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Sixteenth Century

Sixteenth Century

As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. See also: 16th century in literature

Events

- 1501: Safavid dynasty rules Iran until 1736.
- 1509: The Battle of Diu marks the beginning of Portuguese dominance of the Spice trade.
- 1514: The Battle of Orsha halts Muscovy's expansion into Eastern Europe.
- 1515: The Ottoman Empire wrests Eastern Anatolia from the Safavids after the Battle of Chaldiran.
- 1516-17: The Ottomans defeat the Mamluks and gain control of Egypt, Arabia, and the Levant.
- 1517: The Protestant Reformation begins when Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses in Saxony.
- 1519-21: Hernán Cortés leads the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
- 1520-66: The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent marks the zenith of the Ottoman Empire.
- 1521: Belgrade is captured by the Ottoman Empire.
- 1523: Sweden gains independence from the Kalmar Union.
- 1524-25: Peasants' War in the Holy Roman Empire.
- 1526: The Ottomans conquer the Kingdom of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács.
- 1526: Mughal Empire, founded by Babur, rules India until 1857.
- 1527: Sack of Rome is considered the end of the Italian Renaissance.
- 1529: The Siege of Vienna marks the Ottoman Empire's furthest advance into Europe.
- 1531-32: The Church of England breaks away from the Roman Catholic Church and recognizes King Henry VIII as the head of the Church.
- 1532: Francisco Pizarro leads the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.
- 1534: Jacques Cartier claims Quebec for France.
- 1534: The Ottomans capture Baghdad.
- 1543: The Nanban trade period begins after Portuguese traders make contact with Japan.
- 1552: Russia conquers the Khanate of Kazan.
- 1553: Macau founded by Portuguese in China.
- 1555: The Muscovy Company is the first major English joint stock trading company.
- 1556: The Shaanxi Earthquake in China is history's deadliest known earthquake.
- 1556: Russia conquers the Astrakhan Khanate.
- 1556-1605: During his reign, Akbar expands the Mughal Empire in a series of conquests and is considered the greatest Mughal emperor.
- 1558-1603: The Elizabethan era is considered the height of the English Renaissance.
- 1558-83: Livonian War between Poland, Sweden, Denmark and Russia.
- 1558: After 200 years, England loses Calais to France.
- 1559: With the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis, the Italian Wars conclude.
- 1562-98: French Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots.
- 1566-1648: Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands.
- 1568-1600: The Azuchi-Momoyama period in Japan.
- 1569: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is created with the Union of Lublin which lasts until 1795.
- 1577-80: Francis Drake circles the World and claims California for England.
- 1580: After the struggle for the throne of Portugal, the Portuguese Empire comes to an end and the Spanish and Portuguese crowns are united for 60 years.
- 1582: Yermak Timofeyevich conquers the Siberia Khanate on behalf of the Stroganovs.
- 1584-85: After the Siege of Antwerp, many of its merchants fled to Amsterdam.
- 1585-1604: The Anglo-Spanish War is fought on both sides of the Atlantic.
- 1588: England repulses the Spanish Armada.
- 1589: Spain repulses the English Armada.
- 1592-98: Korea and China repel two Japanese invasions during the Seven-Year War.
- 1598-1613: Russia descends into anarchy during the Time of Troubles.
- 1600: British East India Company chartered.

Significant people

British East India Company]
- Nicolaus Copernicus, developed the heliocentric (Sun-centered) theory using scientific methods (1473 - 1543).
- Henry VII of England, founder of the Tudor dynasty. Introduced ruthlessly efficient mechanisms of taxation which restored the kingdom after a state of virtual bankruptcy due to the effects of the Wars of the Roses (1457 - 1509).
- György Dózsa, leader of the peasants' revolt in Hungary (1470 - 1514)
- Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian painter and sculptor (1475 - 1564).
- Thomas More, English politician and author (1478 - 1535).
- Martin Luther, German religious reformer (1483 - 1546).
- Hernán Cortés, Spanish Conquistador (1485 - 1547).
- King Henry VIII of England, founder of Anglicanism (1491 - 1547).
- King Francis I of France, considered the first Renaissance monarch of his Kingdom (1494 - 1547).
- Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Conqueror and legal reformer (1494 - 1566).
- Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and the first to reign as King of Spain. Involved in almost constant conflict with France and the Ottoman Empire while promoting the Spanish colonization of the Americas (1500 - 1558).
- Cuauhtémoc becomes last Tlatoani of the Aztec, leads the native resistance against the Spanish and is finally defeated in the siege of Tenochtitlan. He is hanged on February 26, 1525 (1502 - 1525)
- Mary I of England. Attempted to counter the Protestant Reformation in her domains. Nick-named Bloody Mary for her Religious persecution (1516 - 1558).
- King Philip II of Spain, self-proclaimed leader of Counter-Reformation (1527 - 1598).
- Queen Elizabeth I of England, central figure of the Elizabethan era (1533 - 1603).
- Oda Nobunaga , daimyo of the Sengoku period of Japanese civil war. First ruler of the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1534 - 1582).
- Toyotomi Hideyoshi , daimyo of the Sengoku period of Japanese civil war. Second ruler of the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1536 - 1598).
- Admiral Yi Sun-sin , respected as one of the greatest admirals and military leaders in world history. (1545 - 1598).
- Edward VI of England, notable for further differentiating Anglicanism from the practices of the Roman Catholic Church (1537 - 1553).
- Lady Jane Grey, Queen regnant of England and Ireland. Notably deposed by popular revolt (1537 - 1554).
- Queen Mary I of Scotland, First female head of the House of Stuart (1542 - 1587).
- Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish author (1547 - 1616).
- King Henry IV of France and Navarre, ended the French Wars of Religion and reunited the kingdom under his command (1553 - 1610).
- William Shakespeare, English author (1564 - 1616).
- John Donne, English metaphysical poet (1572 - 1631)
- Miyamoto Musashi, famous warrior in Japan, author of The Book of Five Rings, a treatise on strategy and martial combat. (1584 - 1645)
- Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, Somali Imam and general (1507 - 1543).
- Ivan IV of Russia, first Russian tsar (1530-1584).

