckhorst, 2000). Others have defined ecoregions as areas of ecological potential based on combinations of biophysical parameters such as climate and topography. Biodiversity is also an important aspect of the study of ecoregions. The biodiversity of flora, fauna and ecosystems that characterise an ecoregion tend to be distinct from that of other ecoregions. World Wilfdlife Fund's full definition of an ecoregion is the following: :A large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that ::(a) share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics; ::(b) share similar environmental conditions, and; ::(c) interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence. :::--[http://www.worldwildlife.org/science/ecoregions.cfm World Wildlife Fund - Ecoregions] World Wildlife Fund ecologists currently divide the land surface of the Earth into 8 major ecozones containing 867 smaller terrestrial ecoregions (see list). Many consider this classification to be quite decisive, and some propose these as stable borders for bioregional democracy initiatives. The ecozones are very well-defined, following major continental boundaries, while the ecoregions are subject to more change and controversy. The use of the term ecoregion is an outgrowth of a surge of interest in ecosystems and their functioning. In particular, there is awareness of issues relating to spatial scale in the study and management of landscapes. It is widely recognized that interlinked ecosystems combine to form a whole that is "greater than the sum of its parts." There are many attempts to respond to ecosystems in an integrated way to achieve "multi-functional" landscapes and various interest groups from agricultural researchers to conservationists are using the ecoregion as a unit of analysis.
See also

- Biome
- Ecozone
- Ecotope
- Fresh water ecoregion
- Global 200
- Habitat
- Marine ecoregion
- Terrestrial ecoregion
Sources

- Brunckhorst, D. 2000. Bioregional planning: resource management beyond the new millennium. Harwood Academic Publishers: Sydney, Australia.
External links

- [http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/ World Wildlife Fund: ecoregions ]
- [http://www.sierraclub.org/ecoregions/ Sierra club: ecoregions]
- [http://www.planetdrum.org Activist network cultivating Ecoregions/Bioregions]
- [http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/nsdb/ecostrat/intro.html A National Ecological Framework for Canada]
- [http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm#Level%20I Ecoregions of North America] Category:Ecology Category:Ecoregions Category:Biogeography

Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands are a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes. Grasslands are dominated by grass and other herbaceous plants. Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees. Shrublands are dominated by woody or herbaceous shrubs. Rainfall in tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands is between 50 and 150 centimetres (20 to 60 inches) a year, and can be highly seasonal, with the entire year's rainfall sometimes occurring within a couple of weeks. Much of the plant life on savannas is adapted to seasonal aridity. Adaptations to the dry climate include herbaceous annuals, which die in the dry season and re-grow from seed each year, and perennial plants which grow long tap roots to reach groundwater, or bulbs to store water. Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands occur on all continents but Antarctica. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America and Australia, and the southern United States. African Savannas occur between forest or woodland regions and grassland regions. The climate varies, with an average temperature of 27°C with peaks of 30°C in April and October, and between 50 and 150 centimetres of rain per year. Flora includes:
- Acacia (Tree)
- Loses leaves in dry season to conserve moisture
- Leafy canopy in rainy season (flattened by winds)
- Baobab (Tree)
- Stores water in trunk
- Thick bark to protect it from fires in dry season
- Long Tap roots to reach underground moisture
- Few leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration
- Grass
- Grow Quickly to 3 or 4 meters in clumps
- Shoots die in dry season leaving only roots
- Low Shrubs
- Drought resistant
- Small
- Thorns not leaves

Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions

Afrotropic ecozone
- Angolan Miombo woodlands (Angola)
- Angolan Mopane woodlands (Angola, Namibia)
- Ascension scrub and grasslands (Ascension Island)
- Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands (Angola, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia)
- East Sudanian savanna (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda)
- Eastern Miombo woodlands (Mozambique, Tanzania)
- Guinean forest-savanna mosaic (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Côte d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo)
- Itigi-Sumbu thicket (Tanzania, Zambia)
- Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands (Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
- Mandara Plateau mosaic (Cameroon, Nigeria)
- Northern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets (Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Uganda)
- Northern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan, Uganda)
- Sahelian Acacia savanna (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan)
- Serengeti volcanic grasslands (Tanzania)
- Somali Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets (Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan)
- Southern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets (Kenya, Tanzania)
- Southern Africa bushveld (Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
- Southern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic (Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- Southern Miombo woodlands (Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe)
- Saint Helena scrub and woodlands (Saint Helena)
- Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda)
- West Sudanian savanna (Benin, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal)
- Western Congolian forest-savanna mosaic (Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo)

