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Sexually Transmitted Disease

Sexually Transmitted Disease

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also known as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), are diseases that are commonly transmitted between partners through some form of sexual activity, most commonly vaginal intercourse, oral sex, or anal sex. They were commonly known as venereal diseases (VD); Veneris is in Latin the genitive (possessive) form of the name Venus, the Roman goddess of love) until some time around 1990, when public health officials introduced the new term in an effort to improve the clarity of their warnings to the public. Although STD and STI are most often used interchangeably, some make distinctions between the two. As quoted from http://www.etharc.org, "Sometimes the terms STI and STD are used interchangeably. This can be confusing and not always accurate, so it helps first to understand the difference between infection and disease. Infection simply means that a germ – virus, bacteria, or parasite – that can cause disease or sickness is present inside a person’s body. An infected person does not necessarily have any symptoms or signs that the virus or bacteria is actually hurting their body (they do not necessarily feel sick). A disease means that the infection is actually causing the infected person to feel sick, or to notice something is wrong. For this reason, the term STI – which refers to infection with any germ that can cause an STD, even if the infected person has no symptoms – is a much broader term than STD." The distinction being made, however, is closer to that between a "colonization" and an "infection", rather than between an "infection" and a "disease". The term STD refers only to infections that are causing symptoms or problems. Because most of the time, people don’t know they are infected with an STD until they start showing symptoms of disease, most people use the term STD, even though the term STI is also appropriate in many cases. Depending on the STD, a person may or may not still be able to spread the infection if no signs of disease are present. For example, a person is much more likely to spread herpes infection when blisters are present (STD) than when they are absent (STI). However, a person can spread HIV infection (STI) at any time, even if they haven’t developed symptoms of AIDS (STD)." Note that all sexual behaviors that involve contact with another person or the bodily fluids of another person should be considered to contain some risk of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. Most attention has focused on controlling HIV, which causes AIDS, but each STD presents a different situation. As may be noted from the name, sexually transmitted diseases are transmitted from one person to another by certain sexual activities rather than being actually caused by those sexual activities. Bacteria, fungi, protozoa or viruses are still the causative agents. It is not possible to catch any sexually transmitted disease from a sexual activity with a person who is not carrying a disease; conversely a person who has an STD got it from contact (sexual or otherwise) with someone who had it, or their bodily fluids. Although the likelihood of transmitting various diseases by various sexual activities varies a great deal, in general, all sexual activities between two (or more) people should be considered as being a two-way route for the transmission of STDs (i.e., "giving" or "receiving" are both risky). Health care professionals suggest safer sex, such as the use of condoms in any sexual activity, but safer sex should by no means be considered an absolute safeguard. Abstinence from sexual activities involving other people will protect against sexual transmission of sexually-transmitted infections; however, it must be noted that STDs can also be transmitted through other activities involving transfer of and exposure to bodily fluids, such as blood transfusions and other blood products, sharing injection needles, needle-stick injuries (when medical staff are inadvertently jabbed or pricked with needles during medical procedures), sharing tattoo needles, and childbirth. These means of transmission make certain groups, such as doctors, haemophiliacs and drug users, particularly at risk. Recent epidemiological studies have investigated the networks that are defined by sexual relationships between individuals, and discovered that the properties of sexual networks are crucial to the spread of sexually-transmitted diseases. In particular, assortative mixing between people with large numbers of sexual partners seems to be an important factor. Since prostitutes tend to have large numbers of sexual partners, prostitution without the use of safer sex precautions has often been associated with the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. Some travellers such as truck drivers and sailors also often have high numbers of sexual partners (often prostitutes). However, sexually transmitted diseases are potentially transmitted in any form of sexual relationship, so it is important that all members of the community who are engaged in sexual relationships use safer sex precautions, regardless of the nature of their relationships. It is possible to be an asymptomatic carrier of sexually transmitted diseases. In particular, sexually transmitted diseases in women often cause the serious condition of pelvic inflammatory disease.

Treatment

pelvic inflammatory disease pelvic inflammatory disease Sexually-transmitted diseases have been well-known for hundreds of years — the English language has short words for two of the most common: the "pox" (syphilis) and "the clap" (gonorrhea). Prior to the invention of modern medicines, sexually-transmitted diseases were generally incurable, and treatment was limited to treating the symptoms of the disease. The first venereal diseases clinic opened on January 31, 1747 at London Dock Hospital. The first effective treatment for a sexually-transmitted disease was salvarsan, a treatment for syphilis. With the discovery of antibiotics, a large number of sexually-transmitted diseases became easily curable, and this, combined with effective public health campaigns against STIs, led to a public perception during the 1960s and 1970s that they had ceased to be a serious medical threat. During this period, the importance of contact tracing in treating STIs was recognized. By tracing the sexual partners of infected individuals, testing them for infection, treating the infected and tracing their contacts in turn, STI clinics could be very effective at suppressing infections in the general population. In the 1980s, first genital herpes and then AIDS emerged into the public consciousness as sexually transmitted diseases that could not be cured by modern medicine. AIDS in particular has an asymptomatic period which allowed the disease to be spread to others, followed by a symptomatic period which leads rapidly to death unless treated. Recognition that AIDS threatened a global pandemic led to public information campaigns and the development of treatments that allow AIDS to be managed by suppressing the HIV virus for as long as possible. Contact tracing continues to be an important measure, even when diseases are incurable, as it helps to contain infection. There is now a recognition that safer sex is the most reliable way of decreasing the risk of contracting sexually-transmitted diseases, both curable and incurable. [http://std-gov.org/stds/treatment.htm Current STD Treatment (Cure)]

Types and their causative organisms

Note: All of the diseases on this list can be transmitted sexually. Some of the diseases on this list are commonly transmitted in other ways besides sexually, for example, HIV/AIDS is also commonly transmitted through the sharing of infected needles by drug users, and candidiasis, whilst it can be sexually transmitted, is very often not associated with sexual activity.

Bacterial

- Chancroid (Haemophilus ducreyi)
- Chlamydia infection (Chlamydia trachomatis)
- Donovanosis (Granuloma inguinale or Calymmatobacterium granulomatis)
- Gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrheae)
- Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV) (Chlamydia trachomatis serotypes L₁, L₂, L₃. See Chlamydia)
- Non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) (Ureaplasma urealyticum or Mycoplasma hominis)
- Syphilis (Treponema pallidum)

Viral

- Cytomegalovirus
- Hepatitis (Hepatitis A and Hepatitis E are transmitted via the fæcal-oral route, not sexually; Hepatitis C is probably not sexually transmittable)
- Hepatitis B
- Hepatitis D
- Herpes /HSV (Herpes simplex virus)
- Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV/AIDS)
- Human papillomavirus (HPV)
- Certain strains of HPV cause genital warts
- Certain strains of HPV cause cervical dysplasias which can lead to cervical cancer

Parasites

- Pubic lice a.k.a "crabs"(Phthirius pubis)
- Scabies (Sarcoptes scabiei)

Fungal

- Candidiasis (thrush) (Candida albicans) is not strictly an STD but can be transmitted through sexual contact

Protozoal

- Amoebiasis (Entamoeba histolytica)
- Giardiasis (Giardia lamblia)
- Trichomoniasis (Trichomonas vaginalis)

External links

- [http://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/resources/stdis/index.cfm Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections Resource Center from the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals]
- [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/stds.htm Fact sheet on sexually transmitted diseases from the National Institute of Allergies and Infections]
- [http://powerlaws.media.mit.edu/papers/liljeros03.pdf "Sexual networks: implications for the transmission of sexually transmitted infections"]
- [http://www.stdhelper.com/ Sexually Transmitted Disease Information]
- [http://std-gov.org Sexually Transmitted Diseases - STD Guide] ja:性行為感染症

Sexual intercourse

:This article is about sexual intercourse in humans and its societal implications. For biological copulation in general, see copulation. copulation copulation copulation Sexual intercourse or coitus is the human form of copulation. The term sexual intercourse refers to a wider range of sexual activities than the term coitus, which only refers to male-female genital sex. See Human sexual behavior for a discussion of the broader sense of sexual intercourse and List of sexual positions for the wide variety of sexual activities that exist. See the terms frot for male-male genital sex and tribadism for female-female genital sex. Coitus may be preceded by foreplay which leads to sexual arousal of the partners, resulting in erection of the penis and natural lubrication of the vagina. To engage in sexual intercourse, the erect penis is inserted into the vagina and one or both of the partners move back and forth to repeatedly remove and reinsert the penis, usually without ever fully removing it. In this way, they stimulate themselves and each other usually until orgasm and ejaculation are achieved. A detailed description of the physiology of sexual arousal and orgasm can be found in the article Human sexual response cycle.