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

List of 16th century inventions
- The Columbian Exchange introduces many plants, animals and diseases to the Old and New Worlds.
- Introduction of the spinning wheel revolutionizes textile production in Europe.
- Modern square root symbol (√ )
- Copernicus publishes his theory that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun (1543)
- Gregorian Calendar adopted by Catholic countries (1582)
- 1513: Juan Ponce de León sights Florida and Vasco Núñez de Balboa sights the eastern edge of the Pacific Ocean.
- 1519-22: Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano lead the first circumnavigation of the World.
- 1540: Francisco Vásquez de Coronado sights the Grand Canyon.
- 1541-42: Francisco de Orellana sails the length of the Amazon River.
- 1597: Opera in Florence by Jacopo Peri

Decades and years

Category:16th century Category:Centuries ko:16세기 ja:16世紀 th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 16

Time

Attempting to understand Time has long been a prime occupation for philosophers, scientists and artists. There are widely divergent views about its meaning, hence it is difficult to provide an uncontroversial and clear definition of time. The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "the indefinite continued progress of existence and events in the past, present, and future, regarded as a whole". Another standard dictionary definition is "a non-spatial linear continuum wherein events occur in an apparently irreversible order." This article looks at some of the main philosophical and scientific issues relating to time. The measurement of time has also occupied scientists and technologists, and was a prime motivation in astronomy. Time is also a matter of significant social importance, having economic value ("time is money") as well as personal value due to an awareness of the limited time in each day and in our lives. Units of time have been agreed upon to quantify the duration of events and the intervals between them. Regularly recurring events and objects with apparently periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time - such as the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum.

Philosophy of time

Main article: Philosophy of space and time; Ontology In ancient thought, Zeno's paradoxes challenged the conception of infinite divisibility, and eventually led to the development of calculus. Parmenides (of whom Zeno was a follower) believed that time, motion, and change were illusions, basing this on a rather interesting argument. More recently, McTaggart held a similar belief. Newton believed time and space form a container for events, which is as real as the objects it contains. In contrast, Leibniz believed that time and space are a conceptual apparatus describing the interrelations between events. Leibniz and others thought of time as a fundamental part of an abstract conceptual framework, together with space and number, within which we sequence events, quantify their duration, and compare the motions of objects. In this view, time does not refer to any kind of entity that "flows", that objects "move through", or that is a "container" for events. The bucket argument proved problematic for Leibniz, and his account fell into disfavour, at least amongst scientists, until the development of Mach's principle. Modern physics views the curvature of spacetime around an object as much a feature of that object as are its mass and volume. Immanuel Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori notion that allows us (together with other a priori notions such as space) to comprehend sense experience. With Kant, neither space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic framework necessarily structuring the experiences of any rational agent. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantify how far apart events occur. Nietzsche, inspired by the concept of eternal return in his book Thus Spoke Zarathustra, argued that time possesses a circular characteristic. Postulating an infinite past, "all things" must have come to pass therein; the same for an infinite future. In Existentialism, time is considered fundamental to the question of being, in particular by the philosopher Martin Heidegger.

Contemporary theses in the philosophy of time

In contempoary philosophy there has been a very active debate over the nature of time, especially in light of the big changes in physics since the 1920s. Contributors include Ned Markosian, Ted Sider, Quentin Smith, and L. Nathan Oaklander. Two major theses have been developed, along with some hybrids. There is no real consensus among philosophers about which, if any, is correct. The two major theories can be summed up as follows: 1. A-theory of time: Presentism: Oaklander writes: "[A] version of the pure A-theory, known as "", purports to avoid… the problem of change... According to presentism, only the present exists. Thus, it is not the case that, say, O is green and [then] O is red [if, for example, O is a tomato]." (Oaklander, L. Nathan. In Smith, Quentin, and Oaklander, L. Nathan. 1995. Time, Change, and Freedom. New York: Routledge. 2004, 27.) 2. B-theory of time: Eternalism: the following passage from L. Nathan Oaklander sums this up

…[T]ime [involves] events strung out along a series united to one another by the relations of earlier than, later and simultaneity… The events in the temporal series are fixed in that they never change their position relative to each other… It has become customary to call the entire series of events spread out along the time-line from earlier to later, the “B-series.” When viewed solely in terms of the B-series, time is thought of as static or unchanging for there is nothing about temporal relations between events that changes... Time not only has a static aspect, it also has a transitory aspect. In addition to conceiving of time in terms of events standing in temporal relations, we also conceive of time and the events in time as moving or passing from the far future to the near future, from the hear future to the present, and then from present they recede into the more and more distant past… When events are ordered in terms of the notions of past, present, or future they form what is called an “A-series.” It should be noted, of course, that the A- and B-series are not really “two” different series of events, but the same series ordered in two different ways. (Oaklander 2004,Page 69)

Time in physics

never change Main article: Time in physics Time is currently one of the few fundamental quantities (quantities which cannot be defined via other quantities because there is nothing more fundamental known at present). Thus, similar to definition of other fundamental quantities (like space and mass), time is defined via measurement. Currently, the standard time interval (called conventional second, or simply second) is defined as 9 192 631 770 oscillations of a hyperfine transition in the ¹³³Cs atom. Prior to Albert Einstein's relativistic physics, time and space had been treated as distinct dimensions; Einstein linked time and space into spacetime. Einstein showed that people traveling at different speeds will measure different times for events and different distances between objects, though these differences are minute unless one is traveling at a speed close to that of light. Many subatomic particles exist for only a fixed fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but some that travel close to the speed of light can be measured to travel further and survive longer than expected. According to the special theory of relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of reference, it exists for the same amount of time as usual, and the distance it travels in that time is what would be expected for that velocity. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to "slow down" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seems to shorten. Even in Newtonian terms time may be considered the fourth dimension of motion; but Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or "warped") by high-speed motion. Einstein (The Meaning Of Relativity - 1968): "Two events taking place at the points A and B of a system K are simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval AB. Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relatively to K, which register the same simultaneously."

