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Sparkling Wine

Sparkling wine

Sparkling wine is a wine with significant levels of carbon dioxide in it making it fizzy. The carbon dioxide results from natural fermentation, either in a bottle as with the méthode champenoise, or in a large tank designed to withstand the pressures involved, as in the charmat process. In some parts of the world, the word champagne is used as a synonym for sparkling wine, although some prefer to reserve the word champagne for a specific type from the Champagne region of France. The classic example of a sparkling wine is Champagne, but many other examples are produced in other countries and regions, such as sekt in Germany, cava in Spain, spumante in Italy, Cap Classique in South Africa. Recently the United Kingdom has begun producing a wide variety of wines, including sparkling wines, many of which are considered comparable or occasionally even superior to Champagnes in quality; global warming is cited as the main reason why southern England is becoming suitable for wine production, although prior to the reign of Henry VIII and his seizure of church property, England's monasteries included several vineyards. Sparkling wine is usually white or rosé but there are several examples of red Australian sparkling shiraz. Some wines are made only lightly sparkling, such as vinho verde in Portugal - such wines are often called frizzante or pétillant, or simply semi-sparkling. For a description of the production method for Champagne and other wines made by the méthode champenoise see under Champagne. Because this process is expensive, using individual bottles for final fermentation, many other processes may be used. The tank method or charmat process is commonly used for lower priced sparklers.

Champaigne trivia

- The pressure in a bottle of champagne is about 90 pounds per square inch, or about three times that in an automobile tire.
- The longest recorded champagne cork flight was 177 feet and nine inches.
- Bubbles in champagne were originally seen by early vintners as an undesirable defect.
- A raisin dropped into a glass of sparkling wine will repeatedly bounce up and down between the top and bottom of the glass.
- The shallow champagne glass was falsely rumored to have been formed from wax molds of Marie Antoinette's breasts.

Source of trivia

- [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:lw-SroEIGIwJ:www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/FunFacts/AlcoholTrivia.html+Bubbles+Champagne+early+wine+undesirable+defect+&hl=en Alcohol Trivia] Category:Sparkling wines ja:発泡ワイン

Wine

:This article is about the beverage. See WINE (software) for an article about the software of the same name. Wine is an alcoholic beverage that is made by fermenting grapes or grape juice. Wine-like beverages can also be made from other fruits or from flowers, grains, and even honey, in which case, a qualifier has to be used; for example, "elderberry wine". The word wine and its equivalents in other languages are protected by law in many jurisdictions and therefore should always mean grape wine. This article discusses grape wine. For non-grape wines, see country wine for fruit and flower wine, barley wine which is similar to beer, sake for rice wine, baijiu for the Chinese spirits sometimes translated "wine," and mead for honey wine. honey

History

honey The word wine comes from the the Old English win, which derives from the Proto-Germanic
- winam which was an early borrowing from the Latin vinum (related to Greek οἶνος), which can mean either the "wine" or the "vine". The earliest known evidence of a fermented wine-like drink is from the Chinese village of Jiahu dated from 6000 to 7000 BC [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/51/17593]. The wine, found in 16 buried jars, contained millet, rice, beeswax (from honey) and either hawthorn fruit or wild grape. A 3,000 year old bronze jar has also been unearthed, still containing a similar liquid wine. Ancient pottery jars discovered at Hajji Firuz Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of present-day Iran, near the city of Urmia [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/NearEast/wine.shtml], indicate that grape wine was produced as far back as 5,500 BC. It is believed that the name of the Shiraz grape originates from the Persian town of the same name. This discovery is particularly significant, as Hajji Firuz Tepe was not a grape-growing area, the main crops being grains and the preferred drink of the time was beer. As ancient Babylon was located on the Silk Road from China to the Mediterranean, all indications suggest that wine was probably used as a commodity for trade. In ancient Egypt, wine played an important part in ceremonial life. Although wild grapes were never grown there, a thriving royal winemaking industry had been established in the Nile Delta. The industry was most likely the result of trade between Egypt and Canaan during the Early Bronze Age, commencing from at least the Third Dynasty (2650 – 2575 BC), the beginning of the Old Kingdom period (2650 – 2152 BC). Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced at the deltaic vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five wines, all probably produced in the Delta, constitute a canonical set of provisions, or fixed "menu," for the afterlife. Christianity included wine in its rites where it takes the place of the blood of Jesus in the liturgies of Orthodox, Catholic and Anglican Christians. The advent of wine in Europe was the work of the Greeks who spread the art of grape-growing and winemaking in Ancient Greece and Roman times.