Sexual reproduction

Coitus is the basic reproductive method of humans. During ejaculation, which normally accompanies male orgasm, a series of muscular contractions delivers semen containing male gametes known as sperm cells or spermatozoa into the vault of the vagina. The subsequent route of the sperm from the vault of the vagina, is through the cervix and into the uterus, and thence into the fallopian tubes. Millions of sperm are present in each ejaculation, to increase the chances of one fertilizing an egg or ovum. Sperm cells can survive up to nine days in the female body. When a fertile ovum from the female is present in the fallopian tubes, the male gamete joins with the ovum resulting in fertilization and the formation of a new embryo. When a fertilized ovum reaches the uterus, it becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus known as endometrium and a pregnancy begins. Male-female genital sex should always be considered likely to result in pregnancy unless adequate contraceptive (birth control) measures are in force, or unless one (or both) of the partners is not fertile. For example a woman who has passed through the menopause cannot conceive, but can still participate in, and enjoy, intercourse. Where both participants are believed to be fertile pregnancy should still be considered as a possible outcome of intercourse since no birth control measure is 100% effective. Coitus interruptus, or withdrawal of the penis from the vagina just before the man's orgasm, typically has a high failure rate, but is reasonably effective when done correctly. Surgical sterilization (tubal ligation for women or vasectomy for men) is considered permanent birth control, although it can sometimes be reversed surgically, or, rarely, the body can repair itself. If both partners are fertile, abstinence from heterosexual sexual intercourse is the only 100% effective way to avoid pregnancy. Outercourse, and other sexual contact (such as mutual masturbation or oral sex), in which there is sexual activity without penis insertion, can be performed without resulting in pregnancy provided that semen does not come in contact with the vulva.

Sex evolving beyond reproduction

Humans, bonobos and notably dolphins are animals known to have non-reproduct sex, apparently for the sake of pleasure. All three animals have heterosex even when the female is not in estrus, that is, at a point in her reproductive cycle suitable for successful impregnation. Likewise, all three animals have homosex. In both humans and bonobos the female has hidden estrus, which does not evidence to the male whether she is fertile or not, to ensure sex at any time for social reasons rather than reproductive ones. Indeed, sex is often for social reasons and only occasionally for reproductive ones. Humans, bonobos and dolphins are all intelligent social animals, whose cooperative behavior proves far more successful than that of any individual alone. In these animals, the use of sex evolved beyond reproduction to serve additional social functions. Sex reinforces intimate social bonds between individuals to form larger social structures. The resulting cooperation encourages collective tasks that promote the group's survival.

Sexual drive

The urge of adult humans to have sexual intercourse is generally seen as being a physiological need similar to needs such as food, water and air. See, for example, Maslow's hierarchy of needs. At an emotional level sexual intercourse is often, though not always, the ultimate physical expression of feelings of romantic love between two humans (sometimes more). In many cultures, mutual romantic love often forms a formalized or informal partnership, a full sexual relationship within this partnership, procreation or adoption of children and parenting. Romantic partners can be differentsex or samesex. However sexual intercourse is also often decoupled from romantic love and/or from a wish for procreation. Casual sex often used to satisfy a physiological need is common although open to censure by some as being promiscuous and morally questionable. The sex industry is the commercialization of casual sex and prostitution may provide physiological satisfaction.

Sexual problems

Some males suffer from erectile dysfunction, or impotence, at least occasionally. For those whose impotence is caused by medical conditions, prescription drugs such as Viagra, Cialis, and Levitra are available. However, doctors caution against the unnecessary use of these drugs since they are accompanied by serious risks such as increased chance of heart attack. Also, as is too often the case, using a drug to counteract the symptom, impotence, masks the underlying problem causing the impotence, and does not fix the problem. A serious condition might be aggravated if left untreated. A more common sexual disorder in males is premature ejaculation (PE). Those afflicted with PE can perform intercourse for an average of 1.8 minutes before experiencing an orgasm. This compares with an average of 7.3 minutes for those not suffering from premature ejaculation. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is currently examining the drug dapoxetine to treat premature ejaculation. In clinical trials those with PE who took dapoxetine experienced intercourse three to four times longer before orgasm than without the drug. The American Urological Association (AUA) estimates that premature ejaculation could affect 27 percent to 34 percent of men in the United States. The AUA also estimates that 10 percent to 12 percent of men in the United States are affected by erectile dysfunction. Inability to achieve orgasm is called anorgasmia. It is much more common in women than men and usually needs attention from both partners over a long time span to solve. Many women, especially younger women with little sexual experience, have difficulty achieving orgasm. Whether a woman considers anorgasmia a problem or not is highly individual; the popular but dubious notion that both partners should achieve orgasm in "normal" intercourse may contribute to a woman's concern over anorgasmia. Vaginismus is involuntary tensing of the pelvic floor musculature, making coitus distressing or impossible. Dyspareunia is painful or uncomfortable intercourse; it can be due to a variety of reasons.

Sexual morality and legality

Various laws, moral rules, and taboos surround sexual intercourse. See sexual morality for a detailed discussion. Unlike some other sexual activities, sexual intercourse itself has rarely been made taboo on religious grounds or by government authorities. It is believed that all of the cultures that prohibited sexual intercourse entirely no longer exist, save the Shakers, a sect of Christianity which has very few adherents, although there are many communities within cultures that prohibit their members to engage in any form of sex, such as members of religious orders and the priesthood in the Roman Catholic Church and lamas in Buddhist monasteries. Within some ideologies, coitus has been considered the only "acceptable" sexual activity. Relatively strict designations of "appropriate" and "inappropriate" sexual intercourse have been almost universal in human societies. These have included prohibitions against specific positions, against intercourse among partners who are not married (this is called fornication) or at least one of whom is married, but not to each other (called adultery), against sexual intercourse with a close relative (called incest), and against intercourse during a woman’s menstrual period. Most countries have age of consent laws specifying the minimum legal age for engaging in sexual intercourse. Sexual intercourse with a person against his or her will, or without their informed legal consent, is called rape and is considered a serious crime in most cultures. Religions have often established standards and mores for sexual intercourse, usually encouraging monogamy and marriage. In the Christian faith, sex outside marriage is officially condemned with varying degrees of severity. This prohibition on sex solely for pleasure has led to the Roman Catholic Church’s highly controversial condemnation of contraception. See (for example) http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Faith/11-12-98/Morality2.html There is a good deal of controversy about the kind of relationship one should have with someone else before engaging in sexual intercourse. This controversy is beyond the scope of this article; interested readers are encouraged to read the articles on chastity, evolutionary psychology, and sexual morality.