Measurement

Present day standards

The standard unit for time is the SI second, from which larger units are defined like the minute, hour, and day. Because they do not use the decimal system, and because of the occasional need for a leap-second, the minute, hour, and day are "non-SI" units, but are officially accepted for use with the International System. There are no fixed ratios between seconds (or days) on the one hand and months and years on the other hand -- months and years having significant variations in length. Despite its great social importance, the week is not mentioned even as a "non-SI" unit. ([http://www1.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-brochure.pdf See external pdf file: The International System of Units].) The measurement of time is so critical to the functioning of our modern societies that it is coordinated at an international level. The basis for scientific time is a continuous count of seconds based on atomic clocks around the world, known as International Atomic Time (TAI). This is the yardstick for other time scales including Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) which is the basis for civil time. The 60 base used for seconds, minutes and hours is all the remains of the ancient Phoenician counting base, using 60 as the equivalent of 10, or 100 in modern times. A 60 base is known as sexagesimal.

Chronology

Another form of time measurement consists of studying the past. Events in the past can be ordered in a sequence (creating a chronology), and be put into chronological groups (periodization). One of the most important systems of periodization is Geologic time, which is a system of periodizing the events that shaped the Earth and its life. Chronology, periodization, and interpretation of the past are together known as the study of history.

Psychology

Different people may judge identical lengths of time quite differently. Time can "fly"; that is, a long period of time can seem to go by very quickly. Likewise, time can seem to "drag," as in when one performs a boring task. The psychologist Jean Piaget called this form of time perception "lived time". Time appears to go fast when sleeping, or, to put it differently, time seems not to have passed while asleep. Time also appears to pass more quickly as one gets older. For example, a day for a child seems to last longer than a day for an adult. One possible reason for this is that with increasing age, each segment of time is an increasingly smaller percentage of the person's total experience. Altered states of consciousness are sometimes characterised by a different estimation of time. Some psychoactive substances--such as entheogens--may also dramatically alter a person's temporal judgement. In explaining his theory of relativity, Albert Einstein is often quoted as saying that although sitting next to a pretty girl for an hour feels like a minute, placing one's hand on a hot stove for a minute feels like an hour. This is intended to introduce the listener to the concept of the interval between two events being perceived differently by different observers.

Use of time

The use of time is an important issue in understanding human behaviour, education, and travel behaviour. The question concerns how time is allocated across a number of activities (such as time spent at home, at work, shopping, etc.). Time use changes with technology, as the television or the Internet created new opportunities to use time in different ways. However, some aspects of time use are relatively stable over long periods of time, such as the amount of time spent traveling to work, which despite major changes in transport, has been observed to be about 20-30 minutes one-way for a large number of cities over a long period of time. This has led to the disputed time budget hypothesis. Time management is the organization of tasks or events by first estimating how much time a task will take to be completed, when it must be completed, and then adjusting events that would interfere with its completion so that completion is reached in the appropriate amount of time. Calendars and day planners are common examples of time management tools. Arlie Russell Hochschild and Norbert Elias have written on the use of time from a sociological perspective.

References

- Oxford English Dictionary - [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/time?view=uk]

External links

Perception of time

- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/time-experience/ The Experience and Perception of Time]
- [http://cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/archive/00003125/ Subjective Perception of Time and a Progressive Present Moment: The Neurobiological Key to Unlocking Consciousness]
- [http://www.primitivism.com/time.htm Time and Its Discontents]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-5/time.htm Time and Learning]
- [http://mixingmemory.blogspot.com/2004/12/by-request-time-perception-i.html Time Perception I] and [http://mixingmemory.blogspot.com/2004/12/time-perception-ii-cognitive-factors.html II]
- [http://theorderoftime.org/ The Order of Time: Platform for an Alternative Time Consciousness]
- [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=74335 What is Time?] An elucidation of the Lubavitcher Rebbe's comments on the topic.

Physics

- [http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/world.html A walk through Time]
- [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/lobster/tmx Time Travel and Multi-Dimensionality]
- [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0310055 Time and classical and quantum mechanics: Indeterminacy vs. discontinuity]
- [http://www.sankey.ws/time.html Time as a universal consequence of quanta]

Timekeeping

- [http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/systime.html Different systems of measuring time]
- [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/outside.html non-SI units]
- [http://www1.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/time_server.html UTC/TAI Timeserver]
- [http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html Leapsecond]
- [http://www.intuitor.com/hex/hexclock.html Hex Time]
- [http://www.florencetime.net Florencetime.net]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3486160.stm BBC article on shortest time ever measured]
- [http://www.awi-net.org American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute]
- [http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ The World Clock - Time Zones]

Miscellaneous

- [http://www.boost.org/doc/html/date_time.html Boost Date-Time Library -- Powerful C++ Library for date-time manipulation]
- [http://www.cyclesresearchinstitute.org/ Cycles Research Institute]
- [http://www.timeticker.com/ TimeTicker and the time tickers...]
- [http://www.welt-zeit-uhr.de/worldtime.php World Time and Zones]
- [http://www.timetools.co.uk Time Servers] NTP Time Servers provide accurate timing for computers and computer networks.