Wine-producing regions

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty north and between thirty and forty five degrees south of the Equator. The world's most southerly vineyards are in the South Island of New Zealand near the 45th parallel. The 13 largest export nations(2005 dates) – Italy, France, Spain, Australia, Chile, the United States of America, Germany, South Africa, Portugal, Moldova, Hungary, Croatia and Argentina. In the United States, California accounts for the largest share of wine producers, including Napa Valley, Sonoma Valley, Paso Robles, Santa Ynez and [http://www.mcganty.com/temecula04/overview.htm Temecula wineries]. The vineyards of Algeria used to produce many fine wines, especially during and immediately after the era of French colonization, but the resurgence of Islam among the populace since the 1970s has greatly reduced this industry. 1970s] The leaders in export volume by market share in 2003 were:
- France, 22%
- Italy, 20%
- Spain, 16%
- Australia, 8%
- Chile, 6%
- United States, 5%
- Portugal 4%
- Germany 4%.. See also: List of wine-producing regions

Wine grape varieties

List of wine-producing regions Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species, Vitis vinifera. When one of these varieties, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, or Zinfandel, for example, is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is a varietal, as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way inferior to varietal wines; indeed, some of the world's most valued and expensive wines from the Bordeaux, Rioja or Tuscany regions, are a blend of several grape varieties of the same vintage. Wine can also be made from Vitis labrusca, from other species or from the hybrid of two species. Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis rupestris, Vitis rotundifolia and Vitis riparia are native North American grapes, usually used for eating in fruit form or made into grape juice, but sometimes used for wine, eg. Concord wine. Although only rarely used and generally prohibited by law in traditional wine regions, hybrids are planted in substantial numbers in cool-climate viticultural areas. Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of grafting a North American vine's root to the stock of a vinifera varietal. This is common practice because North American grape species are immune to phylloxera. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the World except for Chile, which has yet to be exposed to the bug. The variety of the land, the local yeast cultures and the climate and conditions under which grapes are grown, (called "terroir") combined to offer a great variety among wine products, which are further increased by the fermentation process itself and by improvements attained with proper aging, sometimes for several decades or more. However, variety is not in itself a sought-after quality for large producers of table wine or more affordable wines, where consistency is more important for large and modern factory wines, and mass-market wine brands. Their producers will try to hide any hint of often-unremarkable "terroirs", or climatically under-performing harvest years, by:
- blending harvests of various years and vineyards;
- pasteurizing the grape juice in order to kill indigenous yeasts (to be replaced with "choice" cultivated yeasts); and
- using flavor additives. See also: List of grape varieties

Classification of wine

By vinification methods

List of grape varieties Wines may be classified by vinification methods. These include classifications such as sparkling, still, fortified, rosé, and blush. The colour of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the grape skin during fermentation. Grapes with colored juice are known as teinturiers. Red wine is made from red (or black) grapes, but its red colour is bestowed by the skin being left in contact with the juice during fermentation. White wine can be made from any colour of grape as the skin is separated from the juice during fermentation. A white wine made from a very dark grape may appear pink or 'blush'. Rosé wines are a compromise between reds and whites: the skin of red grapes is left in for a short time during fermentation, or a small amount of red wine is blended with a white wine. Sparkling wines, such as champagne, are those with carbon dioxide, either from fermentation or added later. They vary from just a slight bubbliness to the classic Champagne. To have this effect, the wine is fermented twice, once in an open container to allow the carbon dioxide to escape into the air, and a second time in a sealed container, where the gas is caught and remains in the wine. In France, wines that gain their carbonation from the traditional method of bottle fermentation are called Méthode Traditionnelle. Other international denominations of sparkling wine include Sekt or Schaumwein (Germany), Cava (Spain), Spumante or Prosecco (Italy). In most countries except the United States, champagne is legally defined as sparkling wine originating from a region in France. Fortified wines are often sweeter, always more alcoholic wines that have had their fermentation process stopped by the addition of a spirit, such as brandy. They include:
- Marsala
- Madeira
- Sherry
- Port Brandy is a distilled wine. Grappa is a dry colorless brandy, distilled from fermented grape pomace, the pulpy residue of grapes, stems and seeds that were pressed for the winemaking process.

By taste

Wines may be also classified by their primary impression on the drinker's palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. Different grape varieties are associated with the aromas and tastes of different compounds. Wines may be described as 'dry' (meaning they are without sugar), off-dry, fruity, or sweet, for example. The sweetness of wines can be measured in brix, at harvest, but is in actuality determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation. Dry wine, for example, has only a tiny amount of residual sugar. Specific flavors may also be sensed, at least by an experienced taster, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules, such as esters, that a fully vinted wine contains.

White grapes

- Sauvignon Blanc: Gooseberry, asparagus.
- Sémillon: Honey, orange, lime.
- Chardonnay: Butter, melon, apple, pineapple, vanilla (if oaked, i.e. vinified in new oak aging barrels)
- Chenin Blanc: Wet wood, beeswax, honey, apple, almond.
- Riesling: Citrus fruits, petrol, honey.
- Gewürztraminer: Rose petals, lychee, spice.
- Viognier: Peach, pear, nutmeg, apricot.
- Marsanne: Almond, honeysuckle, marzipan.

