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Sienna

Sienna

:For the Italian city, see Siena. :For the vehicle, see Toyota Sienna. :For the British actress, see Sienna Guillory. Sienna Guillory Sienna Guillory Sienna is a form of limonite clay most famous in the production of oil paint pigments. Its yellow-brown colour comes from ferric oxides contained within. As a natural pigment, it (along with its chemical cousins ochre and umber) was one of the first pigments to be used by humans, and is found in many cave paintings. Sienna, in and of itself, is sometimes referred to as "raw sienna", in order to differentiate it from "burnt sienna", which is a more common pigment than the raw form. The difference is in the process applied to burnt sienna, which is raw sienna heated to remove the water from the clay and redden its brownish colour. The name derives from the most notable Renaissance location for the earth, Siena, Italy, and is short for terra di Sienna, "earth of Sienna". The mines used to produce this sienna petered out in the 1940s. Much of today's sienna production is still carried out in the Italian islands of Sardinia and Sicily, while other major deposits are found in the Appalachian Mountains, where it often goes hand-in-hand with the region's iron deposits. Many of these deposits date back to the Precambrian, and are pointed to as evidence of the Snowball Earth hypothesis. See also:
- SIENNA Technologies
- Sienna Plantation, Missouri
- clay earth pigment Category:Pigments ja:シェンナ

Siena

This page is about Siena, Italy. For the form of limonite clay, see sienna. ---- sienna sienna sienna Siena (pop. 52,775 in 2003) is a city in Tuscany, Italy, located at at an elevation of 322 m (1056 ft). It is the provincial capital of Siena province. The historic center of Siena has been declared by the Unesco a World Heritage Site.

History of Siena

Siena, like many other Tuscan hill towns, was first settled in the time of the Etruscans (circa 900BC to 400BC) when it was inhabited by a tribe called the Saina. The Etruscans were an advanced people who changed the face of central Italy through their use of irrigation to reclaim previously unfarmable land, and their custom of building their settlements in heavily armoured hill-forts. It has been argued that their Pagan society which practiced matrilineal inheritance, and was devoted to their goddesses was one of the reasons why Roman Goddesses such as Diana and, with the arrival of Christianity, the Virgin Mary came to be of such importance to the people of the Italian peninsula. If this is true, it suggests that the Cult of the Virgin which is omnipresent in the fabric of Siena's ancient stones has an origin which is older still. What we can say for certain is that the Romans founded a town called Saenna Julia on the site of a pre-existing Etruscan settlement, and from this has grown modern Siena. Siena may then have been under the control of invading Gaulish forces – who are known to have sacked Rome in 390 BC. Some archaeologists assert it was controlled for a period by a Gaulish tribe called the Saenones. The Roman origin accounts for the town’s emblem – a she-wolf suckling the infants’ Romulus and Remus. According to legend, Siena was founded by Senius, son of Remus, who was in turn the brother of Romulus, after whom Rome was named. Statues and other artwork depicting a she-wolf suckling the young twins Romulus and Remus can be seen all over the city of Siena. Other etymologies derive the name from the Etruscan family name "Saina", the Roman family name of the "Saenii", or the Latin word "senex" ("old") or the derived form "seneo", "to be old". Siena did not prosper under Roman rule. It was not sited near any major roads and therefore missed out on the resulting opportunities for trade. Its insular status meant that Christianity did not penetrate until the Fourth Century AD, and it was not until the Lombards invaded Siena and the surrounding territory that it knew prosperity. Their occupation and the fact that the old Roman roads of Aurelia and the Cassia passed through areas exposed to Byzantine raids, caused the roads between the Lombards Northern possessions and Rome to be re-routed through Siena. The inevitable consequence of this was that Siena prospered as a trading post, and the constant streams of pilgrims passing to and from Rome were to prove a valuable source of income in the centuries to come. The oldest aristocratic families in Siena date their line to the Lombards surrender in 774 to Charlemagne. At this point the city was inundated with a swarm of Frankish overseers who married into the existing Sienese nobility, and left a legacy that can be seen in the abbeys they founded throughout Sienese territory. Feudal power waned however, and by the death of Countess Matilda in 1115 the Mark of Tuscia which had been under the control of her family – the Canossa – broke up into several autonomous regions. Siena prospered under the new arrangements, becoming a major centre of money lending and an important player in the wool trade. It was governed at first directly by its Bishop, but episcopal power declined during the 1100s. The bishop was forced to concede a greater say in the running of the city to the nobility in exchange for their help during a territorial dispute with Arezzo, and this started a process which culminated in 1167 when the commune of Siena declared its independence from episcopal control. By 1179, it had a written constitution. This period was also crucial in shaping the Siena we know today. It was during the 1100s that the majority of the construction of the Duomo, Siena’s cathederal, was completed. It was also during this period that the Piazza del Campo, now regarded as one of the most beautiful civic spaces in Europe, grew in importance as the centre of secular life. New streets were constructed leading to it and it served as the site of the market, and the location of many sporting events (perhaps better thought of as riots, in the fashion of the Florentine football matches that are still practised to this day). A wall was constructed in 1194 at the current site of the Palazzo Pubblico to stop soil erosion, an indication of how important the area was becoming as a civic space. In the early 12th century, when a self-governing commune replaced the earlier aristocratic government. The consuls who governed the republic slowly became more inclusive of the poblani, or common people, and the Commune increased its territory as the surrounding feudal nobles in their fortified castles submitted to the urban power. Siena's republic, struggling internally between nobles and the popular party, usually worked in political opposition to its great rival, Florence, and was in the 13th century predominantly Ghibelline in opposition to Florence's Guelph position (the backdrop for Dante's Commedia). On September 4 1260 The Sieneses Ghibellines, supported by the forces of King Manfred of Sicily, defeated the Florentine Guelphs at Montaperti. The Sienese faced an overwhelming Florentine army. Prior to the battle, the entire city was dedicated to the Virgin Mary and entrusted to her possession – something which has been renewed several times since, most recently in 1944 to guard the city from the threat of Allied bombs. The man given command of Siena for the duration of the war, Bonaguida Lucari walked barefoot and bareheaded, a halter around his neck, to the Duomo. Leading a procession composed of all the city’s residents, he was met by all the clergy. Lucari and the Bishop embraced, to show the unity of church and state, then Luceri formally gave the city and contado to the Virgin. Legend has it that a thick white cloud descended on the battlefield, giving the Sienese cover and aiding their attack. They inflicted a crushing defeat and massacred the forces of their enemy, so crushing was the defeat that even today if the two cities meet in any sporting event, the Sienese supporters are likely to exhort their Florentine counterparts to “Remember Montaperti!”. Montaperti Siena's university, founded in 1203 and famed for its faculties of law and medicine, is still among the most important Italian universities. Siena rivalled Florence in the arts through the 13th and 14th centuries: the important late medieval painter Duccio (1253–1319) was a Senese but worked across the peninsula, and the mural of "Good Government" by Ambrogio Lorenzetti in the Palazzo Pubblico, or town hall, is a magnificent example of late-Medieval/early Renaissance art as well as a representation of the utopia of urban society as conceived during that period. Siena was devastated by the Black Plague of 1348 and never recovered its earlier glory, losing out to Florence in inter-urban rivalry. Siena retained its independence in Tuscany until 1557. The picturesque city remains an important cultural centre, specially for humanist disciplines.