Century

This page is about centuries as units of time. For other meanings of the term, see Century (disambiguation). For a list of centuries, see Centuries. A century (From the Latin cent, one hundred) is one hundred one hundred consecutive years.
- In all dating systems, centuries are essentially numbered ordinally, as time is a purely relative notion (its physical existence, though indispensable for our understanding of reality, still remains unproven in theory). Thus, the first century of a time frame is "The First Century" and not "Century 0".
- There is considerable disagreement about whether to count the centennial year (i.e. 2000) as the first or last year of a century. This confusion is documented for every centennial year from 1500 onward, and almost certainly arises from the introduction of Hindu-Arabic numerals and the concept of zero to Western Europe in the twelfth century. The oldest dating systems were regnal, and considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. Thus, one speaks of the first year of the reign of King so-and-so. Obviously, the century problem does not arise in such systems. Somewhat later, systems arose dating from the founding of a dynasty, city or religion, and these continued ordinal, rather than cardinal, counting. Thus Ab Urbe Condita counts the Year 1 as the founding of Rome; Anno Domini as the first full year of Jesus Christ's life; the Islamic Calendar as the year of the Hejira, so it is also latinized as Anno Hejira. More modern systems of dating, (such as the astronomical calendar, see proleptic Gregorian calendar) begin with a year zero. In these cardinal dating systems, it is perfectly logical to use 0 to 99 as the first century, and to regard 2000 as the first year of the twenty-first century.

1600

:See also 1600 (number), 1600s

Events

January

- January 1 - Scotland adopts January 1st as being New Year's Day

February

- February 17 - Giordano Bruno burned at the stake for heresy in Rome

July

- July 2 - Battle of Nieuwpoort: Dutch forces under Maurice of Nassau defeat Spanish forces under Archduke Albert in a battle on the coastal dunes.

October

- October 6 - Jacopo Peri's Euridice, the earliest surviving Opera, is premiered in Florence.
- October 8 - San Marino gains its written constitution.
- October 21 - Battle of Sekigahara in Japan, in which Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated Ishida Mitsunari, setting the stage for the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate. End of the Azuchi-Momoyama period and beginning of the Edo period.

December

- December 31 - Royal charter incorporates the British East India Company in London

Undated

- Sumo Wrestling becomes a professional sport in Japan.
- William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream is first performed.
- William Gilbert publishes De Magnete which describes the Earth's magnetic field and is the beginning of modern Geomagnetism.
- Fabritio Caroso's Nobiltà de dame is published.
- Battle of Suceava - Prince Sigismund Bathory of Transylvania is defeated by the Voivode Michael the Brave of Moldavia as part of the internecine conflict in Hungary and the Danubian Principalities.
- Ulster chieftains with the lead of Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, resist English reconquest of Ireland

Births

- January 1 - Friedrich Spanheim, Dutch theologian (d. 1649)
- January 17 - Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Spanish playwright (died 1681)
- January 28 - Pope Clement IX (died 1669)
- February 2 - Gabriel Naudé, French librarian and scholar (died 1653)
- November 19 - King Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland (died 1649)
- November 19 - Leo Aitzema, Dutch historian and statesman (d. 1669)
- Jonas Bronck, Swedish colonist in America (died 1643)
- Edmund Calamy the Elder, English presbyterian (died 1666)
- Piaras Feiritéar, Irish language poet (died 1653)
- Gheorghe Ghica, Prince of Wallachia (died 1664)
- Marin le Roy de Gomberville, French poet and novelist (died 1674)
- Samuel Gorton, English sectary (died 1677)
- Sir Richard Grenville, 1st Baronet, English Royalist leader (died 1658)
- Peter Heylin, English ecclesiastical writer (died 1662)
- Antoine de Laloubère, French Jesuit mathematician (died 1664)
- John Ogilby, English writer and cartographer (died 1676)
- Anna Alojza Ostrogska, Polish noblewoman (died 1654)
- William Prynne, English puritan politician (died 1669)
- Samuel Rutherford, English theologian and controversialist (died 1660)
- Brian Walton, English divine and scholar (died 1661)
- Tokugawa Yoshinao, Japanese nobleman (died 1650) See also :Category:1600 births.

Deaths

- February 13 - Gian Paolo Lomazzo, Italian painter (b. 1538)
- February 17 - Giordano Bruno, Italian philosopher (burned at the stake) (born 1548)
- July 17 - Hosokawa Gracia, Japanese noblewoman (born 1563)
- September 1 - Tadeáš Hájek, Czech physician and astronomer (born 1525)
- September 26 - Claude Le Jeune, French composer (born 1530)
- October 12 - Luis Molina, Spanish Jesuit (b. 1535)
- October 21 - Toda Katsushige, Japanese warlord (born 1557)
- November 3 - Richard Hooker, Anglican theologian (born 1554)
- November 6 - Ishida Mitsunari, Japanese feudal lord (decapitated) (born 1560)
- November 6 - Konishi Yukinaga, Japanese Christian warlord (born 1555)
- November 8 - Natsuka Masaie, Japanese warlord (born 1562)
- November 17 - Kuki Yoshitaka, Japanese naval commander (born 1542)
- Jose de Acosta, Spanish Jesuit missionary and naturalist (born 1540)
- Thomas Deloney, English writer (born 1543)
- Abe Masakatsu, Japanese nobleman (born 1541)
- Thomas Nashe, English pamphleteer (born 1567)
- Nicholas Remy, French Catholic priest (born 1534)
- John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie, Scottish conspirator (born 1577)
- Mizuno Tadashige, Japanese nobleman (born 1541) See also :Category:1600 deaths.