Red grapes

- Gamay: Banana, bubble-gum, red fruits.
- Pinot Noir: Raspberry, cherry, violets, "farmyard" (with age).
- Zinfandel: Black cherry, mixed spices, mint.
- Shiraz (Syrah): Tobacco, pepper, blackberry.
- Grenache: Smoky, pepper, raspberry.
- Tempranillo: Vanilla, strawberry, tobacco.
- Sangiovese: Herbs, black cherry, leathery, earthy.
- Nebbiolo: Leather, stewed prunes, chocolate, liquorice.
- Merlot: Black cherry, plums, pepper, coffee.
- Cabernet Franc: Tobacco, green bell pepper, raspberry, new-mown grass.
- Cabernet Sauvignon: Blackcurrants, chocolate, mint, tobacco.
- Mourvèdre: Thyme, clove, cinnamon, black pepper, violet, blackberry.
- Petite Sirah: Earthy, black pepper, dark fruits.

By vintage

Wines may be classified by the year in which the grapes are harvested. "Vintage wines" are made from grapes of a single year's harvest, and are accordingly dated. These wines often improve in flavor as they age, and wine enthusiasts will occasionally save bottles of a favorite vintage wine for future consumption. For most types of wine, the best-quality grapes and the most care in wine-making are employed on vintage wines. They are therefore more expensive than non-vintage wines. Whilst vintage wines are generally made in a single batch so that each and every bottle will have a similar taste, climatic factors can have a dramatic impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality. Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage wines are only made in better-than-average years. Conversely, wines such as White Zinfandel, which don't age well, are made to be drunk immediately and are not labeled with a vintage year. There are exceptions though. French Champagne is typically non-vintage, but may not be "cheap", and can sometimes profit from aging.

Collectible wines

White Zinfandel At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are amongst the most expensive of all foodstuffs, and outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Red wines, at least partly because of their ability to form more complex subtleties, are typically the most expensive. Such wines are often at their best years, or sometimes decades, after bottling. On the other hand, they may turn into vinegar, and before opening the bottle there may be no way of knowing this. Part of the expense associated with high-end wine comes from the number of bottles which must be discarded in order to produce a drinkable wine. Restaurants will often charge between two to five times the price of what a wine merchant may ask for an exceptional vintage. This is for a reason: diners will often return wines that have gone foul and not bear the expense. For restaurateurs, serving old vintages is a risk that is compensated through elevated prices. Some high-end wines are Veblen goods (for conspicuous consumption). Exclusive wines come from all the best winemaking regions of the world. Secondary markets for these wines have consequently developed, as well as specialised facilities for post-purchase storage for people to "invest" in wine. The most common wines purchased for investment are Bordeaux and Port. Many wine writers have decried the trend, as it has pushed up prices to the point that few people will consider drinking such valuable commodities, and consequently they are kept in bottles undrunk where they eventually deteriorate into a substance very much like red wine vinegar in taste (and desirability). Also investment in fine wine has attracted a number of fraudsters who have played on fine wine's exclusive image, and their clients' ignorance of this sector of the wine market. Typically, the scams work by charging excessively high prices on the wine, while representing that it is a sound investment unaffected by economic cycles. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing. Some wines, produced to mark significant events in a country or region, can also become collectible because of labelling design. An example is the Mildara Rhine Riesling produced in 1973 to mark the opening of the Sydney Opera House. Instead of labels, the bottles (red, as well as white) had printing in gold on them, as seen in the illustration.
- For special types of wines, see Category:Wines.

Types of wines

Wine names

Wines are usually named either by their grape variety or by their place of production. Generally speaking, Old World (European) wines are named for the place of production, with the grapes used often not appearing on the label. New World wines(those from everywhere except Europe) are generally named for the grape variety. More and more, however, market recognition of particular regions and wineries is leading to their increased prominence on New World wine labels. Examples of recognized locales include:Napa Valley, Russian River Valley, Willamette Valley, Sonoma, Walla Walla, etc., Still, though, the grape variety is almost invariably present on the label. This is not the case with most European wines because tradition and legal restrictions enable any conoisseur to know exactly what variety of grape is in the bottle. Within Europe, a major exception to the no-grape rule is with German wines, for which it is not uncommon to find this information on the front label.