Art and Architecture

Siena's cathedral, the Duomo, begun in the 12th century, is one of the great examples of Italian romanesque architecture. Its main facade was completed in 1380. Its campanile and baptistry make a fine group. Inside is the famous Gothic octagonal pulpit by Nicola Pisano (1266–1268) supported on lions, and the labyrinth inlaid in the flooring, traversed by penitents on their knees. Beneath the Duomo, in the baptistry is the marvelous baptismal font with bas-reliefs by Donatello, Ghiberti, Jacopo della Quercia and other 15th-century sculptors. The Museo dell'Opera del Duomo contains Duccio's famous Maestà (1308–1311) and various other works by Sienese masters. More Sienese paintings are to be found in the Pinacoteca. The shell-shaped Piazza del Campo, the town square, which houses the Palazzo Pubblico and the Torre del Mangia, is another architectural treasure, and is famous for hosting the Palio. The Palazzo Pubblico, itself a great work of architecture, houses yet another important art museum. Included within the museum is Ambrogio Lorenzetti's series of frescos on the good government and the results of good and bad government. On the Piazza Salimbeni is the Palazzo Salimbeni, a notable building and also the medieval headquarters of Monte dei Paschi di Siena, one of the oldest banks in continuous existence and a major player in the Sienese economy. Housed in the beautiful Gothic Palazzo Chigi on Via di Città is the Accademia Musicale Chigiana, Siena's conservatory of music. Siena is also the home of Siena Jazz School, which hosts the summer Jazz Concert, and of Sessione Senese per la Musica è l'arte (SSMA), a leading classical and opera summer music festival. The football club A.C. Siena, currently of Serie A, play their games at the Stadio Artemio Franchi.

Il Palio

The Palio delle contrade is a horse race held twice each year, in which the horse and rider represent one of the seventeen contrade, city wards. See Palio di Siena for more information.

Getting There

The nearest airport to Siena is Pisa. Siena can be reached by train from both Pisa and Florence, changing at Empoli. Siena's train station is located at the bottom of a long hill, and travellers with luggage should look for a taxi or bus (from the stop opposite the station). Bus connections are available from Florence and Rome, and from various other towns in Tuscany and beyond. Drivers should be aware that almost no traffic is permitted within the city centre. A large carpark is located on the outskirts (payment required).

External links

- [http://www.comune.siena.it/ Official site]
- [http://www.aboutsiena.com/ AboutSiena.Com]
- [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/italy-tuscany/siena/ Photographs of Siena] Category:Siena ja:シエーナ

Toyota Sienna

The Toyota Sienna is a minivan built in the United States for the North American market, and shares its platform and engines with the Toyota Camry. It replaced the Previa in model year 1998 as a more conventional front wheel drive van, and was updated for model year 2004 with a larger model.

First Generation (1998-2003)

In late 1997, Toyota discontinued its much-criticized Toyota Previa with a more conventional design, the 1998 Toyota Sienna. The Toyota Sienna had a 3.0 engine rated at 194 horsepower and 210 ft-lb. Built on an extended Toyota Camry platform, the Sienna was initially billed as the Camry of minivans. The first generation Sienna exhibited great driving dynamics making it one of the best handling minivans on the market. The Sienna was better-suited to compete with the highly-acclaimed Caravan line from Chrysler, but still lacked the size and features such as traction control, DVD navigation system, and backup sensors of the market leaders, including the redesigned Honda Odyssey which followed a year after. The first-generation Sienna was the first minivan to earn a "best pick" from the Insurance Institute For Highway Safety. The mpg is 18 in the city and 24 on the highway.

Second Generation (2004-Present)

In January 2003, the second generation Sienna was shown at the Detroit Auto Show. The new Sienna had a 3.3 liter engine from the Camry rated at 230 horsepower and 242ft-lb. The new Sienna offered innovative features such as the fold-flat 60/40 third-row seat, eight passenger seating, backup sensors, rearview camera, kid view mirror, available all wheel drive, a navigation system, and a more luxurious XLE Limited model. This model is currently one of the top-selling minivans. The mpg is 19 in the city an 26 in the highway. In July 2005, changes to the 2006 model year was announced. The front facia, side molding, and rear tailights were redesigned. The measurements for horsepower and torque were changed to SAE's new specifications. Optitron gauges were added to LE, XLE, and Limited grades. The XLE in XLE Limited was cut off. Power driver's seat memory option was also added to XLE and Limited grades. Bluetooth and power folding third row seats were also added as options. Side and curtain air bags were changed to standard for all model grades. But, the optional rear seat audio system has been discontinued. Full list of changes are available at SiennaClub.org[http://www.siennaclub.org/forum/index.php?showtopic=8498].

Awards

2004:
- Car and Driver's Five Best Trucks "van" award
- [http://www.edmunds.com/reviews/mostwanted/2004/index.html#vans Edmunds Editor's Most Wanted Van] and [http://www.edmunds.com/reviews/consumersmostwanted/2004/index.html#van Edmund Consumer's Most Wanted Van]
Models
The 2005 Toyota Sienna is avaliable in:
- CE ($23,425 MSRP)
- LE ($24,930 MSRP)
- XLE ($29,225 MSRP)
- XLE Limited ($35,495 MSRP) The 2006 Toyota Sienna is avaliable in:
- CE ($23,625 MSRP)
- LE ($25,130 MSRP)
- XLE ($29,425 MSRP)
- Limited ($35,880 MSRP)
2006 Specifications

- Engine: 3.3 L DOHC 24-valve VVT-i V6
- Output: 215 hp (160 kW) at 5600 rpm and 222 ft·lbf (301 N·m) at 3600 rpm (SAE Net)
- Transmission: 5-speed electronically controlled automatic transmission
- Drivetrain: Front wheel drive, all wheel drive avaliable on LE, XLE, XLE Limited (CE in Canada)
- Turning Diameter: 36.8 ft (11.2 m)
- Brakes: Power-assisted ventilated front disc, rear drum with anti-lock braking system (ABS), with 4-wheel disc brakes on XLE Limited, AWD models or with available Vehicle Stability Control system and Brake Assist
External links

- [http://toyota.com/sienna Toyota USA Sienna site]
- [http://siennaclub.org SiennaClub.org] Sienna Category:Minivans

Sienna Guillory

Sienna Guillory (born May 31, 1975 in Fulham, London, England) is a British actress and model.