External links

- [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~taflinge/biosex2.html Biology of sexual intercourse]
- [http://www.nvsh.nl/Website_Engels/Texts/Sexual_Information/Basics/Skills_1.htm Dutch Society for Sexual Reform]
- [http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section7/index.html UK legal guidance for prosecutors concerning sexual acts]
- [http://www.abouthealth.com/parent_topic_dialogue.cfm?Parent_Excerpt_ID=23&Topic_Title=3 Resources for parents to talk about sexual intercourse to their children]
- [http://www.ppacca.org/site/pp.asp?c=kuJYJeO4F&b=139496 Planned Parenthood information on sexual intercourse]
- [http://www.healthcentral.com/mhc/top/003157.cfm Medical Resources related to sexual intercourse]
- [http://www.total-health-care.com/family-health/sexual-health.htm Sexual Health]
- [http://www.studentbmj.com/issues/00/01/papers/images/sex2.jpg Sexual intercourse diagram]
- [http://www.sex-project.com/ Sex Project - Information Guide and Forum Discussing All Aspects Of Sex and Relationships] Category:Biological reproduction Category:Human sexuality Category:Interpersonal relationships Category:Sex moves Category:Sex positions Category:Sexology Category:Sexual acts ko:성교 ja:性行為

Anal sex

, Spain.]] Anal sex or anal intercourse is a commonly practiced form of human sexual behaviour in some cultures. It involves the anus and possibly the rectum, especially, but not limited to, the insertion of the erect penis into the rectum through the anus. The use of sex toys and other activities involving the anus and rectum may be considered anal sex as well. Anal sex can be pleasurable for both the insertive partner and the receptive partner, as the anus contains many of the same kinds of nerves as the penis or clitoris. For women, pleasure also be derived from anal intercourse because the rectum shares a wall with the vagina and therefore shares some of the nerve endings associated with sexual pleasure. The anus itself also contains a number of nerves which can react pleasurably when excited. For males, the tightness of the anus is often said to be a source of pleasure for the "active" partner in penetrative anal sex, while the presence of the prostate gland near the rectal wall is generally seen as a source of pleasure during receptive anal intercourse. A sexual climax for the recipient (referred to colloquially as an anal orgasm) may or may not occur through anal sex. Anal sex, though commonly practiced throughout the world, remains taboo in some cultures. In the United States, the ancestral taboo has broken down, and anal sex has experienced a recent surge in popularity, as evidenced by increased media attention. Many people view anal sex with disgust because of the unavoidable relationship between the anus and faeces. Sigmund Freud labelled this aversion as irrational, if not neurotic: :Where the anus is concerned it becomes still clearer that it is disgust which stamps that sexual aim as a perversion. I hope, however, I shall not be accused of partisanship when I assert that people who try to account for this disgust by saying that the organ in question serves the function of excretion and comes in contact with excrement--a thing which is disgusting in itself--are not much more to the point than hysterical girls who account for their disgust at the male genital by saying that it serves to void urine. :- Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, 1905[http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:4iwXw_EdfXYJ:facultyweb.anderson.edu/~psycst/perth/Priv/essays.html] Moreover, it is not uncommon for the rectum to be relatively vacant most of the time, the faeces entering only just before elimination. Some fecal matter may still remain in the rectum between movements (albeit in minimal quantity); thus some couples will use enemas - either wet or dry, followed by shower or bidet use - for cleansing before engaging in any anal activity.

Overview

The terms "sodomy" and "buggery" are imprecise, but are often used as synonyms for anal sex, particularly in older works. However, they often also refer to various other sexual activities. For instance, depending upon the jurisdiction, the legal definition of sodomy may include any non-coitus act, including oral sex and zoophilia. Anal sex has been taboo in many Western countries since the Middle Ages, when heretical movements were sometimes slandered by rumours that their members practiced anal sex among themselves. At that time the mainstream Christian clergy was not celibate, but the highest orders of some heretical sects were, leading to rumours that their celibacy was a sign of their attraction to members of the same sex. The term buggery originated in medieval Europe as an insult used to describe the rumoured same-sex sexual practices of the heretics from the Buggre sect. This sect originated in medieval Bulgaria, where its followers were called bogomils, but when they spread out of the country they were called buggres (from the ethnonym Bulgars). Some medieval European woodcuts portray persons kissing the anus of a goat-like figure representing the Christian Devil. As recently as 2003, several jurisdictions in the United States had laws making anal sex and other forms of sodomy a crime. Many of these statutes purported to prohibit anal sex by same-sex partners. In 2003, John Lawrence and Tyron Garner brought a landmark suit that challenged as unconstitutional Texas's anti-sodomy law before the United States Supreme Court. Lawrence and Garner had previously been apprehended in Lawrence's home in the act of anal sex, after a neighbour had made a false noise complaint to the local police. The Supreme Court struck down the Texas law by a 6–3 vote. Five of the justices joined the deciding opinion, which overturned the Court's previous ruling on sodomy in Bowers v. Hardwick. The Court reached the conclusion that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited the state from regulating private behaviours between adults without furthering a legitimate state interest. The governmental interest behind the law, moral objection to homosexuality, was held to not be a legitimate interest. (See Lawrence v. Texas.) Although it is also practiced by heterosexuals and bisexuals, anal sex is often associated with homosexual men. However, like persons of other sexual orientations, some gay and bi men enjoy sexual activities of this kind while others do not. The vagina normally produces its own lubrication during sex; the rectum does not, so a store bought personal lubricant is recommended by most sexologists for an enjoyable anal sex experience. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organisation, unprotected anal sex carries more risk of STI transmission than vaginal or oral sex. To reduce the risk of transmitting STIs such as HIV, proper use of a latex condom is recommended for all sexual contact which could result in transfer of bodily fluids, including anal sex.

Anal sex among heterosexuals

bodily fluids with a strap-on dildo, using the corner of the bed to adjust the height to that most comfortable for penetration]] Edward O. Laumann's The Social Organisation of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States found that about 20% of heterosexuals have engaged in anal sex, and sex researcher Alfred Kinsey found that number to be closer to 40%. More recently, a researcher from the University of British Columbia (quoted in the May 5 2005 issue of The Georgia Straight) puts the number of heterosexuals who regularly practice anal sex at between 30% and 50%. In several cultures (such as the Mediterranean area, Middle East and Latin America) female receptive anal intercourse in a heterosexual context is widely accepted, especially as there is less risk of unwanted pregnancy via unprotected anal than unprotected vaginal intercourse. Anal sex is sometimes seen as preserving female virginity (or at least preserving an intact hymen until marriage) [http://www.garynull.com/Documents/Continuum/DissentingViewAnalSex&AIDS.htm]. One appeal of heterosexual anal sex may be the fact that the anus is generally tighter than the vagina. Some consider penetrating the tighter orifice to be a more pleasurable experience. In many cultures, even those where female receptive anal intercourse is considered normative, male receptive anal intercourse, even in a heterosexual context, is seen as taboo, or as less common. In some cultures anal sex is so commonly linked with homosexuality that any male who engages in receptive anal intercourse is considered homosexual, even if he is penetrated by a female partner with a strap-on dildo (pegging) or with her hand, fingers or fist. In some cultures, only males who are penetrated by other males are considered homosexual, while males who penetrate other males are not. In certain contexts male-male anal intercourse among males who otherwise identify as heterosexual is seen as a temporary behaviour to which they resort when confined in single-sex environments, such as prisons or soldiers separated from partners. (See: Situational sexual behavior and Prison sex) Some men have sex with men without categorising themselves as homosexual or bisexual. These men who have sex with men (MSM) may still identify as heterosexual while engaging in same sex activity from time to time. (See Down-low.)