Regional wine names

The taste of a wine depends not only on the grape species and varietal blend, but also on the ground and climate (known as terroir) where it is cultivated. Historically, wines have been known by names reflecting their origin, and sometimes style: Bordeaux, Rioja, Mosel and Chianti are all legally defined names, reflecting the traditional wines produced in the named region. These naming conventions or "appellations" (as they are known in France) dictate not only where the grapes in a wine were grown, but also which grapes went into the wine and how they were vinified. The appellation system is strongest in the European Union, but a related system, the American Viticultural Area, restricts the use of certain regional labels in America, such as Napa Valley, Santa Barbara and Willamette Valley. The AVA designations do not restrict the type of grape used. New World wines are known primarily by their varietal content, and not by their region. The inconsistent application of historical European designations can be confusing. For example, in most of the world, wine labeled Champagne must be made from grapes grown in the Champagne region of France and fermented using certain method, based on the international trademark agreements included in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. However, in the United States (except Oregon), these and the following European appellations are allowed to be used as generic wine names:
- Asti
- Bordeaux
- Burgundy
- Chablis
- Champagne
- Chianti All of these are names of specific regions in Europe. While most countries restrict the use of these place names, there exists a legal definition called semi-generic in the United States that enables U.S. winemakers to apply these terms to their wines even though the product does not come from these specific places. Some suggest that this naming practice causes confusion, and thus, it is being protested by Europeans. Generally only less expensive, mass-produced wines (or vin ordinaire) make use of these place names as semi-generic wine names. Makers of American fine wines avoid these terms out of respect for their European counterparts. Thus, the finest sparkling wines from California will be labeled "sparkling wine", while some less expensive sparkling wines from California as well as states, such as Ohio and New York, may bear the name "Champagne". Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names is governed by trademark or copyright law, rather than a specific wine law or a patent on the actual varietal blend or process used to achieve it:
- Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, and may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec.
- Pinotage is a wine created by Professor Perold by cross-pollinating the two grape varieties of Pinot Noir and Cinsault. It is produced in South Africa and to a much lesser degree New Zealand.

Uses of wine

New Zealand Wine is a popular and important beverage that accompanies and enhances a wide range of European and Mediterranean-style cuisines, from the simple and traditional to the most sophisticated and complex. Red, white and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are also known as light wines, because they only contain approximately 10-14% alcohol. The aperitif and dessert wines contain 14-20% alcohol, and are fortified to make them richer and sweeter than the light wines. Although there are many classes of dinner wines, they are all used under six specific classes, as follows:
- aperitif (or better known as "appetizer wines"): include dry sherry, Madeira, Vermouth, and other flavored wines, made to be consumed before eating a meal.
- red dinner wines: These wines are usually dry and go extremely well with such main-course dishes as red meats, spaghetti, and highly-seasoned foods. They should be served at a cool room temperature to bring out their aroma. The most popular red dinner wines are claret, Burgundy, Chianti, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Pink dinner wines (also called "rose wines"), a special class of red wines, can be served with almost any dish, but are considered best with cold meats, pork, and curries.

- white dinner wines: Usually either very dry or rather sweet, these wines should be served chilled, and go well with white meats, seafood, and fowl. They include Rhine wines, Chablis, sauterne, and wine made from different grape varieties such as Chardonnay and White Riesling.
- sparkling wines: Usually served at any meal with any course, these wines are most frequently served at banquets, formal dinners and weddings. The most common sparking wines are Champagne (white) and sparkling Burgundy (red).
- table wine: Table wine is not bubbly, although some have a very slight carbonation, the amount of which is not enough to disqualify them as table wines. According to U.S. standards of identity, table wines may have an alcohol content that is no higher than 14 percent. In Europe, light wine must be within 8.5 percent and 14 percent alcohol by volume. As such, unless a wine has more than 14 percent alcohol, or it has bubbles, it is a table wine or a light wine.
- dessert wines: Ranging from medium-sweet to sweet, these wines are classified under dessert wines only because they are sometimes served with desserts. Among these are port wine, sweet sherry, Tokay, and muscatel.
- cooking wines: Typically containing a significant quantity of salt, cooking wine is wine of such poor quality that it is unpalatable and intended for use only in cooking. The labels on certain bottles of wine suggest that they need to be set aside for an hour before drinking (ie. to "breathe"), while other wines are recommended to be drunk as soon as they are opened. 'Breathing' means allowing a wine to aerate before drinking. Generally, younger wines benefit from some aeration, while older wines do not. The word, "younger", refers to the first one third of a wine’s life, which varies from wine type to wine type and from wine to wine. For most white wines, "younger" means up to one to two years, while for red wines, they could mean as little as a few months, for a Beaujolais Nouveau, up to ten years for a hearty Barossa Shiraz. "Older", on the other hand, refers to the last one third of their lives. During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes" the flavours and makes them taste slightly smooth and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Wines that are older generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration. Breathing, however, does not benefit all wines, and should not therefore be taken to the extreme. In general, wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it may be aerated, if at all. It should then be tasted every 15 minutes until the wine is, according to individual preference, ready to drink. As a general rule, younger white wines normally require no more than 15-30 minutes of aeration while younger red wines should be no more than 30-60 minutes. If in doubt, it is better to err on the side of too little aeration than too much. Wine is also used in religious ceremonies in many cultures and the wine trade is of historical importance for many regions. The New Testament even states that Jesus' very first miracle was to turn water into wine (John 2:1-11).