Biography

Sienna Guillory is the daughter of Cuban-born guitarist Isaac Guillory and Victoria Guillory. Sienna grew up in a very bohemian household surrounded by performers, therefore it may seem natural that she ended up pursuing acting and modelling. She was christened by her mother after the color/pigment sienna. Sienna has two sisters, Ellie and Jace, and one brother, Jacob. She is married to fellow British actor/director, Enzo Cilenti. She previously dated actor Nick Moran.

Stats

- Height: 5' 6" (1.68m)
- Weight: 110lbs (50kg)
- Sign: Gemini
- Measurements: 34B-24-32 (Dress Size 4, USA)
- Eyes: Blue/Grey
- Hair: Blonde

Professional life

sienna sienna Sienna first started acting when she was 16 years old, she played a small part in the British TV adaptation of Jilly Cooper's Riders. She then starred in "The Buccaneers" opposite Mira Sorvino. It was at this point that Sienna decided that she wanted to learn more about acting and pursued contracts in independent films and shorts. Sienna's pursuit of acting was placed on hiatus in 1995. Sienna had just returned from an independent film in Russia with a friend that she had met, a ballerina. Sienna's friend wanted to become a model, so Sienna brought her friend to the Select Models agency where they were both signed onto the roster immediately; Sienna was 21. As a model for Select Models, Guillory worked on such respected campaigns as Armani, Dolce & Gabanna, Burberry, and Paul Smith. She was also the face of Hugo Boss' fragrance campaign for three years. However, Sienna was still drawn to acting, and decided to take up studies at the New World School of the Dramatic Arts, as well as at the Paris Conservatoire to perfect her acting abilites. Sienna's potential as an elite actress is evident in the quality of the roles that she has attracted. In 2000, she garnered critical acclaim for her role in the BBC series Take a Girl Like You playing the coveted role of Jenny Bunn. She also landed the lead role of Helen in the TV mini-series Helen of Troy in 2002. "I can't think of a bigger compliment than to be cast as the woman whose beauty has become legendary." Says Guillory. Indeed, it is well known that Helen of Troy was purported to be the most beautiful woman to grace the Earth. Though an incredibly flattering association, it is warranted in Sienna's case. The role of Helen required some partial nudity, though Sienna didn't mind too much, she is quoted in Playboy magazine as saying that she "...didn't like [her] nipples showing because they [looked] like targets." Sienna has recently been touted as a rising star; "Sienna Guillory is fast establishing herself as one of Britain's hottest actresses, with a growing portfolio of film roles, magazine covers, and newspaper stories to her credit." As quoted by PBS. However, she has been cautious in distinguishing between being an actor, and being a star. Sienna wishes to be known for her skill and acting prowess, rather than by her name and face; as such, she eschews star status and fame in favor of being an (almost) unknown actor. In her interview on the Chatshow Network in 2000, Sienna discussed that her love of acting was for its therapeutic quality. Whereas stereotypically, actors are lured by fame and fortune, Sienna is unique in that she enjoys acting for more humble reasons. By extension, she is apprehensive about a career in Hollywood. She knows how fickle producers and directors can be in Tinseltown, an experience Sienna learned firsthand. "That experience of Hollywood taught me a lot", says Sienna "but I still feel like I'm a Hollywood virgin." Sienna is best-known for her role as Jill Valentine in Resident Evil: Apocalypse, though her roles in The Time Machine and Helen of Troy are notable as well. Sienna has also garnered publicity elsewhere: in late 2004, Sienna made headlines for publicly condemning fellow British actress Kate Beckinsale for allegedly undergoing breast enhancement surgery. Sienna is currently filming for Eragon where she plays Arya, the film is slated for a summer 2006 release.

Filmography

- Resident Evil: Afterlife (2007) (pre-production) - Jill Valentine
- Eragon (2006) (filming) - Arya
- In the Bathroom (2005) - The Woman
- Rabbit Fever (2005) - Newscaster
- Silence Becomes You (2005) - Grace
- Resident Evil: Apocalypse (2004) - Jill Valentine
- Love Actually (2003) - Jamie's Girlfriend
- The Principles of Lust (2003) - Juliette
- The Time Machine (2002) - Emma
- Superstition (2001) - Julie
- Late Night Shopping (2001) - Susie
- Oblivious (2001) - Jessica
- Sorted (2000) - Sunny
- The 3 Kings (2000) - Roxana
- Kiss Kiss (Bang Bang) (2000) - Kat
- Two Days, Nine Lives (2000) - Kate
- The Rules of Engagement (1999) - Denise
- Star! Star! (1999) - Lu
- The Future Lasts a Long Time (1996) - Blue

Television

- "The Virgin Queen" (2005) (mini) - Lettice Knowles
- Marple: A Murder is Announced (2005) (TV) - Julia Simmons
- Beauty aka Trapped Beauty (2004) (TV) - Cathy Wardle
- Helen of Troy (2003) (TV) - Helen
- Take a Girl Like You (2000) (TV) - Jenny Bunn
- "The Buccaneers" (1995) (TV) - Lady Felicia
- Riders (1993) (TV) - Fenella Maxwell

Trivia

- She beat out 200 other hopefuls for the role of Jenny Bunn in Take a Girl Like You, and 2000 hopefuls for the role of Arya in Eragon.
- She was ranked #89 on Maxim's "100 Sexiest Women" list in 2002.
- Esquire magazine voted Guillory "Britain's Most Eligible Woman," before she married actor/director Enzo Cilenti. Guillory and her husband currently reside in London.
- According to an interview conducted by British magazine, Empire, Guillory will return for Resident Evil: Afterlife.
- She is a smoker, her favorite brand is Natural American Spirit.
- She has worked as a waitress.