- Western Zambezian grasslands (Angola, Zambia)
- Zambezian and Mopane woodlands (Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe)
- Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands (Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe) Australasia ecozone
- Arnhem Land tropical savanna (Australia)
- Brigalow tropical savanna (Australia)
- Cape York tropical savanna (Australia)
- Carpentaria tropical savanna (Australia)
- Einasleigh upland savanna (Australia)
- Kimberly tropical savanna (Australia)
- Mitchell grass downs (Australia)
- Trans Fly savanna and grasslands (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)
- Victoria Plains tropical savanna (Australia) Indomalaya ecozone
- Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands (Bhutan, India, Nepal) Nearctic ecozone
- Western Gulf coastal grasslands (Mexico, United States) Neotropic ecozone
- Arid Chaco (Argentina)
- Beni savanna (Bolivia)
- Campos Rupestres montane savanna (Brazil)
- Cerrado (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay)
- Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands (Clipperton Island is an overseas territory of France)
- Córdoba montane savanna (Argentina)
- Guyanan savanna (Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela)
- Humid Chaco (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay)
- Llanos (Colombia, Venezuela)
- Uruguayan savanna (Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay) Oceania ecozone
- Hawaii tropical high shrublands (Hawaii)
- Hawaii tropical low shrublands (Hawaii)
- Northwestern Hawaii scrub (Hawaii)

External link

- [http://www.panda.org/news_facts/education/university/habitats/index.cfm (World Wildlife Fund)] Category:Terrestrial biomes ja:サバナ

Serengeti

Serengeti is a region of grasslands and woodlands in Africa shared between the countries of Tanzania in the north and Kenya in the south. The whole region is spread over around thirty thousand square kilometers. Eighty percent of this region lies in Tanzania. It has more than 1.6 million herbivores and thousands of predators. Wildebeests, gazelles, zebras and buffalos are the animals most commonly found in the region. This area is most famous for the migration that takes place every year. Every year around October nearly 1.5 million herbivores travel towards the southern plains, crossing the Mara River, from the northern hills for the rains. And then back to the north through the west, once again crossing the Mara river, after the rains in around April. This phenomenon is sometimes also called the Circular Migration. Also in this area is the archeologically significant Olduvai Gorge where some of the oldest hominid fossils are found. The Serengeti region contains the Serengeti National Park, Ngorongoro Conservation Area and Maswa Game Reserve in Tanzania and the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya.

External links

- [http://www.serengeti.org/ Serengeti - The National Park's Official Site]
- [http://flickr.com/photos/tags/serengeti/ Flickr photos tagged serengeti] Category:Geography of Tanzania Category:Geography of Kenya Category:Afrotropic Category:Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

Mediterranean climate

A Mediterranean climate is one that resembles those of the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. These climates occur on the western coasts of continental landmasses, roughly between the latitudes of 30° and 45° north and south of the equator. Examples include California, Western Australia, Cape Province in South Africa, central Chile, and of course the Mediterranean Basin itself. The northernmost Mediterranean climate may exist in a small portion of Vancouver Island, Canada, roughly in the vicinity of Victoria, British Columbia.

Cause

In most places with Mediterranean climates, rainfall results almost entirely from the procession of the westerly zone of frontal monkey testicals during the low-sun season; during the summer, the subtropical high pressure zone dominates the seasonal weather, preventing rainfall by inhibiting rainstorms from forming. This summer-dry, winter-wet rainfall pattern is extremely rare, and is only found in a small number of regions on Earth. The greatest concentration of Mediterranean climates is encountered immediately poleward of the great dry belt of subtropical deserts but equatorward of the zone of maritime temperate or oceanic climates. They are never on the east coasts of continents.

Precipitation

During summer, regions of Mediterranean climate are dominated by the subtropical high pressure, and are thus equivalent to deserts from the point of view of air mass positions, while during winter the polar front moves equatorward into regions of Mediterranean climate giving weather conditions similar to an oceanic climate. As a result, areas with this climate receive almost all their rain during the winter months, and may go anywhere from 2-5 months during the summer without having any significant precipitation. As an example, San Francisco in California, USA, has an average of 448 mm (17.6 in.) of rain from November through April each year, but averages only 52 mm (2 in.) of rain for the rest of the year.