Medical implications

The health effects of wine (and alcohol in general) are the subject of considerable ongoing debate and study. In the USA, a boom in red wine consumption was touched off in the 1990s by '60 Minutes', and other news reports on the French paradox. It now seems clear that regular consumption of up to 1-2 drinks a day (1 standard drink is approximately equal to 5 oz, or 125 ml, of 13% wine) does reduce mortality, due to 10%–40% lower risk of coronary heart disease, for those over the age of 35 or so (see Alcohol consumption and health). Originally, the effect was observed with red wine. Compounds, known as polyphenols, are found in larger amounts in red wine, and there is some evidence that these are especially beneficial. One particularly interesting polyphenol found in red wine is resveratrol, to which numerous beneficial effects have been attributed. With larger amounts, however, the effect is compensated by the increased rate of various alcohol-related diseases, primarily cancers of mouth, upper respiratory tract, and ultimately, cirrhosis of liver. Other studies have shown that similar beneficial effects can be obtained from drinking beer, and distilled spirits. It is unclear if this means that the only important ingredient is ethanol. Dean Edell, M.D., asserts that there are "differences of opinion about whether beer, wine, or liquor offers the quickest route to a longer life. Of ten major studies, one-third found this true for wine, one-third for beer, and one-third for liquor. Most researchers now believe that it is the alcohol in all of them that provides the magic, but they don’t rule out other components of alcoholic beverages." Sulfites (or sulphites) are chemicals that occur naturally in grapes and also are added to wine as a preservative. They can trigger a severe and life-threatening allergic reaction in a small percentage of consumers, primarily asthmatics. In the USA nearly all commercially produced wine, including that with no added sulfites, is required to state on the label "contains sulfites." In other countries they do not have to be declared on the label, leading to a common mistaken belief that only wine from the USA contains sulfites. Many consumers who have adverse reactions to wine, such as headaches or hangovers, blame added sulfites but are probably reacting instead to naturally-occurring histamines. The quantity of sulfites in a glass of wine is the same as a serving of dried apricots.

List of other wine-related subjects

Wine-based drinks

- List of cocktails with wine
- Brandy: A general term for distilled wine.
- Calimocho: A cheap alcoholic drink, comprising 50% red wine and 50% cola drink.
- Mulled wine (known in Scandinavia as Glögg): A red wine, combined with spices, and usually served hot.
- Sangria Spanish: A wine punch, comprising red wine, chopped fruits, sugar, and a small amount of brandy or other spirits.
- Spritzer: A tall, chilled drink, usually made of white wine and soda water.
- Wine cooler: An alcoholic beverage made from wine and fruit juice, often in combination with a carbonated beverage and sugar.
- Zurracapote: A popular Spanish alcoholic drink comprising mainly of red wine, spirit, fruit juice, sugar and cinnamon.
- Rebujito: A mixture of manzanilla wine, mixed with a soft drink like Sprite or 7 Up.
- Non-alcoholic wine

Wine-related objects

- Aging barrel: A barrel used to age wine or distilled spirits.
- Amphora: A type of ceramic vase, used for transporting and storing wine.
- Barrel: A hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of wood staves, used for fermenting and aging wine.
- Butt: An old English unit of wine casks, equivalent to about 477 litres or 126 US gallons (105 imperial gallons).
- Cork (material): Tissue material, harvested from the Cork oak tree, and very suitable as a material for bottle stoppers.
- Corkscrew: A tool, comprising a pointed metallic helix attached to a handle, for drawing stopping corks from bottles.
- Napkin is used around a bottleneck to stop drops running on bottle surface after pouring wine to glasses.
- Screwcap: An alternative to cork for sealing wine bottles, comprising a metal cap that screws onto threads on the neck of a bottle. Also called a "Stelvin".
- Wine bottle: A small container, with a neck that is narrower than the body, that allows long-term aging of wine when combined with a high-quality stopper, such as a cork.
- Wine collar: This accoutrement slips over the neck of a wine bottle and absorbs any drips that may run down the bottle after pouring - preventing stains to table cloths, counter tops or other surfaces.
- Wine cooler: An accessory, such as an ice bucket, for cooling wine.
- Wine label: The label on a wine bottle that must provide at least the minimum amount of information prescribed by law.
- Wine-press: A device, comprising two vats or receptacles, one for trodding and bruising grapes, and the other for collecting the juice.
- Wine stopper: An accessory, used to close leftover wine bottles because it is hard to put the original cork back into the bottleneck. See also Wine accessory.