Anal sex among gay/bisexual men and lesbians

Down-low Historically, several cultures, such as medieval Japan and others are known to have been normative practitioners of male-male anal intercourse, often in the context of a mentor-student relationship between an adolescent male and an adult man (see pederasty). Many argue that the males who participated in such relationships cannot properly be called homosexual, arguing that in classical cultures such distinctions did not exist, and since participation in these male-male relationships did not preclude sex with women. The practice is thought to have been so common in Ancient Greece that the term "Greek love" was used to refer to the practice, and in modern times, "Greek" is sometimes used as gay slang for anal sex. The view that homosexual anal sex was widely accepted in Ancient Greece is widely disputed. Some literature has argued that the important social transgression was lowering oneself socially, that is, a high status person was not supposed to be penetrated by a lower status person, and thus passive anal intercourse by men was frowned upon in Ancient Greece and considered a serious moral transgression. Certainly, male passive anal intercourse was (officially) frowned-upon in Rome. Others have argued that in Greece, rather than anal sex, male-male couples actually engaged in non-penetrative interfemoral intercourse. However, this view has been disputed. The historian K.J. Dover discusses these matters thoroughly in his classic work Greek Homosexuality. It has been argued that the alleged ancient aversion to male passive anal intercourse has fueled the long-standing moral disapproval of homosexuality. In other cultures, notably Japan, records (including detailed woodblock prints) leave no question that male-male couples did engage in penetrative anal intercourse. The 19th century anthropologist Richard Francis Burton has theorised that there is a geographical Sotadic zone wherein male/male penetrative intercourse is particularly prevalent and accepted; moreover he was one of the first writers to advance the premise that such an orientation is biologically determined[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/burton-te.html]. In modern times, anal sex is popularly associated with gay men, and studies (Lauman, for example) claim that about 80% of gay men in the United States have engaged in anal sex. Not all gay/bi men regularly engage in anal sex or find it pleasurable, however. It may be that some gay/bi men try anal sex once or a few times and then rarely if ever engage in the practice, and others may never try it at all. Some may reserve it only for committed relationships. Since data on gay (or bi) sexual behavior tends to arouse such controversy, it is difficult to make solid claims in this area. While some gay/bi male couples comprise an "active" partner and a "receptive" partner (a top and a bottom) this is not true of all gay/bi couples who practice anal sex: many gay/bi men who have anal sex both "top" and "bottom" at different times, also known as "versatile" or "switch." Gay culture generally does not make a distinction between the penetrative and the receptive partner in defining who counts as "gay": both tops and bottoms who have sex exclusively with men are considered gay. Several gay slang terms are generally reserved for anal sex between two males, such as "barebacking" which refers to unprotected anal intercourse. Some gay/bi (and straight) couples engage in "felching," where the top sucks out the semen he has deposited in the anus of the bottom as a result of "bareback" anal intercourse. Like rimming, this practice carries with it considerable health risks. Some lesbians also practice anal sex, using fingers or sex toys.

Health issues

Unprotected sex, including anal sex, is an effective means of transmitting sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). According to health-care professionals, condoms should always be used for anal intercourse, but they should not be considered an absolute safeguard. In principle, anal sex with anyone known to have a sexually transmissible disease, and indeed with anyone whose disease status has not been determined, should be avoided. HIV testing, however, can be unreliable; it is possible for someone who is tested to receive a "false negative". This advice applies to all sexual activity that effectively transmits STDs. Anal penetration carries some risks which vaginal sex or "outercourse" do not. These are mostly due to three factors:
- The rectum and large intestine, unlike the vagina, do not contain their own lubricating mechanism, which means friction or insertion damage can happen more easily. Also, the tissues in these areas are particularly delicate and susceptible to tearing, and the intestine as a whole twists and is much less strongly muscled and padded, which means physical injury is somewhat easier too. This is especially the case when using sex toys, because forceful insertion of large or sharp objects can damage or even rupture it much more easily.
- Part of the rectum's function is to absorb fluid into the blood stream, so it has strong blood circulation and is an easy barrier to cross if there is even a small tear in the intestinal lining; therefore infections can be transmitted effectively. These risks can be mitigated by the use of personal lubricant and condoms, and taking care while using sex toys. Like all forms of penetrative sex with a non-exclusive partner, condoms should always be used for anal intercourse, but they should not be considered an absolute safeguard. Oil-based lubricants like Vaseline, however, destroy latex condoms, and the two should not be used together. Basic blood tests can be used to determine HIV status but may result in "false positives" or "false negatives", and it is recommended that a person retest every six months months to show a reliable reaction. Since the rectal tissues are so easily damaged, and since the anorectal muscles are largely under involuntary control, slow, gentle, and responsive insertion is necessary to avoid pain and tearing. It is also very important to be careful when inserting objects into the anus. Objects with edges or points can cause severe injury. Moreover, objects could get lodged in the rectum, requiring medical intervention; hospital records confirm how inventive human beings can be in discovering objects to insert into their rectums. For this reason, most modern dildos are made with flared bases. Additionally, nothing longer than eight inches (20 cm) should be inserted into the rectum without care and preparation. Objects forced more than seven or eight inches (17-20 cm) into the body risk colliding with the sigmoid colon, a bend in the intestine, and in cases of rough handling, trauma can result in internal bleeding with potentially fatal results. Nothing that has been placed in or at the anus, including fingers, should ever contact the vagina, either externally or internally, without being thoroughly washed with anti-bacterial soap or a similar disinfectant, to avoid infection caused by the transmission of bacteria or by feces becoming lodged internally. Condoms can be placed over sex toys and latex or nitrile gloves can be worn to protect the hands and fingers. These should be used once and then discarded. Objects inserted in the anus should be washed carefully after every use. Shared sex toys can also transmit disease or infection, and should be thoroughly cleaned between use or be covered with a condom that is discarded between users. Silicone, metal acrylic, and glass dildos may be sterilised via cleaning and boiling instead. (See masturbation for more information on the use of sex toys.) Like any form of sex, anal sex is rendered much more dangerous under the influence of alcohol or drugs, which reduce responses, judgment, and ability to pay attention to one's own needs.

Positions

Various positions are possible in anal sex. Although the links in this section point to articles that predominantly discuss vaginal sexual intercourse, all of these positions are possible with anal penetration.
- Missionary anal: The receptive partner lies on his or her back. In order to achieve optimal alignment, the receptive partner's legs should be in the air with the knees drawn towards the chest. Some sort of support (such as a pillow) under the receptive partner's hips might also be useful. The penetrative partner positions him/herself between the receptive partner's legs. This position is often cited as good for beginners, because it allows them to relax more fully than is usual in the doggy position.
- Doggy style: The receptive partner is either on all fours, or lies on his or her stomach. The penetrative partner approaches and penetrates from the rear. This position maximises the depth of penetration, which may be desirable by either or both partners, but can pose the risk of pushing against the sigmoid colon. If the receptive partner is male, this position increases the chances of stimulating the prostate. This position makes easier a more vigorous thrusting action. A variation is the leapfrog position, in which the receptive partner angles the torso downward, with the face resting on (for example) a pillow.
- Another "rear entry" position involves the receptive partner lying flat and face down, with the penetrative partner straddling the thighs of the recieving partner. This can produce sensations different from the doggy position above.
- Spooning: The partners lie on their sides facing the same direction. This allows the receptive partner to greatly control initial entry and the depth, speed and force of subsequent thrusting.
- Cowboy/cowgirl or reverse cowboy/cowgirl: In these positions the receptive partner is on top of and straddling the penetrative partner either facing the penetrative partner or facing away ("reverse") from the penetrative partner. In this position the receptive partner has more control over the depth, rhythm and speed of penetration. Of course, these are just a sampling of possible positions, as there are numerous variants of all of the above.