Temperatures

All regions with Mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters, but summer temperatures are variable depending on the region. For instance, Athens, Greece experiences rather high temperatures in the summer, while San Francisco, California has cool, mild summers due to its proximity to the open Pacific Ocean. Because all regions with a Mediterranean climate are in close proximity to large bodies of water, temperatures are generally moderate with a comparatively small range of temperatures between the winter low and summer high (although the daily range of temperatures during the summer is large, except along the immediate coasts). Temperatures during winter rarely reach freezing (except in areas with a high elevation), and snow is almost unheard of. In the summer, the temperatures range from mild to very warm, depending on distance from the open ocean, elevation, and latitude. Even in the warmest locations with a Mediterranean-type climate, however, temperatures don't reach the high levels of desert regions. Inland locations sheltered from or distant from sea breezes can experience severe heat during the summer. Locations inside the Sacramento Valley of northern California, for example, are subject to summer temperatures characteristic of hot deserts (often around 40 °C or 100 °F), although winters are rainy enough to allow lusher vegetation than is typical in deserts. Unlike the coastal climates that are designated Csb in the Köppen climate classification - characteristic of places with cooler summers - the hotter, typically inland areas have the Csa classification that indicates a hot summer. Areas that experience the typical Mediterranean pattern of cool, rainy winters and very dry summers, but which experience milder average summer temperatures include, Porto, in Portugal and San Francisco, in California. Areas of high altitude adjacent to locations with Mediterranean climates may have the cold winters that are characteristic of a continental climate; under Köppen's scheme such places might earn the designation Dsa, Dsb or even Dsc.

External links

- [http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/mediterranean.html Explanation of Mediterranean Climate] Category:Climate ja:地中海性気候

Oak

:This article is about oaks (Quercus). For other uses see Oak (disambiguation)
See List of Quercus species The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of several hundred species of trees and shrubs in the genus Quercus, and some related genera, notably Cyclobalanopsis and Lithocarpus. The genus is native to the northern hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cold latitudes to tropical Asia and America. The fruits of oaks are called acorns. The "live oaks" (oaks with evergreen leaves) are not a distinct group, instead with their members scattered among the sections below.

Classification

The genus is divided into a number of sections:
- Section Quercus (synonyms Lepidobalanus and Leucobalanus), the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles short; acorns mature in 6 months, sweet or slightly bitter, inside of acorn shell hairless. Leaves mostly lack a bristle on lobe tips, which are usually rounded.
- Section Mesobalanus, the Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long; acorns mature in 6 months, bitter, inside of acorn shell hairless (closely related to sect. Quercus and sometimes included in it).
- Section Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long; acorns mature in 18 months, very bitter, inside of acorn shell hairless. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip.
- Section Protobalanus, the Canyon live oak and its relatives, in southwest USA & northwest Mexico. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months, very bitter, inside of acorn shell woolly. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip.
- Section Lobatae (synonym Erythrobalanus), the red oaks of North, Central and northern South America. Styles long, acorns mature in 18 months, very bitter, inside of acorn shell woolly. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Full list of Quercus species Full list of Quercus species]] Hybrids are common in oaks, but only between species within the same section; no verified inter-section hybrids are known. The genus Cyclobalanopsis, here treated as a distinct genus following the [http://flora.huh.harvard.edu:8080/flora/browse.do?flora_id=2&taxon_id=108828 Flora of China], is often included within Quercus as a distinct subgenus.

Uses

Oaks are hardwood trees, the wood commonly used in furniture and flooring. The bark of Quercus suber, or Cork oak, is used to produce wine stoppers (corks). This species grows in the Mediterranean Sea region, with Portugal, Spain, Algeria and Morocco producing most of the world's supply. Some European and American oak species are used to make barrels where wine and other spirits are aged; the barrels , which are in some cases charred before use, contribute to the taste. Of the North American oaks, the most prized of the red oak group for lumber, all of which is marketed as red oak regardless of the species of origin, is that of the Northern red oak, Quercus rubra (a.k.a. Q. borealis). The standard for the lumber of the white oak group, all of which is marketed as white oak, is the White oak, Quercus alba. White oak is often used for the construction of barrels for aging wine. The wood of Quercus robur, the English oak and Quercus petraea, the Sessile oak, is extensively used in Europe. The bark of the White Oak is dried and used in medical preparations. Oak bark is also rich in tannin, and is used by tanners for tanning leather. Acorns are used for making flour or roasted for acorn coffee.