References

- Spielvogel -- Western Civilization -- Volume II: Since 1500 (5th Edition), p.401 Category:1600 ko:1600년 simple:1600

1501

Events

- Alexander becomes King of Poland.
- The Safavid kingdom was established in northern Iran.
- Martin Luther enters the University of Erfurt.

Births

- January 16 - Anthony Denny, confidant of Henry VIII of England (died 1559)
- January 17 - Leonhart Fuchs, German physician and botanist (died 1566)
- May 6 - Pope Marcellus II (died 1555)
- July 18 - Isabella of Burgundy, queen of Christian II of Denmark (died 1526)
- September 24 - Gerolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician, physician, astrologer and gambler (died 1567)
- November 25 - Yi Hwang, Korean Confucian scholar (died 1570)
- Girolamo da Carpi, Italian painter (died 1556)
- Dawit II of Ethiopia (died 1540)
- Nikolaus Federmann, German adventurer in Venezuela and Colombia (died 1542)
- Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York and Lord Chancellor (approximate date; died 1578)
- Pedro de Mendoza, Spanish conquistador (died 1537)
- John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, Tudor nobleman and politician (died 1553)
- Garcia de Orta, Portuguese physician
- Hilaire Penet, French composer
- Murakami Yoshikiyo, Japanese nobleman (died 1573)

Marriages

- November 14 - Arthur Tudor and Catherine of Aragon.

Deaths

- September 20 - Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, stepson of Edward IV of England (born 1457)
- Gaspar Corte-Real, Portuguese explorer (born 1450)
- John Doget, English diplomat
- Constantine Lascaris, Greek scholar and grammarian
- Alisher Navoi, a Central Asian poet Category:1501 ko:1501년

Iran

Iran (Persian: ايران) is a Middle Eastern country located in Southwest Asia bordering Armenia, Azerbaijan including its Nakhichevan exclave and Turkmenistan to the north, Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east, Turkey and Iraq to the west. Until 1935 the country was referred to in the West as Persia. In 1959, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi announced that both terms could be used. In 1979, the Iranian revolution established a theocratic Islamic Republic, changing the country's official name to the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ايران). Dispute exists as to the country's current official name.

History

Sometime around 1500 to 1000 BC, the Iranian nomads of Indo-European stock emigrated to the Iranian plateau possibly from Central Asia. In 8th century BC, the first Iranian government was established under the Median dynasty and under the following dynasty, the Achaemenids, Iranians built the first world empire. Their empire emerged in the 6th century BC under Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian Empire, who called himself "King of Iran and beyond". Indeed, the name Persia is derived from Persis, the ancient Greek name for the empire. The Achaemenid dynasty was followed by the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties as Persia's greatest pre-Islamic empires. Alexander the Great first conquered Persia in 331 BC, followed by Islam's Arab forces in the 7th century, and Genghis Khan, and lastly, Tamerlane who conquered a significant portion of Persia in the middle ages. middle ages The 9th century saw the rise of the Saffarids and then other lines of kings or shahs. During the 19th century Persia came under increasing pressure from both Russia and the United Kingdom, leading to a process of modernization that continued into the 20th century. By the 20th century Iranians were longing for a change and thus followed the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905/1911. In 1953 Iran's elected prime minister Mohammad Mosaddeq, was removed from power in a complex plot orchestrated by British and US intelligence agencies (dubbed "Operation Ajax"). Many scholars suspect that this ouster was motivated by British-US opposition to Mosaddeq's attempt to nationalize Iran's oil. Following Mosaddeq's fall, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Iran's monarch) grew increasingly dictatorial. With strong support from the USA and the UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry but crushed civil liberties. His autocratic rule, including systematic torture and other human rights violations, led to the Iranian revolution and overthrow of his regime in 1979. After more than a year of political struggle between a variety of different groups, an Islamic republic was established under the Ayatollah Khomeini by a revolution. The new theocratic political system instituted some conservative Islamic reforms and engaged in an anti-Western course. In particular Iran distanced itself from the United States due to the American involvement in the 1953 coup, which supplanted an elected government with the Shah's repressive regime. It also declared its refusal to recognize the existence of Israel as a state. The new government inspired various groups considered by a large part of the Western World to be fundamentalist. As a consequence some countries, currently led by the USA, consider Iran to be a hostile power. In 1980 Iran was attacked by neighbouring Iraq and the destructive Iran-Iraq War continued until 1988. The struggle between reformists and conservatives over the future of the country continues today through electoral politics and was a central Western focus in the 2005 Elections where Conservative Mahmoud Ahmadinejad triumphed.