Genitive

The genitive case is a grammatical case that indicates a relationship, primarily one of possession, between the noun in the genitive case and another noun. In a more general sense, this genitive relationship may be thought of as one thing belonging to, being created from, or otherwise deriving from some other thing. (The relationship is usually expressed by the preposition of in English.) The term possessive case refers to a case that is similar, though usually more restricted in usage, to the genitive. Specific varieties of genitive relationships include:
- origin ("men of Rome")
- composition ("wheel of cheese")
- part of a mass ("a pound of beef")
- number of distinct items (Old English "féower manna"; literally, "four of men")
- relationship ("Janet's husband")
- subjectivity ("my leaving")
- objectivity ("the archduke's murder")
- description ("man of honor", "day of reckoning")
- inalienable possession ("my height", "his existence", "her long fingers")
- alienable possession ("his jacket", "my drink") The last two relationships are the most commonly expressed by the genitive. In some languages, nouns in the genitive case also agree in case with the nouns they modify (that is, the head noun is marked for two cases). This phenomenon is called suffixaufnahme. One form in which genitive cases may be found is inclusio. Many languages have a genitive case, including Lithuanian, Arabic, Latin, Irish, Georgian, Greek, German, Dutch, Polish, Russian, Finnish and Sanskrit. English does not have a proper genitive case, but a possessive ending, -'s (see below).

The English -'s ending

It is a common misconception that English nouns have a genitive case, marked by the possessive -'s ending (known as the saxon genitive). Linguists generally believe that English possessive is no longer a case at all, but has become a clitic, an independent particle which, however, is always pronounced as part of the preceding word. This can be shown by the following example: "The king of Sparta's wife was called Helen." If the English -'s were a genitive case mark, then the wife would belong to Sparta; but the -'s attaches not to the word Sparta, but to the entire phrase the king of Sparta. That is not to say that the English possessive did not have its origins as a genitive case; but it has developed into being a clitic instead. In Old English, a common singular genitive ending was -es. Instead, the apostrophe is replacing the 'e' from the Old English morphology. Use of a particle for the possessive can be seen in the closely related Afrikaans language: die man se hand (the man's hand). The 18th century explanation that the apostrophe might replace a genitive pronoun, as in "the king's horse" being a shortened form of "the king, his horse", is erroneous (a construction which actually occurs in German dialects and has replaced the genitive there, together with the "of" construction that also exists in English). Indeed, it would be expected that plurals and feminine nouns would form possessives using '-r': "
- The queen'r children" would be short for "the queen, her children." Since this is different from the plural, it would provide a useful distinction. The fact that that is not how English speakers form possessives shows that the above explanation is incorrect. A few remnants of the genitive case do remain in Modern English in a few pronouns as whose, the genitive form of who; likewise, my/mine, his/hers/its, our/ours, their/theirs. See also Declension in English.

The genitive in astronomy

In the case of constellations, it is useful to know the genitive of the constellation's Latin name, since this is used to make the Bayer designation of stars in that constellation. For instance, since the genitive of the Latin word virgo ("virgin") is virginis, the brightest star in the constellation Virgo is known as Alpha Virginis. Many references on constellations list the genitive for each constellation.

Baltic Finnic "genitives"

In Baltic-Finnic languages, the accusative case -(e)n is homophonic to the genitive case. In Estonian, it is often described that only a "genitive" exists. However, the cases have completely different functions, and the form of the accusative has developed from
- -(e)m. (The same sound change has developed into a synchronic mutation of a final 'm' into 'n' in Finnish, e.g. genitive sydämen vs. nominative sydän.) This homophony has only exceptions in Finnish, where a separate accusative -(e)t is found in pronouns, e.g. kenet "who (telic object)", vs. kenen "whose".

External links

- [http://www.russianlessons.net/grammar/nouns_genative.php Genitive Case In Russian] Category:Grammatical cases als:Genitiv ja:属格

Love

Love has several different meanings in English, from something that gives a little pleasure ("I loved that meal") to something one would die for (patriotism, pairbonding). It can describe an intense feeling of affection, an emotion or an emotional state. In ordinary use, it usually refers to interpersonal love. Probably due to its psychological relevance, love is one of the most common themes in art. Just as there are many types of lovers, there are many kinds of love. Love is inherent in all human cultures. It is precisely these cultural differences that make any universal definition of love difficult to establish. See the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Expressions of love may include the love for a "soul" or mind, the love of laws and organizations, love for a body, love for nature, love of food, love of money, love for learning, love of power, love of fame, love for the respect of others, et cetera. Different people place varying degrees of importance on the kinds of love they receive. Love is essentially an abstract concept, easier to experience than to explain.

Impersonal love

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis A person can be said to love a country, principle, or goal if they value it greatly and are deeply committed to it. Similarly, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' 'love' of their cause may be borne not of interpersonal love, but impersonal love coupled with altruism and strong political convictions. People can also 'love' material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding their identity with that item. In some cases there may be an erotic component to such feeling of love. If that desire reaches the point of being acted out, it may be considered unhealthy, and fall under the category of paraphilia.

Religious love

Whether religious love can be expressed in similar terms to interpersonal love is a matter for philosophical debate. Religious 'love' might be considered a euphemistic term, more closely describing feelings of deference or acquiescence. Most religions use the term love to express the devotion the follower has to their deity, who may be a living guru or religious teacher. This love can be expressed by prayer, service, good deeds, and personal sacrifice. Reciprocally, the followers may believe that the deity loves the followers and all of creation. Some traditions encourage the development of passionate love in the believer for the deity. Refer to Religious Views below.

Scientific models

Religious ViewsBiological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, just like hunger or thirst. Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. There are probably elements of truth in both views — certainly love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin) and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love.

Attraction and attachment

The conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in love — sexual attraction and attachment. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to his or her mother.

Companionate vs. passionate

The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate). Companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

In the triangular theory of love, love is characterized by three elements: intimacy, passion and commitment. Each of these elements can be present in a relationship, producing the following combinations: # Liking includes only one of the love components - intimacy. In this case, liking is not used in a trivial sense. Sternberg says that this intimate liking characterizes true friendships, in which a person feels a bondedness, a warmth, and a closeness with another but not intense passion or long-term commitment. # Infatuated love consists solely of passion and is often what is felt as "love at first sight." But without the intimacy and the commitment components of love, infatuated love may disappear suddenly. # Empty love consists of the commitment component without intimacy or passion. Sometimes, a stronger love deteriorates into empty love, in which the commitment remains, but the intimacy and passion have died. In cultures in which arranged marriages are common, relationships often begin as empty love. # Romantic love is a combination of intimacy and passion. Romantic lovers are bonded emotionally (as in liking) and physically through passionate arousal. # Companionate love consists of intimacy and commitment. This type of love is often found in marriages in which the passion has gone out of the relationship, but a deep affection and commitment remain. # Fatuous love has the passion and the commitment components but not the intimacy component. This type of love can be exemplified by a whirlwind courtship and marriage in which a commitment is motivated largely by passion, without the stabilizing influence of intimacy. # Consummate love is the only type of love that includes all three components--intimacy, passion and commitment. Consummate love is the most complete form of love, and it represents the ideal love relationship for which many people strive but which apparently few achieve. Sternberg cautions that maintaining a consummate love may be even harder than achieving it. He stresses the importance of translating the components of love into action. "Without expression," he warns, "even the greatest of loves can die" (1987, p.341). Sternberg is currently married to his third wife.