External links

- [http://siennaguillory.net/ Guillory fansite]
- [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0347149/ Sienna Guillory] at the Internet Movie Database
- [http://www.sleepercar.net/sienna/ Simply Sienna Fan Site]
- [http://www.chatshow.net/Interviews/interview.aspx?interviewID=47 Sienna Guillory Interview] at the Chatshow Network Guillory, Sienna Guillory, Sienna

Limonite

Limonite is a hydrated iron(III) oxide-hydroxide of varying composition. The generic formula is frequently written as FeO(OH)·nH₂O, although this is not entirely accurate as limonite often contains a varying amount of oxide compared to hydroxide. Together with hematite, it has been mined as ore for the production of iron. Limonite is heavy and yellowish-brown. It is not a true mineral, but rather a mixture of similar hydrated iron oxide minerals, mostly goethite with lepidocrocite, jarosite, and others. Limonite forms mostly in or near oxidized iron and other metal ore deposits and as sedimentary beds. Limonite may occur as the cementing material in iron rich sandstones. It is named from the Greek word for meadow, in allusion to its occurrence as "bog-ore" in meadows and marshes. It is never crystallized, but may have a fibrous or microcrystalline structure, and commonly occurs in concretionary forms or in compact and earthy masses; sometimes mammillary, botryoidal, reniform or stalactitic. The colour presents various shades of brown and yellow, and the streak is always brownish, a character which distinguishes it from hematite with a red, or from magnetite with a black streak. It is sometimes called brown hematite or brown iron ore. crystal Limonite has been known to form pseudomorphs after other minerals such as pyrite, meaning it replaces a crystal of pyrite with limonite but keeps the external shape of the pyrite crystal. In many cases it has been formed from other iron oxides, like hematite and magnetite, or by the alteration of pyrite or siderite. The hardness is variable, but generally in the 4 - 5.5 range. The specific gravity varies from 2.9 to 4.3. specific gravity

Uses of limonite

In the past bog ore or brown iron ore were mined as a source of iron. Iron caps or gossans of siliceous iron oxide typically forms as the result of intensive oxidation of sulfide ore deposits. These gossans were used by prospectors as guides to buried ore. In addition the oxidation of sulfide deposits which contained gold mineralization often resulted in the concentration of gold in the iron oxide and quartz of the gossans. Gold bearing limonite gossans were productively mined in the Shasta County, California mining district. Similar deposits were mined in Rio Tinto, Spain and Mt. Morgan, Australia. In the Dahlonega gold belt in Lumpkin County, Georgia gold was mined from limonite rich lateritic or saprolite soil. The gold of the primary veins was concentrated into the limonites of the deeply weathered rocks. In another example the deeply weathered iron formations of Brazil served to concentrate gold with the limonite of the resulting soils. Limonite from occurrences with consistent color is used as the yellow-brown natural earth pigment ochre.

External links

- [http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/limonite/limonite.htm Mineral galleries]
- [http://www.mindat.org/min-2402.html Mindat]
- [http://www.minelinks.com/alluvial/deposits5.html Gold and limonite] Category:Oxide minerals Category:Iron minerals

Clay

:For the town in the United States, see Clay, New York. Clay, New York.]] Clay is a generic term for an aggregate of hydrous silicate particles less than 4 μm (micrometres) in diameter. Clay consists of a variety of phyllosilicate minerals rich in silicon and aluminium oxides and hydroxides which include variable amounts of structural water. Clays are generally formed by the chemical weathering of silicate-bearing rocks by carbonic acid, but some are formed by hydrothermal activity. Clays are distinguished from other small particles present in soils such as silt by their small size, flake or layered shape, affinity for water and high plasticity index. There are three main groups of clays: kaolinite-serpentine, illite, and smectite. Altogether, there are about thirty different types of "pure" clays in these categories, but most "natural" clays are mixtures of these different types, as well as other weathered minerals. Montmorillonite, with a chemical formula of (Na,Ca)_0.33(Al,Mg)₂Si₄O₁₀(OH)₂·nH₂O, is typically formed as a weathering product of low silica rocks. Montmorillonite is a member of the smectite group and a major component of bentonite. Varve (or varved clay) is clay with visible annual layers, formed by seasonal differences in erosion and organic content. This type of deposit is common in former glacial lakes from the ice age. Quick clay is a unique type of marine clay, indigenous to the glaciated terrains of Norway, Canada, and Sweden. It is a highly sensitive clay, prone to liquefaction which has been involved in several deadly landslides.

Historical and modern uses of clay

Clays are heavy in texture yet soft to the touch. Clay is a malleable substance when wet, which means it can be shaped easily with the hands. When dry, it becomes firm and when "fired," or hardened by intense heat, clay becomes permanently solid. A fireplace specifically designed for hardening clay is called a kiln. These properties make clay an ideal subtance for making pottery, stoneware and various other practical items. Early humans discovered the useful properties of clay in prehistoric times, and one of the earliest artifacts ever uncovered is a drinking vessel made of sun-dried clay. Depending on the content of the soil, clay can appear in various colors, from a dull gray to a deep orange-red. Clays sintered in fire were the first ceramic, and remain one of the cheapest to produce and most widely used materials even in the present day. Bricks, cooking pots, art objects, dishware, spark plug bodies, and even musical instruments such as the ocarina are all made with clay. Clay is also used in many industrial processes, such as paper making, concrete production, and chemical filtering.

Reference

- [http://www.minsocam.org/msa/collectors_corner/arc/nomenclaturecl1.htm Clay mineral nomenclature American Mineralogist] Category:Sedimentology Category:Silicate minerals Category:Natural materials Category:Art materials Category:Sediments ms:Tanah liat ja:粘土

Pigment

:For the drug referred to as "pigment," see black tar heroin. In biology, pigment is any material resulting in colour in plant or animal cells which is the result of selective absorption. Some biological material has so-called structural colour, which is the result of selective reflection or iridescence, usually done with multilayer structures. Unlike structural colour, pigment color is the same for all viewing angles. Nearly all types of cells, such as skin, eyes, fur and hair contain pigment. Butterfly wings typically contain structural colour, although many of them contain pigment as well. Creatures that have deficient pigmentation are called albinos. Because pigment colour is the result of selective absorption, there is no such thing as white pigment. A white object is simply a diffuse reflecting object which does not contain any pigment. In the coloring of paint, ink, plastic, fabric and other material, a pigment is a dry colorant, usually an insoluble powder. There are both natural and synthetic pigments, both organic and inorganic ones. Pigments work by selectively absorbing some parts of the visible spectrum (see light) whilst reflecting others. A distinction is usually made between a pigment, which is insoluble, and a dye, which is either a liquid, or is soluble. There is a well-defined dividing line between pigments and dyes: a pigment is not soluble in the vehicle while a dye is. From this follows that a certain colourant can be both a pigment and a dye depending on in which vehicle it is used. In some cases, a pigment will be made by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a "lake".

List of pigments

Heme/Porphyrin based

- Chlorophyll
- Bilirubin
- Hemocyanin
- Hemoglobin
- Myoglobin

Light emitting

- Luciferin

Lipochromes

- Carotenoids
- Alpha and Beta Carotene
- Cyanins
- Anthocyanin
- Lycopene
- Rhodopsin
- Xanthophylls
- Canthaxanthin
- Zeaxanthin
- Lutein

Photosynthetic

- Chlorophyll
- Phycobilin

Other

- Hematochrome
- Melanin - Which causes human skin coloration
- Phthalocyanine blue
- Urochrome
- polyene enolates are a class of red pigments unique to parrots.