Politics

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Iran is a constitutional Islamic Republic, whose political system is laid out in the 1979 constitution. Iran's makeup has several intricately connected governing bodies, some of which are democratically elected and some of which are appointed by religious leaders. The concept of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist) plays an influential role in the governmental structure. The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for the delineation and supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran." In the absence of a single leader, a council of religious leaders is appointed. The Supreme Leader is commander-in-chief of the armed forces; he alone can declare war. He has the power to appoint and dismiss the leaders of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, and the supreme commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. He also appoints six of the twelve members of the Council of Guardians. He, or the council of religious leaders, are elected by the Assembly of Experts, on the basis of their qualifications and the high popular esteem in which they are held. Twelve jurists comprise the Council of Guardians, six of whom are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The head of the judiciary recommends the remaining six, which are officially appointed by Parliament. The Council of Guardians is vested with the authority to interpret the constitution and determines if the laws passed by Parliament are in line with sharia (Islamic law) and the Iranian constitution; if a law passed by Parliament is deemed incompatible, it is referred back to Parliament for revision. After the office of Leadership, the President of Iran is the highest official in the country. His is responsibile for implementing the Constitution and acting as the head of the executive, except in matters directly concerned with the Leadership. All presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running, and are elected to a 4-year term. After his election, the president appoints and supervises the 21-member Council of Ministers (who must then be confirmed by Parliament), coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the parliament. Eight vice presidents serve under the president. The unicameral Iranian parliament consists of 290 members elected to a 4-year term (approved by the Council of Guardians before running). It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the country's budget. All legislation from the assembly must be reviewed by the Council of Guardians. The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week every year, consists of 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by the public to eight-year terms. Like presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines eligibility to run for a seat in this assembly. The head of the judiciary is appointed by the Supreme Leader, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. Public courts deal with civil and criminal cases. "Revolutionary" courts try certain categories of offenses, including crimes considered against national security or the republic and narcotics smuggling. Decisions rendered in these courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court, which functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader, handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people.

Administrative divisions

Provinces

Iran consists of 30 provinces: Provinces are governed from a local center, mostly the largest local city. Provincial authority is headed by a governor (استاندار: ostāndār), who is installed by the Minister of Interior subject to approval of the cabinet. Until 2004 there were 28 provinces. A law passed that year split the province of Khorasan into three new provinces: North Khorasan, Razavi Khorasan, and South Khorasan.

Major cities

Iran's top four largest cities are: Image:Meydoon sadeghiyeh.jpg|Tehran: 8,601,473 (2005 pop.) Image:Nadershahtomb.jpg|Mashad: 2,307,177 (2005 pop.) Image:IMG 0414 resize.jpg|Isfahan: 1,547,164 (2005 pop.) Image:Poets tomb tabriz.jpg|Tabriz: 1,424,641 (2005 pop.) See also: List of cities in Iran.

Geography

List of cities in Iran Iran borders Azerbaijan (length of border: 432 km / 268 mi ) and Armenia (35 km / 22mi) to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan (992 km / 616 mi) to the northeast, Pakistan (909 km / 565 mi) and Afghanistan (936 km / 582 mi) to the east, Turkey (499 km / 310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km / 906 mi) to the west, and finally the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south. Iran's total land mass is 1,648,000 km² / ≈636,300 mi² (Land: 1,636,000 km² / ≈631,663 mi², Water: 12,000 km² / ≈4,633 mi²). Iran's landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Zagros and Alborz Mountains, the latter of which also contains Iran's highest point, the Damavand at 5,671 m (18,606 ft). The eastern half consists mostly of uninhabited desert basins with the occasional salt lake. The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders on the mouth of the Arvand river (Shatt al-Arab). Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Sea of Oman. The Iranian climate is mostly arid or semiarid, though subtropical along the Caspian coast. Iran is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "Cradle of Humanity".

Climate

Iran's varied landscape produces several different climates. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) the temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29°C (84°F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1700 mm (75 in) in the western side of the plain. At higher elevations to the west, settlements in the Zagros mountains basins experience lower temperatures. These areas have severe winters, with average daily temperatures below freezing and have heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid. They get less than 200 mm (8 in) of rain and have occasional desert. The average summer temperatures exceed 38°C (100°F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters and experience very humid and hot summers. The Annual precipitation ranges from 135 mm to 355 mm (6 to 14 in).

Economy

Gulf of Oman Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. The current administration has continued to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and has indicated that it will pursue diversification of Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran is attempting to diversify by investing revenues in other areas, including petrochemicals. Iran is also hoping to attract billions of dollars worth of foreign investment by creating a more favorable investment climate (i.e., reduced restrictions and duties on imports, creation of free-trade zones). Iran is OPEC's second largest oil producer and holds 10% of the world's proven oil reserves. It also has the world's second largest natural gas reserves (after Russia). The strong oil market in 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iran's financial situation tightened in 1997 because of lower oil prices. The subsequent rise in oil prices in 1999/2000 afforded Iran fiscal breathing room. Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies–totaling some $7.25 billion per year–including foodstuffs and especially gasoline. gasoline district.]] On March 20, 2006, Iran plans to participate in a new International Oil Bourse, trading oil priced as Petroeuros, rather than Petrodollars, as oil is traded in all other markets (as of 2005). This attempt to rebalance trading relationships in the world economy may trigger a series of far reaching consequences. A few observers, especially among peak oil production theorists who believe that an oil crisis is imminent, argue that there is a potential for a resource war with the United States of America over the flow of both dollars and oil. Others, including military leaders and peak oil theorists who believe that a crisis is further off, argue that the results of war game scenarios cast doubt on the argument that a war is the most likely result of the Oil Bourse. The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture, however, with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Large-scale irrigation schemes, together with the wider production of export-based agricultural items such as dates, flowers and pistachios, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the 1990s, although successive years of severe drought in 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001 have held back output growth substantially. Agriculture remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of all jobs according to the 1991 census. According to the U.N. World Drug Report for 2005, Iran has the highest proportion of opiate addicts in the world–2.8 percent of the population over age 15. Only two other countries–Mauritius and Kyrgyzstan–pass the 2 percent mark. With a population of about 70 million and some government agencies putting the number of regular users close to 4 million, Iran has no real competition as world leader in per capita addiction to opiates, including heroin.

Demographics

heroin

Ethnic groups

The majority of Iran's population speak one of the Iranian languages, though only Persian is an official language. While the number, percentage, and definition of the different Iranian peoples is disputed, the major ethnic groups and minorities in Iran include the Persians (51%), Azeris (24%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Arabs (3%), Baluchi (2%), Lurs (2%), Turkmen people (2%), Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Assyrians and others.