Love styles

Susan Hendrick and Clyde Hendrick developed a Loves Attitude Scale based on John Alan Lee's theory called Love styles. Lee identified six basic theories that people use in their interpersonal relationships:
- Eros — a passionate physical love based on physical appearance
- Ludus — love is played as a game; love is playful
- Storge — an affectionate love that slowly develops, based on similarity
- Pragma — pragmatic love
- Mania — highly emotional love; unstable; the stereotype of romantic love
- Agapē — selfless altruistic love; spiritual Hendrick and Hendrick found men tend to be more ludic and manic, whereas women tend to be storgic and pragmatic. Relationships based on similar love styles were found to last longer.

Phases

Helen Fisher suggests three main phases of love: lust, attraction, and attachment. Generally love will start off in the lust phase, strong in passion but weak in the other elements. The primary motivator at this stage is the basic sexual instinct. Appearance, smells, and other similar factors play a decisive role in screening potential mates. However, as time passes, the other elements may grow and passion may shrink — this depends upon the individual. So what starts as infatuation or empty love may well develop into one of the fuller types of love. At the attraction stage the person concentrates their affection on a single mate and fidelity becomes important. Likewise, when a person has known a loved one for a long time, they develop a deeper attachment to their partner. According to current scientific understanding of love, this transition from the attraction to the attachment phase usually happens in about 30 months. After that time, the passion fades, changing love from consummate to companionate, or from romantic love to liking. attraction

Cultural views

Chinese

In contemporary language and culture, several terms or root words are used for the concept of "love":
- Ai (愛) is used as a verb (e.g. Wo ai ni, "I love you") or as a noun, especially in aiqing (愛情), "love" or "romance." In mainland China since 1949, airen (愛人, originally "lover," or more literally, "love person") is the dominant word for "spouse" (with separate terms for "wife" and "husband" originally being de-emphasized); the word once had a negative connotation, which it retains among many on Taiwan.
- Lian (戀) is not generally used alone, but instead as part of such terms as "being in love" (談戀愛, tan lian'ai—also containing ai), "lover" (戀人, lianren) or "homosexuality" (同性戀, tongxinglian).
- Qing (情), commonly meaning "feeling" or "emotion," often indicates "love" in several terms. It is contained in the word aiqing (愛情); qingren (情人) is a term for "lover". In Confucianism, lian is a virtuous benevolent love. Lian should be pursued by all human beings, and reflects a moral life. The Chinese philosopher Mozi developed the concept of ai (愛) in reaction to Confucian lian. Ai, in Mohism, is universal love towards all beings, not just towards friends or family, without regard to reciprocation. Extravagance and offensive war are inimical to ai. Although Mozi's thought was influential, the Confucian lian is how most Chinese conceive of love. Gănqíng (感情), the feeling of a relationship. A person will express love by building good gănqíng, accomplished through helping or working for another. Emotional attachment toward another person or anything. Yuanfen (緣份) is a connection of bound destinies. A meaningful relationship is often conceived of as dependent strong yuanfen. It is very similar to serendipity. A similar conceptualization in English is, "They were made for each other," "fate," or "destiny". Zaolian (Simplified: 早恋, Traditional: 早戀, pinyin: zǎoliàn), literally, "early love," is a contemporary term in frequent use for romantic feelings or attachments among children or adolescents. Zaolian describes both relationships among a teenaged boyfriend and girlfriend, as well as the "crushes" of early adolescence or childhood. The concept essentially indicates a prevalent belief in contemporary Chinese culture that due to the demands of their studies (especially true in the highly competitive educational system of China), youth should not form romantic attachments lest their jeopardize their chances for success in the future. Reports have appeared in Chinese newspapers and other media detailing the prevalence of the phenomenon and its perceived dangers to students and the fears of parents.

Japanese

In Japanese Buddhism, ai (愛) is passionate caring love, and a fundamental desire. It can develop towards either selfishness or selflessness and enlightenment. Amae (甘え), a Japanese word meaning "indulgent dependence", is part of the child-rearing culture of Japan. Japanese mothers are expected to hug and indulge their children, and children are expected to reward their mothers by clinging and serving. Some sociologists have suggested that Japanese social interactions in later life are modeled on the mother-child amae.

Ancient Greek

Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word love is used. For example, ancient Greek has the words philia, eros, agape, storge and xenia. However, with Greek as with many other languages, it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time the ancient Greek text of the Bible has examples of the verb agapo being used with the same meaning as phileo. Agape ( agápē) means love in modern day Greek. The term s'agapo means I love you in Greek. The word agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a "pure", ideal type of love rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. However, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros. It has also been translated as "love of the soul". Eros ( érōs) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word erota means in love. Plato refined his own definition. Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty, and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as "love of the body". Philia ( philía), means friendship in modern Greek, a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept developed by Aristotle. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. Storge ( storgē) means affection in modern Greek; it is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring. Xenia (ξενία philoxenía), means hospitality in modern Greek, was an extremely important practice in ancient Greece. It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and their guest, who could previously be strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was only expected to repay with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology, in particular Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Greeks are known for their warm hospitality up to nowadays.

Ancient Roman (Latin)

The Latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the English word 'love'. Amare is the basic word for to love, as it still is in Italian today. The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense, as well as in a Romantic or sexual sense. From this verb come amans, a lover, amator, 'professional lover', often with the accessory notion of lechery, and amica, 'girlfriend' in the English sense, often as well being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The corresponding noun is amor, which is also used in the plural form to indicate 'love affairs' or 'sexual adventures'. This same root also produces amicus, 'friend', and amicitia, 'friendship' (often based on mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to 'indebtedness' or 'influence'). Cicero wrote a treatise called On Friendship (de Amicitia) which discusses the notion at some length. Ovid wrote a guide to dating called Ars Amatoria (The Art of Lovers), which addresses in depth everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective parents. Complicating the picture somewhat, Latin sometimes uses amare where English would simply say to like; this notion, however, is much more generally expressed in Latin by placere or delectare, which are used more colloquially, and the latter of which is used frequently in the love poetry of Catullus. Diligere often has the notion 'to be affectionate for', 'to esteem', and rarely if ever is used of romantic love. This word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men. The corresponding noun diligentia, however, has the meaning 'diligence' 'carefulness' and has little semantic overlap with the verb. Observare is a synonym for 'diligere'; despite the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding noun 'observantia' often denote 'esteem' or 'affection'. Caritas is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean 'charitable love'. This meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan Roman literature. As it arises from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corresponding verb.

Religious views

Christian

There are several Greek words for Love that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.
- Agape - In the New Testament, agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love seen as creating goodness in the world, it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.
- Phileo - Also used in the New Testament, Phileo is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love".
- Two other words for love in the Greek language -- Eros (sexual love) and storge (needy child-to parent love) were never used in the New Testament. C.S. Lewis, an influential Christian theologian, wrote a book called The Four Loves. Christians believe that to love God with all your heart, mind, and strength and Love your neighbor as yourself are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of God, according to Jesus). See The Gospel of Mark chapter 12, verses 28-34). Saint Augustine summarised this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt". Saint Paul glorified agape love as the most important virtue of all in 1 Corinthians, chapter 13. Attempting to define it he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres.Love never fails."(NIV 13:4-8) Christians also believe that God felt so much agape love for man that he sacrificed his son for them. John the Apostle wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but the save the world through him." (NIV John 3:16-17) Many Christians theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their relationships.

Buddhist

In Buddhism, Kāma is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to enlightenment, since it is selfish. Karuṇā is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to wisdom, and is necessary for enlightenment. Adveṣa and maitrī are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from the ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex, which rarely occur without self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare. The Bodhisattva ideal in Tibetan Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. The strongest motivation one has in order to take the path of the Bodhisattva is the idea of salvation within unselfish love for others.