Cultivation

Oak acorns require stratification to stimulate sprouting. Most white oaks need immediate stratification; indeed, species such as the Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) will sprout a root upon falling and must have a suitable substrate for immediate rooting. On the other hand, many red oak acorns may be stratified for up to two years before sprouting.

Diseases and pests

Sudden Oak Death (Phytophthora ramorum) is a water mould that can kill oaks within just a few weeks. Oak Wilt, caused by the fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum (a fungus closely related to Dutch Elm Disease), is also a lethal disease of some oaks, particularly the red oaks (the white oaks can be infected but resist the disease better, and are not usually killed). Other dangers include wood-boring beetles, as well as root rot in older trees which may not be apparent on the outside, often only being discovered when the trees come down in a strong gale. Oaks are used as food plants by the larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera species - see list of Lepidoptera which feed on Oaks.

Cultural significance

The oak is a common symbol of strength and endurance, and is the national tree of the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States. A number of individual oak trees, such as the Royal Oak in Britain and the Charter Oak in the United States, are of great historical or cultural importance; for a list of important oaks, see Individual oak trees.

Historical note on Linnaean species

Linnaeus described only five species of oak from eastern North America, based on general leaf form. These were White oak, Q. alba, Chestnut oak, Q. prinus, Red oak, Q. rubra, Willow oak, Q. phellos, and Water oak, Q. nigra. Because he was dealing with confusing leaf forms, the Q. prinus and Q. rubra specimens actually included mixed foliage of more than one species. For that reason, some taxonomists in the past proposed different names for these two species (Q. montana and Q. borealis, respectively) but the original Linnaean names have now been lectotypified with only the specimens in Linnaeus' herbarium that refer to the species the names are applied to now. Image:Raunkiaer.jpg|A Pedunculate oak in Denmark Image:Oak_at_night.JPG|An oak tree at night Image:Oakbark.jpg|Bark of Quercus robur Image:Oaktimber1.jpg|Wood of Quercus robur

External links

- [http://flora.huh.harvard.edu:8080/flora/browse.do?flora_id=1&taxon_id=127839 Flora of North America - Quercus]
- [http://flora.huh.harvard.edu:8080/flora/browse.do?flora_id=2&taxon_id=127839 Flora of China - Quercus]
- [http://flora.huh.harvard.edu:8080/flora/browse.do?flora_id=2&taxon_id=108828 Flora of China - Cyclobalanopsis] Category:Oaks Category:Fagaceae ko:참나무 ja:オーク

California

California is a state located on the west coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous state in the U.S., as well as the most physically diverse, with the highest and the lowest points in the lower 48 states located within 150 miles of each other. If California were an independent nation, it would have the sixth largest economy in the world (after the rest of the U.S., Japan, Germany, Britain and France; see economy of California). The state's official nickname is "The Golden State" in reference to California's 1849 Gold Rush. California's U.S. postal abbreviation is CA, and its Associated Press abbreviation is Calif. As one of the most demographically diverse states in the nation, California is a dominant force in American culture as well as the nation's economy. It has some of the nation's largest cities, including Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, and San Francisco, and is responsible for many legal and technological innovations. The entire region originally known as California was composed of the Mexican peninsula now known as Baja California and much of the land in the current states of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona and Wyoming, known as Alta California. In these early times, the boundaries of the Sea of Cortez and the Pacific coast were only partially explored and California was shown on early maps as an island. The name comes from Las sergas de Esplandián (Adventures of Splandian), a 16th century novel, by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, where there is an island paradise called California. (For further discussion, see: Origin of the name California.)