Professions

- Cooper: Someone who makes wooden barrels, casks, and other similar wooden objects.
- Négociant: A wine merchant who assembles the produce of smaller growers and winemakers, and sells them under his own name.
- Sommelier: A waiter in a restaurant who specializes in wine.
- Vintner (also called "oenologist"): A winemaker or wine merchant.

Prominent personalities

- Abraham Izak Perold, Prof.
- Albert Seibel: A French hybridist (1844-1936) who made "Seibel grapes", that are hybrid crosses of European wine grapes (Vitis vinifera) with native North American grapes.
- Ausonius: Frequently cited by historians of winemaking, as his works give early evidence of large-scale viniculture in the now-famous wine country around his native Bordeaux, France.
- Dom Perignon: A Benedictine monk frequently credited with the invention of Champagne and for which, Dom Perignon, the famous brand of Champagne is named after.
- Georges Duboeuf: A prominent Beaujolais bottler who has won a number of awards for his wines.
- James Busby: Widely regarded as the "father" of the Australian wine industry, as he was the man who introduced vine to Australia from Spain and France.
- Nathaniel de Rothschild: Founder of the French wine-making branch of the Rothschild family.
- Philippe de Rothschild: A member of the Rothschild family, and one the most prolific wine producers in the world.
- Robert M. Parker, Jr.: An influential wine critic from the United States.
- Robert Mondavi: A leading vineyard operator whose technical improvements and marketing strategies brought worldwide recognition for the wines of the Napa Valley in California.
- Simon Van Der Stel
- Serena Sutcliffe, MW: The head of Sotheby's International Wine Department.
- Steven Spurrier
- Taittinger family: A French family that is a famous producer of champagne.
- William Charles Winshaw, Dr.

Vineyards and distributors

- Château Cheval Blanc: A vineyard in Saint-Émilion, France.
- Château Mouton Rothschild: Located at Bordeaux, France. The first estate to begin complete chateau bottling of the harvest.
- Château Pétrus: A vineyard of the Pomerol wine region in Bordeaux.
- Distell
- Douglas Green Bellingham (DGB)
- KWV (Koöperatiewe Winjnbouwers Vereniging van Zuid-Afrika): The name of the company, formed in [1997], from the former winemakers cooperative in South Africa.
- Remick Ridge Vineyards: A California-based vineyard and winery, owned and operated by the Smothers Brothers.
- Royal Wine Company: Also known as "Kedem", is a U.S.-incorporated Kosher food manufacturing and distribution corporation, run by the Herzog family since 1848; holds exclusive United States distribution rights for several Israeli wines and spirits, and is especially known for the Baron Herzog Varietals line of wines.
- Marchesi Antinori
- Massaya: Wine from Lebanon

Films & TV

- Mondovino, USA/France 2004: A documentary film directed by American film maker, Jonathan Nossiter, explaining the impact of globalization on the various wine-producing regions.
- Sideways, 2004: A comedy/drama film, directed by Alexander Payne, with the tagline: In search of wine. In search of women. In search of themselves., in which wine, particularly Pinot Noir, plays a central role.
- Falcon Crest, USA 1981-1990: A CBS primetime soap opera about the fictional Falcon Crest winery and the family who owned it, set in the fictional Tuscany Valley of California. The series was very popular and a wine named Falcon Crest even went on the market.

External links

- [http://www.winefiles.org/ Wine information database]
- [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/series/wine/history.html A brief history in wine]
- [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/exhibits/online_exhibits/wine/wineintro.html Chateau Hajji Firuz]
- [http://www.languedoc-france.info/0414_wine.htm Wines of the Languedoc-Roussillon] History, Statistics, Appelations, Terroir
- [http://www.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/wine.html World's Earliest Wine]
- [http://www.wineselecting.com/articles/ Wine selecting tips]
- [http://www.towson.edu/~gsarhang/Persian%20Wine%20Paper%201.doc Depiction of Wine in Persian Miniature]
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1590302,00.html End of the vine]

References

- Jancis Robinson, The Oxford Companion to Wine. ISBN 019866236X
- Ed McCarthy, Mary Ewing-Mulligan, Piero Antinori, Wine for Dummies. ISBN 0764525441
- Hugh Johnson, Hugh Johnson's Wine Companion. The Encyclopaedia of Wines, Vineyards and Winemakers, Mitchell Beazley 2003, 5th edition
- Stuart Pigott, A Grape by Grape Visual Guide to the Contemporary Wine World, (Mitchell Beazley)
- Dean Edell, M.D.. Eat, Drink and be Merry: America’s Doctor Tells You Why the Health Experts are Wrong. NY: HarperCollins, 1999, pp. 191-192. Category:Alcoholic beverages Category:Herbal & fungal drugs/medicines Category:Wine