Hindu

In Hinduism kāma is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god Kama. For many Hindu schools it is the third end in life (artha). In contrast to kāma, prema or prem refers to elevated love. Karuna is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. Bhakti is a Sanskrit term from Hinduism meaning 'loving devotion to the supreme God'. A person who practices bhakti is called bhakta. Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of devotion that they call bhakti, for example in the Bhagavatha-Purana and according to Tulsidas. The booklet Narada bhakti sutra written by an unknown author distinguishes eleven forms of love.

Islamic

In a sense, love does encompass the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood which applies to all who hold the faith. There are no direct references stating that God is love, but amongst the 99 names of God (Allah), there is the name Al-Wadud or 'the Loving One', which is found in Surah 11:90 as well as Surah 85:14. It refers to God as being "full of loving kindness". In Islam, love is more often than not used as an incentive for sinners to aspire to be as worthy of God's love as they may. One still has God's love, but how the person evaluates his own worth is to his own and God's own counsel. All who hold the faith have God's love, but to what degree or effort he has pleased God depends on the individual itself. Ishq, or divine love, is the emphasis of Sufism. Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at itself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is oftentimes referred to as the religion of Love. God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved with the last of these terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through Love humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their Love of God, hence the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.

Jewish

In Hebrew Ahava is the most commonly-used term for both interpersonal love and love of God. Other related but dissimilar terms are Chen (grace) and Hesed, which basically combines the meaning of "affection" and "compassion" and is sometimes rendered in English as "loving-kindness". Judaism employs a wide definition of love, both between people and between man and the Deity. As for the former, the Torah states: "Love your neighbor like yourself" (Leviticus 19:18). As for the latter, one is commanded to love God "with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might" (Deuteronomy 6:5), taken by the Mishnah (a central text of the Jewish oral law) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all one's possessions and being grateful to the Lord despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5). Rabbinic literature differs how this love can be developed, e.g. by contemplating Divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature. As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" (Ecclesiastes 9:9). The Biblical book Song of Songs is a considered a romantically-phrased metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading reads like a love song. The 20th century Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point-of-view as "giving without expecting to take" (from his Michtav me-Eliyahu, vol. I). Romantic love per se has few echoes in Jewish literature, although the Medieval Rabbi Judah Halevi wrote romantic poetry in Arabic in his younger years (he appears to have regretted this later).

Mythological

Different cultures have deified love, typically in both male and female form. Here is a list of the gods and goddesses of love in different mythologies.
- Áine — goddess of fertility and passionate love in Irish mythology
- Amor or Cupid — god of passionate love in Roman mythology
- Aonghus or Aengus— god of beauty, youth, and sensual love in Irish mythology
- Aphrodite — goddess of beauty and passionate love in Greek mythology
- Astarte — goddess of love in Canaanite mythogy
- Eros — god of passionate love in Greek mythology
- Freya — goddess in Norse mythology
- Inanna — goddess of love and war in Sumerian mythology
- Ishtar — goddess of love and war in Babylonian mythology
- Kama — god of sensual love in Hindu mythology
- Rati — goddess of passionate love in Hindu mythology
- Venus — goddess of beauty and passionate love in Roman mythology
- Xochipilli — god in Aztec mythology

Theological

Even though in monotheistic religions, the God is considered to represent love, there are often angels or similar beings that represent love as well.
- Haniel — Angel of Venus in Judeo-Christian theology.
- Mihr — angel of love in Persian mythology Various angels in Judeo-Christian angelic lore are also angels of love, for example: Donquel, Rahmiel, Raphael and Theliel.

References

- R. J. Sternberg. A triangular theory of love. 1986. Psychological Review, 93, 119–135
- R. J. Sternberg. Liking versus loving: A comparative evaluation of theories. 1987. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 331–345
- Dorothy Tennov. Love and Limerence: the Experience of Being in Love. New York: Stein and Day, 1979. ISBN 0812861345
- Helen Fisher. Why We Love: the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love
- Wood, Wood and Boyd. The World of Psychology. 5th edition. 2005. Pearson Education, 402–403

External links

- "I love you" in various languages
- [http://iserver.saddleback.cc.ca.us/faculty/jfritsen/articles.html The Science of Love]
- [http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/RP2-Love.html Top 150 Definitions of Love]
- [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=42538 Love in Judaism]
- Zaolian (早恋) on Chinese Wikipedia Category:Love Category:Emotion Category:Personal life Category:Spirituality ja:愛

Infection

An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. In infection, the infecting organism seeks to utilize the host's resources in order to multiply at the expense of the host. The infecting organism, or pathogen, interferes with the normal functioning of the host and can lead to chronic wounds, gangrene, loss of an infected limb, and even death. The host's response to infection is inflammation. Colloquially, a pathogen is usually considered a microscopic organism though the definition is broader, including bacteria, parasites, fungi, viruses, prions, and viroids. The branch of medicine that focuses on infections and pathogens is infectious disease.

Colonization

Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a symbiotic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former would be the anaerobic bacteria species which colonize the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter would be the various species of staphylococcus which exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations would be considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Organisms which are normally non-pathogenic can become pathogenic under the right conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and viridians streptococci, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing. The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include:
- the route of entry of the pathogen and the access to host regions that it gains
- the intrinsic virulence of the particular organism
- the quantity or load of the initial inoculant
- the immune status of the host being colonized As an example, the staphylococcus species present on skin remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally sterile space, such as in the capsule of a joint or the peritoneum, will multiply without resistance and create a huge burden on the host.

Disease

A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. Sometimes the term is used broadly to include injuries, disabilities, syndromes, symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts these may be considered distinguishable categories. Pathology is the study of diseases. The subject of systematic classification of diseases is referred to as nosology. The broader body of knowledge about diseases and their treatments is medicine.

Syndromes, illness and disease

Medical usage sometimes distinguishes a disease, which has a known specific cause or causes (called its etiology), from a syndrome, which is a collection of signs or symptoms that occur together. However, many conditions have been identified, yet continue to be referred to as "syndromes". Furthermore, numerous conditions of unknown etiology are referred to as "diseases" in many contexts. Illness, although often used to mean disease, can also refer to a person's perception of their health, regardless of whether they in fact have a disease. A person without any disease may feel unhealthy and believe he has an illness. Another person may feel healthy and believe he does not have an illness even though he may have a disease such as dangerously high blood pressure which may lead to a fatal heart attack or stroke.

Transmission of disease

Some diseases, such as influenza, are contagious or infectious, and can be transmitted by any of a variety of mechanisms, including droplets from coughs and sneezes, by bites of insects or other vectors, from contaminated water or food, etc. Other diseases, such as cancer and heart disease are not considered to be due to infection, although micro-organisms may play a role.

Social significance of disease

The identification of a condition as a disease, rather than as simply a variation of human structure or function, can have significant social or economic implications. The controversial recognitions as diseases of post-traumatic stress disorder, also known as "shell shock"; repetitive motion injury or repetitive stress injury (RSI); and Gulf War syndrome has had a number of positive and negative effects on the financial and other responsibilities of governments, corporations and institutions towards individuals, as well as on the individuals themselves. The social implication of viewing aging as a disease could be profound, though this classification is not yet widespread. A condition may be considered to be a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. Oppositional-defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and, increasingly, obesity are conditions considered to be diseases in the United States and Canada today, but were not so-considered decades ago and are not so-considered in some other countries. Conversely, the number of people in the West who consider homosexuality to be a disease became widespread in the 20th century but has been decreasing in the last two decades. To consider a condition to be a disease can sometimes involve a negative social value judgement. Lepers were a group of afflicted individuals who were historically shunned and the term "leper" still evokes social stigma. Fear of disease can still be a widespread social phenomena, though not all diseases evoke extreme social stigma.