Painting pigments

- Alizarin (Alizarin Crimson)
- Bone black (also known as bone char)
- Cadmium pigments (Cadmium Green, Cadmium Red, Cadmium Yellow, Cadmium Orange)
- Caput Mortuum
- Carbon black
- Cerulean blue
- Chromium pigments (Chrome Green, Chrome Yellow)
- Cobalt pigments (Cobalt Blue)
- Crimson
- Fugitive pigments
- Gamboge
- Indian Yellow
- Indigo
- Ivory black
- Vine black
- Lamp black
- Mars black
- Lead pigments (Lead white, Naples Yellow, Cremnitz White, Foundation White, Red Lead)
- Paris Green
- Phthalocyanine (Phthalo Green, Phthalo Blue)
- Prussian blue
- Quinacridone (Quinacridone Magenta)
- Oxide Red
- Red ochre
- Sanguine
- Sienna (Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna)
- Titanium dioxide (Titanium White)
- Ultramarine (Ultramarine Green Shade, French Ultramarine)
- Umber (Raw Umber, Burnt Umber)
- Van Dyke brown
- Venetian Red
- Verdigris
- Vermilion
- Viridian
- Yellow ochre
- Zinc white

External links

- [http://webexhibits.org/pigments/ Pigments through the ages]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/733747.stm Earliest evidence of art found] ja:顔料

Ochre

Ochre or Ocher (pronounced OAK-ur, from the Greek ochros, yellow) is a color, usually described as golden-yellow or light yellow brown.

Pigment

color As a painting pigment it exists in at least three forms:
- yellow ochre, Fe₂O₃ • H₂O, a hydrated Iron oxide
- red ochre, Fe₂O₃, chemically identical to yellow ochre, but reddened through heating
- brown ochre (Goethite), also partly hydrated iron oxide (rust) For further information, see the articles on the individual ochres. They are found throughout the world in many shades. Many sources consider the best brown ochre to come from Cyprus, and the best yellow and red ochre from Roussillon, France. All have been used since prehistoric times, and are some of oldest pigments used.

Burnt sienna

Burnt sienna is an iron oxide pigment: a warm mid brown color. It is also a Crayola color (see color box to the right). Chemically, burnt sienna is formed by burning raw sienna (Terra di Sienna). See also: List of colors category:Shades of brown Category:Shades of red

Renaissance

The Renaissance, also known as "Il Rinascimento" (in Italian), was an influential cultural movement which brought about a period of scientific revolution and artistic transformation, at the dawn of modern European history. It marks the transitional period between the end of the Middle Ages and the start of the Modern Age. The Renaissance is usually considered to have originated in the 14th century in northern Italy and begun in the late 15th century in northern Europe.

Historiography

The term Rebirth (Rinascenza), to indicate the flourishing of artistic and scientific activities starting in Italy in the mid-1300's, was first used by the Italian historian Giorgio Vasari in the Vite, published in 1550. The term Renaissance is the French translation, used by French historian Jules Michelet, and expanded upon by Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (both in the 1860s). Rebirth is used in two ways. First, it means rediscovery of ancient classical texts and learning and their applications in the arts and sciences. Second, it means that the results of these intellectual activities created a revitalization of European culture in general. Thus it is possible to speak of the Renaissance in two different but meaningful ways: A rebirth of classical learning and knowledge through the rediscovery of ancient texts, and also a rebirth of European culture in general. classical learning and knowledge, an example of the blend of art and science during the Renaissance.]]

Multiple Renaissances

During the last quarter of the 20th century many scholars took the view that the Renaissance was perhaps only one of many such movements. This is in large part due to the work of historians like Charles H. Haskins (1870–1937), who made a convincing case for a "Renaissance of the 12th century", as well as by historians arguing for a "Carolingian Renaissance." Both of these concepts are now widely accepted by the scholarly community at large; as a result, the present trend among historians is to discuss each so-called renaissance in more particular terms, e.g., the Italian Renaissance, the English Renaissance, etc. This terminology is particularly useful because it eliminates the need for fitting "The Renaissance" into a chronology that previously held that it was preceded by the Middle Ages and followed by the Reformation, which many believe to be inaccurate. The entire period is now often replaced by the term "Early Modern". (See periodisation, Lumpers and splitters) Other periods of cultural rebirth have also been termed a "renaissance"; such as the Harlem Renaissance or the San Francisco Renaissance. The other renaissances are not considered further in this article, which will concentrate on the Renaissance as the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age...

Critical views

Since the term was first created in the 19th century, historians have various interpretations on the Renaissance. The traditional view is that the Renaissance of the 15th century in Italy, spreading through the rest of Europe, represented a reconnection of the west with classical antiquity, the absorption of knowledge—particularly mathematics—from Arabic, the return of experimentalism, the focus on the importance of living well in the present (e.g. humanism), an explosion of the dissemination of knowledge brought on by printing and the creation of new techniques in art, poetry and architecture which led to a radical change in the style and substance of the arts and letters. This period, in this view, represents Europe emerging from a long period as a backwater, and the rise of commerce and exploration. The Italian Renaissance is often labelled as the beginning of the "modern" epoch. Marxist historians view the Renaissance as a pseudo-revolution with the changes in art, literature, and philosophy affecting only a tiny minority of the very wealthy and powerful while life for the great mass of the European population was unchanged from the Middle Ages. They thus deny that it is an event of much importance. Today most historians view the Renaissance as largely an intellectual and ideological change, rather than a substantive one. Moreover, many historians now point out that most of the negative social factors popularly associated with the "medieval" period - poverty, ignorance, warfare, religious and political persecution, and so forth - seem to have actually worsened during this age of Machiavelli, the Wars of Religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the intensified witch-hunts of the 16th century. Many of the common people who lived during the "Renaissance" are known to have been concerned by the developments of the era rather than viewing it as the "golden age" imagined by certain 19th century authors. Perhaps the most important factor of the Renaissance is that those involved in the cultural movements in question - the artists, writers, and their patrons - believed they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Middle Ages, even if much of the rest of the population seems to have viewed the period as an intensification of social maladies. Johan Huizinga (1872–1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. He argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the high Middle Ages, which destroyed much that was important. The Latin language, for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still used in the church and by others as a living language. However, the Renaissance obsession with classical purity saw Latin revert to its classical form and its natural evolution halted. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep economic recession. Meanwhile George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both criticised how the Renaissance affected science, arguing that progress was slowed.