History

:Main articles: History of California, History of California (20th century) The first European to explore parts of the coast was the Portuguese João Rodrigues Cabrilho in 1542. The first to explore the entire coast and claim possession of it was Francis Drake in 1579. Beginning in the late 1700s, Spanish missionaries set up tiny settlements on enormous grants of land in the vast territory north of Baja California. The missions played a dominant role in the decimation of California's indigenous population. Upon Mexican independence from Spain, the chain of missions became the property of the Mexican government, and they were quickly dissolved and abandoned. In 1846, at the outset of the Mexican-American War, the California Republic was founded and the Bear Flag was flown, which featured a golden bear and a star. The Republic came to a sudden end, however, when Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into San Francisco Bay and claimed California for the United States. Following the war, the region was divided between Mexico and the United States. The Mexican portion, Baja (lower) California was later divided into the states of Baja California and Baja California Sur. The western part of the U.S. portion, Alta (upper) California, was to become the state of California. In 1848, the Spanish-speaking population of distant upper California numbered around 4,000. But after gold was discovered, the population burgeoned with Americans and a few Europeans in the great California gold rush. In 1850, the state was admitted to the Union of the USA. During the American Civil War, popular support in California was divided 70% for the South and 30% for the North, and although California officially entered on the side of the North, many troops went east to fight for the Confederacy CSA. At first, travel between the far Pacific West to the eastern population centers was time-consuming and dangerous, requiring either long ocean voyages, or difficult transcontinental passages. A more direct connection came in 1869 with the completion of the first transcontinental railroad. After this rail link was established, hundreds of thousands of Americans came west, where new Californians were discovering that land in the state, if irrigated during the dry summer months, was extremely well suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Citrus, oranges in particular, was widely grown, and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production of today. During the early 20th century, migration to California accelerated with the completion of major transcontinental highways like the Lincoln Highway and Route 66. In the period from 1900 to 1965 the population grew from fewer than one million to become the most populous state in the Union. From 1965 to the present, the population demographic changed radically and became one of the most diverse in the world. The state is generally liberal-leaning, technologically and culturally savvy, and a world center of engineering businesses, the film and television industry and, as mentioned above, American agricultural production.

Law and government

California is governed as a republic, with three branches of government, the executive branch consisting of the Governor of California and the other independently elected constitutional officers, the legislative branch consisting of the Assembly and Senate, and the judicial branch consisting of the Supreme Court of California and lower courts. The state also allows direct participation of the electorate by referendum, recall, and ratification. The Governor of California and the other state constitutional officers serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once. The California State Legislature consists of a 40 member Senate and 80 member Assembly. Senators serve four year terms and Assembly members two. The terms of the Senators are staggered so that half the membership is elected every two years. The Senators representing the odd-numbered districts are elected in years evenly divisible by four, i.e., presidential election years. The Senators from the even-numbered districts are elected in the intervening even-numbered years, in the gubernatorial election cycle. California's legislature is organized in such a way that the party caucus leaders wield great power and can usually speak on behalf of their caucuses. Many important legislative decisions are thus not made on the floor of the legislature but in back-room deals by the "Big Five", which comprises the governor and the Democratic and Republican leaders of each chamber. For the 2005–2006 session, there are 48 Democrats and 32 Republicans in the Assembly. In the Senate, there are 25 Democrats and 15 Republicans. The current Governor is the Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger, whose current term lasts through January 2007. Schwarzenegger was only the second person in the history of the United States to be put into office by a recall of a sitting governor (the first was the 1921 recall of North Dakota Governor Lynn J. Frazier). Schwarzenegger replaced Governor Gray Davis (1999–2003), who was removed from office by the October 2003 California recall election. The state's capital is Sacramento. During California's early history under European control, the capital was successively located in Monterey (1775–1849), San Jose (1849–1851), Vallejo (1852–1853), Benicia (1853–1854), and San Francisco (1862). The capital moved to Sacramento temporarily in 1852 when construction on a State House could not be completed in time in Vallejo. The capital's final move to Sacramento was on February 25, 1854 where it has been permanently, except for a four-month temporary move in 1862 to San Francisco, due to severe flooding in Sacramento. California's giant judiciary is the largest in the United States (with a total of 1,600 judges, while the federal system has only about 840). It is supervised by the seven Justices of the Supreme Court of California. Justices of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal are appointed by the Governor, but are subject to retention by the electorate every 12 years. Judges of the trial courts, the Superior Courts in each county, may be appointed by the Governo

Savanna

Grassland

See also

Grassland

See also

GRASS

References

External links

Forest

Classification

Forest management

See also

General

Activities related to forest

Forests by country

Lists

Grassland

See also

1535

Events

Births

Deaths

Longleaf Pine

Ecology

Uses

External links

Cayuga Lake

Location

Geographical characteristics

Human impact

Trivia

See also

External links

Finger Lakes

The Finger Lakes

The Finger Lakes Region

Finger Lake history

Educational institutes

External links

Prairie

See also

External links

Ecoregions

See also

Sources

External links

Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions

External link

Serengeti

External links

Mediterranean climate

Cause

Precipitation

Temperatures

External links

Oak

Classification

Uses

Cultivation

Diseases and pests

Cultural significance

Historical note on Linnaean species

External links

California

History

Law and government