Other uses of the term

In biology, disease refers to any abnormal condition of an organism that impairs function. The term disease is often used metaphorically for disordered, dysfunctional, or distressing conditions of other things, as in disease of society.

External links

- [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html Health Topics], MedlinePlus descriptions of most diseases, with access to current research articles.
- [http://www.cdc.gov/health/default.htm Center for Disease Control Health Topics A-Z], fact sheets about many common diseases
- [http://rarediseases.about.com/ Rare/Orphan Diseases]
- [http://www.national-health.org/rarediseases/ National Organization for Rare Disorders] Extensive, useful information on rare diseases.
- [http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/sections.htm The Merck Manual], detailed description of most diseases, freely searchable online. Category:Diseases Category:Medical terms als:Krankheit zh-min-nan:Pīⁿ ms:Penyakit ja:病気 simple:Disease th:โรค

Herpes

The Herpes simplex virus infection (common names: herpes, cold sores) is a common, contagious, incurable, and in some cases sexually transmitted disease caused by a double-stranded DNA virus. Herpes is commonly known as "everybody's favourite STD". The infection can also affect the brain, in which case the consequent disease is called herpes simplex encephalitis.

HSV-1 and HSV-2

brain There are two main kinds of herpes simplex virus: type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2). Although HSV-1 is generally considered to be associated with orofacial infection, and HSV-2 with genital infection, both types can affect any region of the body. There are some differences, however, in the infectivity and severity of infection — HSV-1 infections are more easily acquired and infections are more severe in the orofacial region and similar with HSV-2 in the genital region. HSV-2 infection is of particular concern because of the largely asymptomatic nature of the infection, and the shedding of infective virions even in asymptomatic individuals. (Koutsky et al., 1990; Wald et al., 2000)

HSV disease

The ways in which herpes infections manifest themselves vary tremendously among individuals. The following are general descriptions of the courses outbreaks may take in the oral and genital regions.

Orofacial infection

brain #Prodromal symptoms #Skin appears irritated #Sore or cluster of fluid-filled blisters appear #Lesion begins to heal, usually without scarring These infections may appear on the lips, nose Nasal herpes or in surrounding areas. The sores may appear to be either weeping or dry, and may resemble a pimple, insect bite, or large chickenpox lesion. Lesions typically heal after a few days to a week (or more), but this varies among individuals. In clinical practice herpes outbreaks are likely to be far more subtle than the illustration on this page of an outbreak about the eye.

Genital infection

#Prodromal symptoms #Sore appears #Lesion begins to heal, usually without scarring In men, the lesions may occur on the shaft of the penis, in the genital region, on the inner thigh, buttocks, or anus. In women, lesions may occur on or near the pubis, labia, clitoris, vulva, buttocks, or anus. This may require a very careful examination e.g. during delivery examination by use of a flashlight may be necessary. The appearance of herpes lesions and the experience of outbreaks in these areas varies tremendously among individuals. Herpes lesions on/near the genitals may look like cold sores. An outbreak may look like a paper cut, or chafing, or appear to be a yeast infection. Symptoms of a genital outbreak may include aches and pains in the area, discharge from the penis or vagina, and discomfort when urinating. Initial outbreaks are usually more severe than subsequent ones, and generally also involve flu-like symptoms and swollen glands for a week or so. Subsequent outbreaks tend to be periodic or episodic, typically occur four to five times a year, and can be triggered by stress, illness, fatigue, menstruation, and other changes. The virus sequesters in the nerve ganglia that serve the infected dermatome during non-eruptive periods, where it cannot be conventionally eliminated by the body's immune system.

Other skin infections

Other forms of herpes simplex infection are rarer, but well characterized, and are sometimes given distinctive names, such as herpes gladiatorum, a skin infection spread through wrestling and other sports involving close skin-to-skin contact. Herpetic sycosis is a herpes simplex infection of the beard area in men, which may occur after shaving through a cold sore. In rarer cases, it seems that herpetic sycosis can occur as a primary herpes simplex outbreak.

Herpes simplex encephalitis

Herpes simplex encephalitis is a very serious disorder, thought to be caused by transmission of the infection from a peripheral site by nerve cells. Without treatment, it results in rapid death in around 70% of cases. Even with the best modern treatment, it is fatal in around 20% of cases, and causes serious longterm neurological damage in over half the survivors. A small population (perhaps 20%) of survivors show little long term damage. It is most common in children and middle-aged adults. Although herpes simplex is by no means the most common cause of viral encephalitis (accounting for about 10% of cases in the US), because of the high risk associated with it if it is not treated, patients presenting with encephalitis symptoms are likely to be treated against this disorder without waiting for a positive diagnosis.

Neonatal herpes simplex

Neonatal HSV disease is a rare, but serious, consequence of vertical HSV transmission from mother to newborn child. Prospective active surveillance data indicates an incidence rate of 3.61 per 100,000 live births in Australia, with similar rates in the UK; but much lower than the USA. (Elliot & Rose, 2004; Jones, 2004) Preliminary studies indicates the epidemiology in Canada is closer to Europe than to America. The mortality rate from neonatal HSV disease is high (up to 25%) despite current interventions with antiviral therapies. Death results from disseminated HSV disease and/or HSV encephalitis in the newborn children.

Outbreak triggers

Many people with herpes have reported that stress, increased exposure to the sun, viral infections, facial injuries and eating foods high in arginine, such as chocolate, peanuts and walnuts, may increase the chance and severity of outbreaks.

Prevalence

The incidence of herpes simplex in the United States rose 30% between 1976 and 1994. Data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) indicate an HSV-2 seroprevalence of 21.9% of the United States population. This rate was higher among women (25.9%) than men (17.8%). Independent risk factors for HSV-2 seropositivity were female sex, African American or Mexican-American ethnic background, older age, less education, poverty, cocaine use, and a greater lifetime number of sexual partners. (Fleming et al., 1997) If present trends in America continue, researchers estimate that 49 percent of women aged 15 to 39 will be infected with herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) versus 39 percent of males aged 15 to 39 by 2025. (Fisman, Lipsitch, Hook, and Goldie, Oct 2002). HSV-1, which is generally considered to be a less serious illness, actually afflicts the majority of the United States population. At the time of puberty, 50% of Americans already test positive for HSV-1 antibodies; over 80% test positive at age 50. (source [http://www.herpes.com/hsv1-2.html American Social Health Association])

Transmission

Herpes is contracted through direct skin contact (not necessarily in the genital area) with an infected person. The virus travels through tiny breaks in the skin or through moist areas, but symptoms may not appear for up to a month or more after infection. Transmission was thought to be most common during an active outbreak, however in the early 1980s scientists and doctors realized that the virus can be shed from the skin in the absence of symptoms. It is estimated that between 50 and 80% of new HSV-2 cases are from asymptomatic viral shedding. HSV asymptomatic shedding is believed to occur on 2.9% of days while on antiviral therapy, versus 10.8% of days without. Shedding is known to be more frequent within the first 12 months of acquiring HSV-2. There are some indications that some individuals may have much lower patterns of shedding, but evidence supporting this is not fully supported. Sex should always be avoided in the presence of symptomic lesions. Women are more susceptible to acquiring genital HSV-2 than men. On an annual basis, without the use of antivirals or condoms, the transmission risk fr

Sexually Transmitted Disease

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Herpes

HSV-1 and HSV-2

HSV disease

Orofacial infection

Genital infection

Other skin infections

Herpes simplex encephalitis

Neonatal herpes simplex

Outbreak triggers

Prevalence

Transmission