Start of the Renaissance

science, Italy. Florence was the capital of the Renaissance]] The Renaissance has no set starting point or place. It happened gradually at different places at different times and there are no defined dates or places for when the Middle Ages ended. The starting place of the Renaissance is almost universally ascribed to Central Italy, especially the city of Florence. One early Renaissance figure is the poet Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), the first writer to embody the spirit of the Renaissance. Petrarch (1304–1374) is another early Renaissance figure. As part of the humanist movement he concluded that the height of human accomplishment had been reached in the Roman Empire and the ages since have been a period of social rot which he labeled the Dark Ages. Petrarch saw history as social, art and literary advancement, and not as a series of set religious events. Re-birth meant the rediscovery of ancient Roman and Greek Latin heritage through ancient manuscripts and the humanist method of learning. These new ideas from the past (called the "new learning" at the time) triggered the coming advancements in art, science and other areas. Another possible starting point is the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453. It was a turning point in warfare as cannon and gunpowder became a central element. In addition, Byzantine-Greek scholars fled west to Rome bringing renewed energy and interest in the Greek and Roman heritage, and it perhaps represented the end of the old religious order in Europe.

Italian Renaissance

gunpowder past with the features of his Renaissance contemporaries. School of Athens (above) is perhaps the most extended study in this.]] The Italian Renaissance was intertwined with the intellectual movement known as Renaissance humanism and with the fiercely independent and combative urban societies of the city-states of central and northern Italy in the 13th to 16th centuries. Italy was the birthplace of the Renaissance for several reasons. The first two or three decades of the 15th century saw the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence, particularly in Florence. This 'Florentine enlightenment' (Holmes) was a major achievement. It was a classical, classicising culture which sought to live up to the republican ideals of Athens and Rome. Sculptors used Roman models and classical themes. This society had a new relationship with its classical past. It felt it owned it and revived it. Florentines felt akin to 1st century BC republican Rome. Rucellai wrote that he belonged to a great age; Leonardo Bruni's Panegyric to the City of Florence expresses similar sentiments. There was a genuine appreciation of the plastic arts—pagan idols and statuary—with nudity, expressions of human dignity, etc. Leonardo Bruni circa 1494.]] A similar parallel movement was also occurring in the arts in the early 15th century in Florence—an avant-garde, classicising movement. Many of the same people were involved; there was a close community of people involved in both movements. Valla said that, as they revived Latin, so was Latin architecture revived, for example Rucellai's Palazzo built by Leone Battista Alberti. Of Brunelleschi, he felt that he was the greatest architect since Roman times. Sculpture was also revived, in many cases before the other arts. There was a very obvious naturalism about contemporary sculpture, and highly true to life figures were being sculpted. Often biblically-themed sculpture and paintings included recognizable Florentines. This intense classicism was applied to literature and the arts. In most city-republics there was a small clique with a camaraderie and rivalry produced by a very small elite. Alberti felt that he had played a major part, as had Brunelleschi, Masaccio, etc. Even he admitted he had no explanation of why it happened. There are several possible explanations for its occurrence in Florence: 1. The Medici did it—the portrait and solo sculpture emerged, especially under Lorenzo. This is the conventional response: Renaissance Florence = The Medici = The genius of artisans = The Renaissance Unfortunately, this fails to fit chronologically. 1410 and 1420 can be said to be the start of the Renaissance, but the Medici came to power later. They were certainly great patrons but much later. If anything, the Medici jumped on an already existing bandwagon. 2. The great man argument. Donatello, Brunelleschi and Michelangelo were just geniuses. This is a circular argument with little explanatory power. Surely it would be better, more human and accessible to understand the circumstances which helped these geniuses to come to fruition. 3. A similar argument is the rise of individualism theory attributable to Burckhardt. This argues for a change from collective neutrality towards the lonely genius. Goldthwaite says it was part of the emergence of the family and the submersion of the clan system. However, the Kents (F.W. and Dale) have argued that this was and remained a society of neighborhood, kin and family. Florentines were very constrained and tied into the system; it was still a very traditional society. Dale, Kraków]] 4. Frederick Antal has argued that the triumph of Masaccio et al. was the triumph of the middle class over the older, more old-fashioned feudal classes, so that the middle class wanted painters to do more bourgeois paintings. This does not make sense. Palla Strozzi commissioned old fashioned paintings whereas Cosimo de' Medici went for new styles in art. 5. Hans Baron's argument is based on the new Florentine view of human nature, a greater value placed on human life and on the power of man, thus leading to civic humanism, which he says was born very quickly in the early 15th century. In 1401 and 1402, he says Visconti was narrowly defeated by republican Florence, which reasserted the importance of republican values. Florence experienced a dramatic crisis of independence which led to civic values and humanism. Against this we can say that Baron is comparing unlike things. In a technical sense, Baron has to prove that all civic humanist work came after 1402, whereas many such works date from the 1380s. This was an ideological battle between a princely state and a republican city-state, even though they varied little in their general philosophy. Any such monocausal argument is very likely to be wrong. Kent says there is plenty of evidence of preconditions for the Renaissance in Florence. In 1300, Florence had a civic culture, with people like Latini who had a sense of classical values, though different from the values of the 15th century. Villani also had a sense of the city as daughter and creature of Rome. Petrarch in the mid-14th century hated civic life but bridged the gap between the 14th and 15th centuries as he began to collect antiquities. The 1380s saw several classicising groups, including monks and citizens. There was a gradual build-up rather than a big bang. Apart from the elites there was already an audience for the Renaissance. Florence was a very literate audience, already self-conscious and aware of its city and place in the political landscape. The crucial people in the 14th and 15th century were
- Manuel Chrysoloras: increased interest in the grammar of ancient architecture (1395)
- Niccoli: a major influence on the perception of the classics. Their teachings reached the upper classes between 1410 and 1420 and this is when the new consciousness emerged. Brucker noticed this new consciousness in council debates around 1410; there are increased classical references. Florence experienced not just one but many crises; Milan, Lucca, the Ciompi. The sense of crisis was over by 1415 and there was a new confidence, a triumphant experience of being a republic. Between 1413-1423 there was an economic boom. The upper class had the financial means to support scholarship. Gombrich says there was a sense of ratifying yourself to the ancient world, leading to a snobbishness and an elite view of education, and a tendency for the rich wanting to proclaim their ascendancy over the poor and over other cities. The early Renaissance was an act of collaboration. Artisans and artists were enmeshed in the networks of their city. Committees were usually responsible for buildings. There were collaborations between patricians and artisans without which the Renaissance could not have occurred. Thus it makes sense to adopt a civic theory of the Renaissance rather than a great man theory.