Religion

Assyrians Most Iranians are Muslims; 89% belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 10% belong to the Sunni branch, which predominates in most Muslim countries. Non-Muslim religious minorities include the Bahá'í Faith, Zoroastrians, as well as Jews, Christians, and Mandeans. The latter three are officially recognised minority religions and have reserved seats in the Majlis (Parliament). Iran's population size increased dramatically during the latter half of the 20th century. Iran hosts more than one million foreign refugees, more than any other country on earth.

Culture

earth and guardians of an ancient and sophisticated culture.]] Like all ancient civilizations, culture constitutes the focal point and heart of Iranian civilization. The art, music, architecture, poetry, philosophy, traditions, and ideology of Iran have made it a continuously important nation in the global community. In fact, many Iranians believe their culture to be the one and only reason why their civilization has continuously survived thousands of years of plethoric calamities.

Miscellaneous topics

Notes and references

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- Please note that the numbers are according to the 2004 edition of CIA's The World Factbook. Different claims include higher numbers for Persian-speaking groups and respectively lower numbers for Turkic-speaking groups or vice versa. Some people in the first group claim that the CIA statistics are based on guesses made around 1964, while the CIA claims that their numbers are based on information from January 2004.
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- Additional references and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article.

External links

Official Government Links

The following websites belong to the various branches of government, or are directly operated by the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
- [http://www.leader.ir Official site of the Supreme Leader], [http://www.wilayah.org/ (Qom office)]
- [http://www.president.ir Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran] - Official website.
- [http://www.irisn.com/ The Council of Guardians], Official website.
- [http://mellat.majlis.ir/ The Majlis], Iran's parliament. [http://www.majlis.ir/ (2)].
- [http://www.iranjudiciary.org/ The Judiciary of The Islamic Republic of Iran]
- [http://www.mfa.gov.ir Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
- [http://www.ershad.gov.ir/ Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance]
- [http://www.mod.ir/ Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces]
- [http://www.freezones.ir/ Secretariat of The High Council of Iran Free Trade Industrial Zones]
- [http://www.iranculture.org Secretariat of The High Council of The Cultural Revolution]
- [http://www.spk-gov.ir/ Official Spokesman of the Islamic Republic of Iran]
- [http://www.aeoi.org.ir/ Islamic Republic of Iran Atomic Energy Organization]
- [http://www.iranmiras.ir/ Islamic Republic of Iran Cultural Heritage Organization]
- [http://www.rcs.ir/en Islamic Republic of Iran Red Crescent Society]
- [http://www.irib.com Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting], official website.
- [http://www.shahid.ir/ Bonyad e Shahid Foundation]
- [http://www.iran-bonyad.com/ Bonyad e Mostazafeen Foundation]

1736

Events

- January 26 - Stanislaus I of Poland abdicates his throne.
- February 12 - Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor weds Maria Theresa, mother of Marie Antoinette
- April 14 - Porteous Riots erupt in Edinburgh after execution of a smuggler Andrew Wilson when town guard captain John Porteous orders his men to fire at the crowd. Porteous is arrested later
- May 8 - Marriage of Frederick, Prince of Wales and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha.
- May 26 - Battle of Ackia: British and Chickasaw Native Americans defeat French troops.
- September 7 - Edinburgh crowd drags John Porteous out of his cell in Tolbooth prison and lynches him
- A French expedition led by Pierre Louis Maupertuis is sent by King Louis XV to Lapland to measure the length of a degree of the meridian, and proves that the Earth is flattened at the poles
- Real Arissona, namesake of the U.S. state Arizona is founded in what is now that state.
- Isaac Newton Publishes his Method of Fluxions
- Thomas Bayes publishes a defense of Isaac Newton's calculus
- Leonhard Euler solves the mathematical problem known as the seven bridges of Königsberg
- Anna I Empress of Russia, attacks Turkey
- Neustrelitz becomes the capital of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
- Genbun era begins in Japan
- George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney becomes the first Field Marshal of Great Britain
- Bushehr is founded in Persia
- British Witchcraft Act is reformed, eliminating capital punishment for Witches, and instituting fines and jail time for claiming to be a witch or sorcerer
- First recorded use of a Bathing machine
- The Belgrade fortress is completed
- The era of Kyoho Reforms end in Japan
- The English town of Stony Stratford is almost completely consumed by fire
- Porteous Riots occur in Edinburgh Scotland
- Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab writes the Kitab at-tawhidt, marking the beginning of Wahhabism

Births

- January 7 - Andrew Adams, American judge (d. 1797
- January 19 - James Watt, Scottish inventor (d. 1819)
- January 25 - Joseph Louis Lagrange, Italian-born mathematician (d. 1813)
- February 3 - Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Austrian musician (d. 1809)
- February 29 - Ann Lee, American religious leader (d. 1784)
- May 10 - George Steevens, English literary critic (d. 1800)
- May 29 - Patrick Henry, American patriot (d. 1799)
- June 7 - Fermín Lasuén, Spanish missionary (d. 1803)
- June 14 - Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, French physicist (d. 1806)
- June 21 - Enoch Poor, American general (d. 1780)
- June 25 - John Horne Tooke, English politician and philologist (d. 1812)
- July - Juan Bautista de Anza, Governor of the Spanish Province of New Mexico (d. 1788)
- September 10 - Carter Braxton, signer of the American Declaration of Independence (d. 1797)
- September 15 - Jean Sylvain Bailly, French astronomer (d. 1793)
- October 27 - James Macpherson, Scottish poet (d. 1796)
- John Francis Edward Acton, Prime Minister of Naples (d. 1811)
- Robert Jephson, Irish dramatist (d. 1803)
- Daniel Morgan, American pioneer, Congressman from Virginia, and general (d. 1802)
- Pierre le Pelley I, Seigneur of Sark (d. 1778)
- Alexander Runciman, Scottish painter (d. 1785)
- Claudius Smith, American revolutionary (d. 1779)
- Edward Waring, British mathematician (d. 1798)