Resources

als:Wein ko:와인 ja:ワイン simple:Wine th:ไวน์

Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas comprised of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. A very widely known chemical compound, it is frequently called by its formula CO₂. In its solid state, it is commonly known as dry ice. Carbon dioxide derives from multiple sources including volcanic outgassing, the combustion of organic matter and respiration processes of living aerobic organisms. It is also produced by various microorganisms from fermentation and cellular respiration. Plants utilize carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, using both the carbon and the oxygen to construct carbohydrates. In addition, plants also release oxygen to the atmosphere, which is subsequently used for respiration by heterotrophic organisms, forming a cycle. It is present in the Earth's atmosphere at a low concentration and acts as a greenhouse gas. It is a major component of the carbon cycle.

Chemical and physical properties

Carbon dioxide is a colorless gas which, when inhaled at high concentrations (a dangerous activity because of the associated asphyxiation risk), produces a sour taste in the mouth and a stinging sensation in the nose and throat. These effects result from the gas dissolving in the mucous membranes and saliva, forming a weak solution of carbonic acid. Its density at 25 °C is 1.98 kg m⁻³, about 1.5 times that of air. The carbon dioxide molecule (O=C=O) contains two double bonds and has a linear shape. It has no electrical dipole. As it is fully oxidized, it is not very reactive and, in particular, not flammable. At temperatures below −78 °C, carbon dioxide condenses into a white solid called dry ice. Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at pressures above 5.1 atm; at atmospheric pressure, it passes directly between the gaseous and solid phases in a process called sublimation. Water will absorb its own volume of carbon dioxide, and more than this under pressure. About 1% of the dissolved carbon dioxide turns into carbonic acid. The carbonic acid in turn dissociates partly to form bicarbonate and carbonate ions. Test For Carbon Dioxide. When a lighted splint is inserted into a test tube containing carbon dioxide, the flame is immediately extinguished, as carbon dioxide does not support combustion. (Certain fire extinguishers contain carbon dioxide to extinguish the flame). To further confirm that the gas is carbon dioxide, the gas may be bubbled into calcium hydroxide solution. The calcium hydroxide turns milky because of the formation of calcium carbonate.

Uses

Liquid and solid carbon dioxide are important refrigerants, especially in the food industry, where they are employed during the transportation and storage of ice cream and other frozen foods. Carbon dioxide is used to produce carbonated soft drinks and soda water. Traditionally, the carbonation in beer and sparkling wine comes about through natural fermentation, but some manufacturers carbonate these beverages artificially. The leavening agents used in baking produce carbon dioxide to cause dough to rise. Baker's yeast produces carbon dioxide by fermentation within the dough, while chemical leaveners such as baking powder and baking soda release carbon dioxide when heated or exposed to acids. Carbon dioxide is often used as an inexpensive, nonflammable pressurized gas. Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation. Steel capsules are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for airguns, paintball markers, for inflating bicycle tires, and for making seltzer. Rapid vaporization of liquid CO₂ is used for blasting in coal mines. Carbon dioxide extinguishes flames, and some fire extinguishers, especially those designed for electrical fires, contain liquid carbon dioxide under pressure. Carbon dioxide also finds use as an atmosphere for welding, although in the welding arc, it reacts to oxidize most metals. Use in the automotive industry is common despite significant evidence that welds made in carbon dioxide are brittler than those made in more inert atmospheres, and that such weld joints deteriorate over time because of the formation of carbonic acid. It is used as a welding gas primarily because it is much less expensive than more inert gases such as argon or helium. Liquid carbon dioxide is a good solvent for many organic compounds, and is used to remove caffeine from coffee. It has begun to attract attention in the pharmaceutical and other chemical processing industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional solvents such as organochlorides. (See green chemistry.) Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct photosynthesis, and greenhouses may enrich their atmospheres with additional CO₂ to boost plant growth. It has been proposed that carbon dioxide from power generation be bubbled into ponds to grow algae that could then be converted into biodiesel fuel. High levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere effectively exterminate many pests. Greenhouses will raise the level of CO₂ to 10,000 ppm (1%) for several hours to eliminate pests such as whitefly, spider mites, and others. In medicine, up to 5% carbon dioxide is added to pure oxygen for stimulation of breathing after apnea and to stabilize the O₂/CO₂ balance in blood. A common type of industrial gas laser, the carbon dioxide laser, uses carbon dioxide as a medium. Carbon dioxide is commonly injected into or adjacent to producing oil wells. It will act as both a pressurizing agent and, when dissolved into the underground crude oil, will significantly reduce its viscosity, enabling the oil to flow more rapidly through the earth to the removal well. In mature oil fields, extensive pipe networks are used to carry the carbon dioxide to the injection points.