Northern Renaissance

:Main article: Northern Renaissance Northern Renaissance, painted 1434]] Northern Renaissance] The Renaissance spread north out of Italy being adapted and modified as it moved. It first arrived in France, imported by King Charles VIII after his invasion of Italy. Francis I imported Italian art and artists, including Leonardo Da Vinci and at great expense he built ornate palaces. Writers such as Rabelais also borrowed from the spirit of the Italian Renaissance. Italians brought the new style to Poland and Hungary in the late 15th century. The first Italian humanist, who came to Poland in the middle 15th century was Filip Callimachus. Many Italian artists came with Bona Sforza of Milano to Poland, when she maried Zygmunt I of Poland in 1518. The Polish Renaissance is the most Itatian like branch of the Renaissance outside of Italy. From France the spirit of the age spread to the Low Countries and Germany, and finally to England, Scandinavia, and Central Europe by the late 16th century. In these areas the Renaissance became closely linked to the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation and the art and writing of the German Renaissance frequently reflected this dispute. While Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous spread southward of innovation, particularly in music. The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in that art; and the polyphony of the Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of what was the first true international style in music since the standardization of Gregorian Chant in the 9th century. The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer, Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School, which spread northward into Germany around 1600. In England, the Elizabethan era marked the beginning of the English Renaissance. It saw writers such as William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, John Milton, and Edmund Spenser, as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones) and composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, and William Byrd. In these northern nations the Renaissance would be built upon and supplanted by the thinkers of The Enlightenment in the seventeenth century. The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from those of the northern Renaissance in some ways. The Italian Renaissance did not only focus on religious figures but they also produced portraits of well-known figures of the day, and they also put religious figures in Greek or Roman backgrounds. During the Italian Renaissance, artists learned the rules of perspective which shows how far the object is by its size which and made the paintings look three dimensional. The artists also used shading to make objects look round and real. The Italian Renaissance artists studied human anatomy and drew from the models so it would be possible for them to sketch the human body more accurately than before. At first, northern Renaissance artist still focused on religious drawings, like Albrecht Durer who portray the religious upheaval of his age. Later on, Pieter Bruegel’s works influenced later artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. During the northern Renaissance van Eycks also invented oil paint. With oil paint, artists could produce strong colors and a hard surface that could survive for centuries; these painters were called Flemish painters.

References

- Burckhardt, Jacob (1878), The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, trans S.G.C Middlemore (republished in 1990 under ISBN 014044534X)
- Ergang, Robert (1967), The Renaissance(ISBN 0442023197)
- Ferguson, Wallace K. (1962), Europe in Transition, 1300-1500 (ISBN 0049400088)
- Haskins, Charles Homer (1972), The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (ISBN 0674760751)
- Huizinga, Johan (1924), The Waning of the Middle Ages (republished in 1990 under ISBN 0140137025)
- Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe (ISBN 0395889472)
- Lopez, Robert S. (1952), Hard Times and Investment in Culture
- Thorndike, Lynn (1943) Renaissance or Prenaissance?

External links

- [http://www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/florence/florence.htm Florence: Virtual travel in the city of Renaissance] (English/Italian)
- [http://http://www.yoyita.com/renaissance.htm Renaissance style contemporary Art] (English/ Italian/ Spanish/ French/ Chinese/ German) Category:Renaissance ko:르네상스 ja:ルネサンス th:ยุคฟื้นฟูศิลปวัฒนธรรม

Siena

History of Siena

Art and Architecture

Il Palio

The Palio delle contrade is a horse race held twice each year, in which the horse and rider represent one of the seventeen contrade, city wards. See Palio di Siena for more information.

Getting There

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Sardinia

Sardinia (Sardigna, Sardinna or Sardinnia in the Sardinian language, Sardegna in Italian, Sardenya in Catalan), is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (Sicily is the largest), between Italy, Spain and Tunisia, south of Corsica. It forms part of Italy. At the beginning of the nuragic age circa 1500 BC it was first called "Hyknusa" (latinized Ichnusa) by the Greeks probably meaning island (nusa) of the Hyksos, the people who had just been expelled by Amasis I of Egypt circa 1540 BC and were by now looking for a new home. "Sandalyon" was her second name probably due to its shape, recalling a footprint. Last and present name has been Sardinia, for the Shardana, (who also had been expelled in Egypt by Ramses III circa 1180 BC )

Geography

Sardinia has an area of 24,090 km² and a population of 1.65 million. Sardinia is an autonomous region of Italy. The regional capital is Cagliari. The region is divided into four provinces: Cagliari, Sassari, Nuoro and Oristano; another four provinces (Olbia-Tempio, Ogliastra, Carbonia-Iglesias and Medio Campidano) have been proposed to enter effect in 2005. See also: Sardinian towns Sardinia is one of two Italian regions whose inhabitants have been recognised as a "popolo" (i.e. a distinct people) by the Italian Parliament. The other region is Veneto.

Tourism

The island contains numerous extraordinary tourist areas, including the Costa Smeralda and Gennargentu. The island is particularly famous for its beaches, but is also rich in other interesting places. See also: Tourist destinations of Sardinia

Climate

The climate is mainly Mediterranean, with a warm spring and fall, hot summer, and mild winter. Sardinia is suffering from a multi-year drought, thought by some to be due to global warming.

Language

The most spoken languages in Sardinia are Italian and Sardinian, a Romance language with obscure roots in Phoenician, Etruscan, and Near Eastern languages. While it has been significantly supplanted by Italian for official purposes, Sardinian is still widely spoken in rural areas. In the northern regions of Gallura and Sassari, the language spoken is not Sardinian but a variety of Corsican (as in Corsica). In the island of San Pietro, the dialect spoken is Ligurian, from Genoa. In the city of Alghero in the north, a Medieval dialect of Catalan is still spoken (the name of the city in Catalan is L'Alguer) as the island was an Aragonese colony in the past.

Business and commerce

Sardinia's currency (as a part of Italy) is now the Euro, but in some rural areas Sardinians still unofficially refer to su Francu (or loc. "su Pidzu"); 1 francu = 1,000 former Italian lire. "Unu Francu", referring to the now long-gone French franc, is a term used by older natives to mean some small amount, much as in English "It's not worth a farthing". Several gold and silver mines operate on the island. The Sardinian economy is today focused on tourism (peaking with the Costa Smeralda), industry, commerce, services and information technology; an increasing income is coming from its famous wines and gastronomy.