Deaths

- January 31 - Filippo Juvara, Italian architect (b. 1678)
- February 7 - Stephen Gray, English dyer, astronomer, and scientist (b. 1666)
- March 16 - Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian composer (b. 1710)
- March 25 - Nicholas Hawksmoor, British architect
- April 24 - Eugene of Savoy, French-born Austrian general (b. 1663)
- April 30 - Johann Albert Fabricius, German scholar and bibliographer (b. 1668)
- September 16 - Gabriel Fahrenheit, German physicist and inventor (b. 1686)
- December 10 - António Manoel de Vilhena, Portuguese ruler of Malta (b. 1663)
- December 28 - Antonio Caldara, Italian composer (b. 1670)
- Ahmed III, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1637)
- Captain John Porteous, Scottish captain Category:1736 ko:1736년

Battle of Diu

The naval Battle of Diu was a critical sea battle that took place on 3 February 1509 near Diu, India, between Portugal and a joint fleet of Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt, Ottoman Empire, Calicut and the Sultan of Gujarat, with technical maritime assistance from Venetian Republic and Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) .

Importance

This battle is critical from a strategic perspective since it marks the beginning of the dominance of the Europeans in the Asian naval theatre, and a defeat for the then dominant power - the Ottoman Empire. It also marks the spillover of the Christian-Islamic power struggle in Europe and the Middle East, into the Indian Ocean which was a dominant arena of international trade at that time. The battle parallels Lepanto (1571), Abu Qir (1798), Trafalgar (1805) and Tsushima (1905) in terms of its impact, though not in scale. Had the Turks won India would've become a Muslim dominion, and by extension an arm of the expanding Ottoman Empire in the East. Tsushima The Portuguese followed this battle by rapidly capturing key ports/coastal areas around the Indian Ocean like Mombasa, Socotora, Muscat, Ormuz, Goa, Ceylon and Malacca. This allowed them to kill the traditional land/sea spice route controlled by the Arabs and the Venetians, and by routing the trade down the Cape of Good Hope, they also simultaneously crippled the Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, Venetian Republic and the Sultanate of Gujarat (which was at its peak then). The Portuguese sea monopoly lasted until the advent of the British East India Company in the Battle of Swally in 1612. For the Venetians, the loss at this battle combined with the League of Cambrai that was formed against them in 1508 meant a period of turmoil, and a fall from the prestigious position they held at that time. The Samoothiri Raja, though a Hindu was incensed at the Portuguese because of their conduct since Vasco da Gama had landed in his kingdom in 1498, and hence had joined forces with the Sultan of Gujarat.

Sultan Of Gujarat

The Egyptian fleet, manned mostly by Turks, was sent by the Mamlûk Burji Sultan of Cairo, Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghauri, in 1507 to support, at his invitation, the then Muslim Sultan of Gujarat, Mahmud Begada who had his capital at Champaner, a town about 48km from the major city of Vadodara. The Sultan, sensing a political vacumn in Western India, had persuaded the Turks and the Egyptians that the opportunity was right for a Muslim-dominated dominion in that part of India.

Principal Characters

The following were the important participants in this battle:
- Dom Francisco de Almeida, first Portuguese viceroy in India
- Mir Hussein Pasha, Turkish Commander of the Egyptian-Gujarat squadron
- Malik Aiyaz, Governor of Diu for the Sultan of Gujarat

Precursor to the battle

Diu was a critical outpost in the overall spice trade from India. The Mamlûks along with the Venetians controlled the flow of spice from India to Europe in a symbiotic relationship. The Portuguese attempt to establish trade with India was to break this stronghold. The King of Portugal, Manuel I fresh from Vasco da Gama's exploits, sent out his first Viceroy, Dom Francisco de Almeida in 1505 with 21 ships to strengthen the fledgling Portuguese stronghold in East Africa and India. Since Portuguese naval patrols regularly interdicted supplies of Malabar timber for the Mamlûk Red Sea fleet, the Ottoman Sultan, Beyazid II therefore supplied Egypt with Mediterranean-type war galleys manned by Greek sailors. These vessels, which Venetian shipwrights helped disassemble in Alexandria and reassemble on the Red Sea coast, however, had to brave the Indian Ocean. The galley warriors could mount light guns fore and aft, but not along the gunwales because these cannon would interfere with the rowers. The native ships dhows, with their sewn wood planks, could carry no heavy guns at all. Hence, most of the coalition's artillery was archers, whom the Portuguese outshot. The new Mamlûk fleet set out for India in 1507, first fortifying Jeddah against a possible Portuguese attack. It then passed through Aden at the tip of the Red Sea, where it received support from the Tahirid sultan, and then, in 1508, crossed the Indian Ocean to the port of Diu. In addition to enforcing Portuguese rule, the battle was undertaken to also avenge the defeat at the battle of Chaul in March 1508, where Dom Lourenço, son of the viceroy was killed. The Viceroy was so enraged at this death that he said "He who ate the chick has to eat the rooster, or pay for it". At that battle the recently arrived Egyptian fleet, along with the fleet from Gujarat, had surprised a small Portuguese fleet over three days of combat. The Viceroy was forced to undertake this battle to avenge his son's death, because on 6 Decemb

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1600

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1501

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Iran

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Notes and references

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1736

Events

Births

Deaths

Battle of Diu

Importance

Sultan Of Gujarat

Principal Characters

Precursor to the battle