Transport

Trains on Sardinia connect the whole island but are rather slow. Some run on narrow gauge track. Many tourists catch the "trenino verde" which runs through the wildest parts of the island. It is slow but it allows the traveller to have scenic views impossible to see from the main road. The train connects Cagliari to Arbatax in the south and Sassari to Palau in the north. It's highly recommended to make the trip from Macomer to Bosa Marina, where the train winds its way through the typical Sardinian landscape to reach the sea near the coastal town of Bosa situated in the west of the island.

Environment

Sardinia is a precious natural resource, containing thousands of rare or uncommon animals and plant species such as the Mediterranean Monk Seal and the boar. It lacks many species instead, like the viper and the marmot, which are found everywhere else on the continent.

History

See also: History of Sardinia Sardinia's history is very ancient. In 1979 human remains were found that were dated to 150,000 BC. In Prehistory Sardinia's inhabitants developed a trade in obsidian, a stone used for the production of the first rough tools, and this activity brought Sardinians into contact with most of the Mediterranean people. Desiccated grapes, recently found in several locations, were DNA tested and proved to be the oldest grapes in the world, dating back to the Pyramids' and Mesopotamian’s era. The Cannonau wine is made with these grapes and may qualify as the mother of all the European wines. From Neolithic times till the Roman Empire, the Nuragic civilisation took shape on the island. Still today, more than 7,000 Nuraghe survive. It is speculated that, among others, the Shardana people landed in Sardinia coming from the eastern Mediterranean. Shardana had joined the Shekelesh and others to form the coalition of the Sea Peoples, but were defeated by Ramses III around 1180 BC in Egypt. Shardana and Shekelesh were also called by the Egyptians as the 'people from the faraway islands', implying that Shardana were already residents of Sardinia at the time of the Egyptian expedition. This assertion holds some truth, in fact most of the tombe dei giganti have a tombstone shaped like a ship vertically dug into the ground witnessing to their sea traveling activities. According to some linguistic studies, the town of Sardis in (Lydia) would have been their starting point from which they would have reached the Tyrrhenian Sea, dividing into what were to become the Sardinians and the Etruscans. However most theories regarding the original population of Sardinia have been formulated prior to genetics research and in the traditional frame of east-west movements. Genetics has now shown that Sardinians are a pre-Indo-European population and, like Basque, different from all surrounding and much younger groups. The density, extensiveness and sheer size of the architectural remains from the Neolithic period, points to a considerable population of the island. Beginning around 1000 BC, Phoenician mariners established several ports of trade on the Sardinian coast. In 509 BC, war broke out between the native Nuragic people and the Phoenician settlers. The settlers called for help from Carthage, and the island became a province in the Carthaginian Empire. In 238 BC, after being defeated by the Roman Republic during the First Punic War, Carthage ceded Sardinia to Rome. From 456 - 534, Sardinia was a part of the short-lived kingdom of the Vandals in North Africa, until reconquered by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. Under the Byzantines, the imperial representative was a judge who governed from the southern city of Caralis. Byzantine rule was practically nonexistent in the mountainous Barbagia region in the eastern part of the island, and an independent kingdom persisted there from the sixth through ninth centuries. Beginning in the eighth century, Arabs and Berbers began raiding Sardinia. Especially after the conquering of Sicily in 832, the Byzantines were unable to effectively defend their most distant province, and the provincial judge assumed independent authority. To provide for local defense, he divided the island into four Giudicati, Gallura, Logudoro, Arborea, and Caralis. By 900, these districts had become four independent constitutional monarchies. At various times, these fell under the sway of Genoa and Pisa. In 1323, the Kingdom of Aragon began a campaign to conquer Sardinia; the giudicato of Arborea successfully resisted this and for a time came to control nearly the entire island, but its last ruler Eleanor of Arborea, was eventually defeated by the Aragonese in the decisive Battle of Sanluri, June 30 1409. The native population of the city of Alghero (S'Alighera in Sardinian, L'Alguer in Catalan) was expelled and the city repopulated by the Catalan invaders, whose descendants spoke Catalan till quite recently. After the merge of the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, Sardinia was incorporated into the newly created national entity, Spain. Under Spain, Sardinians were regularly employed on the royal Spanish fleet. On October 7 1571, at the Battle of Lepanto, Sardinian mariners on Board the admiralship of Infante Don John of Austria, brother of Felipe II, boarded the Turkish admiralship, overpowered the crew, and cut off the head of a Turkish admiral. The sight of the admiral's head on a spear put such a fear in the heart of the Turks, that they abandoned the fight and completely surrendered to Christians. This was the first time Turks lost out to Europeans signaling a trend of military decline and defeats from which Turks never recovered.

Kingdom of Sardinia

In 1720 Sardinia became an independent kingdom under the House of Savoy, rulers of Piedmont. In 1792, Jean-Paul Marat, son of a Sardinian father and a Swiss mother, was one of the triumvirate leading the French Revolution. In 1860, Vittorio Emanuele II, King of Sardinia became also the first King of Italy after conquering the rest of the peninsula.

Notes

#The last four are new provinces since May 2005.

External links

- [http://www.regione.sardegna.it/ Official regional website in Italian]
- [http://www.regione.sardegna.it/inglese/index.htm Official regional website in English]
- [http://www.italy-weather-and-maps.com/maps/italy/sardinia.gif Map of Sardinia]
- [http://www.activsardegna.com/infobase/index.php?lang=en/ ActivSardegna.Com] (interactive maps of Sardinia)
- [http://www.sarnow.com/sardinia/index.htm Webzine about Sardinia]
- [http://www.tharros.info/ Archaeology and short history of Sardinia] ----- Sardinia is also a place in the State of Ohio in the United States of America; see Sardinia, Ohio. Category:Islands of Italy
- Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe ja:サルデーニャ島

Sicily

:Sicilian disambiguates here; see also Sicilian language or Sicilian Defence. Sicily (Sicilia in Italian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,700 sq. km and 5 million inhabitants.

Towns and Cities

Sicily's principal cities include the regional capital Palermo, together with the other provincial capitals Catania, Messina, Syracuse (Siracusa in Italian), Trapani, Enna, Caltanissetta, Agrigento, Ragusa. Other famous Sicilian towns include Cefalù, Taormina, Bronte, Marsala, Corleone, Castellammare del Golfo Francavilla di Sicilia, and Abacaenum (now Tripi).

Flag

For more information, see Flag of Sicily. The regional flag of Sicily, recognized since January 2000, is also the historical one of the island, since 1282. It is divided diagonally yellow over red, with the trinacria symbol in the center. The trinacria symbol is used also by the Isle of Man.

Geography

Isle of Man This region is faced to Calabria over the Strait of Messina, and that's the only conterminous region. The volcano Etna, is situated close to Catania. Etna is 3,320 m (10,900 ft) high, making it the tal

Sienna

Siena

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Siena

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