Dry Ice

Dry ice is a genericized trademark for solid ("frozen") carbon dioxide. The term was coined in 1925 by Prest Air Devices, a company formed in Long Island City, New York in 1923. Dry ice at normal pressures does not melt into liquid carbon dioxide but rather sublimates directly into carbon dioxide gas at −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F). Hence it is called "dry ice" as opposed to normal "wet" ice (frozen water). Dry ice is produced by compressing carbon dioxide gas to a liquid form, removing the heat produced by the compression (see Charles' law), and then letting the liquid carbon dioxide expand quickly. This expansion causes a drop in temperature so that some of the CO₂ freezes into "snow", which is then compressed into pellets or blocks.

Uses

temperature, New York, USA)]]
- Cooling foodstuffs, biological samples, and other perishable items.
- Producing "dry ice fog" for special effects. When dry ice is put into contact with water, the frozen carbon dioxide sublimates into a mixture of cold carbon dioxide gas and cold humid air. This causes condensation and the formation of fog; see fog machine. The effect of fog by the mixture of dry ice with water, is best formed when the water is warm, rather than cold.
- Tiny pellets of dry ice (instead of sand) are shot at a surface to be cleaned. Dry ice is not as hard as sand, but it speeds processing by sublimating to nothing and does not produce nearly as much lung-damaging dust.
- Increasing precipitation from existing clouds or decreasing cloud thickness by cloud seeding.
- Producing carbon dioxide gas as needed in such systems as the fuel tank inerting system in the B-47 aircraft.
- Brass or other metallic bushings are buried in dry ice to shrink their size so they will fit inside a machined hole. When the bushing warms back up, it expands and makes an extremely tight fit.

Handling

Because of its particular characteristics, dry ice requires special precautions when handling. It is extremely cold and there should be no direct contact with skin (i.e., wear proper insulating gloves). It is constantly sublimating to carbon dioxide gas, so it cannot be stored in a sealed container as the pressure buildup will quickly cause the container to explode. The sublimated gas must be ventilated; otherwise, it may fill the enclosed space and create a suffocation hazard. Special care for ventilating vehicles is needed as well because of the small space. People who handle dry ice should also be aware that carbon dioxide is heavier than air and will sink to the floor. Some markets require those purchasing dry ice to be of 18 years of age or older.

Biology

Carbon dioxide is an end product in organisms that obtain energy from breaking down sugars or fats with oxygen as part of their metabolism, in a process known as cellular respiration. This includes all plants, animals, many fungi and some bacteria. In higher animals, the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the lungs where it is exhaled. Carbon dioxide content in fresh air is approximately 0.04%, and in exhaled air approximately 4.5%. When inhaled in high concentrations (about 5% by volume), it is toxic to humans and other animals. Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, can carry both oxygen and carbon dioxide, although in quite different ways. The decreased binding to oxygen in the blood due to increased carbon dioxide levels is known as the Haldane Effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Conversely, a rise in the partial pressure of CO₂ or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin. This is known as the Bohr Effect. According to a study by the USDA [http://itest.slu.edu/articles/90s/hannan.html], an average person's respiration generates approximately 450 liters (roughly 900 grams) of carbon dioxide per day. CO₂ is carried in blood in three different ways. Most of it (about 80%–90%) is converted to bicarbonate ions HCO₃⁻ by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells. 5%–10% is dissolved in the plasma and 5%–10% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds. The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood. The CO₂ bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen; rather it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO₂ does decrease the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. Carbon dioxide may be one of the mediators of local autoregulation of blood supply. If it is high, the capillaries expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue. Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. As breathing rate influences the level of CO₂ in blood, too slow or shallow breathing causes respiratory acidosis, while too rapid breathing, hyperventilation, leads to respiratory alkalosis. It is interesting to note that although it is oxygen that the body requires for metabolism, it is not low oxygen levels that stimulate breathing, but is instead higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (e.g., pure nitrogen) leads to loss of consciousness without subjective breathing problems. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots, and is also the reason why the instructions in commercial airplanes for case of loss of cabin pressure stress that one should apply the oxygen mask to oneself before helping others—otherwise one risks going unconscious without being aware of the imminent peril. Plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by photosynthesis, which uses light energy to produce organic plant materials by combining carbon dioxide and water. This releases free oxygen gas. Sometimes carbon dioxide gas is pumped into greenhouses to promote plant growth. Plants also emit CO₂ during respiration, but on balance they are net sinks of CO₂. OSHA limits carbon dioxide concentration in the workplace to 0.5% for prolonged periods, or to 3% for brief exposures (up to ten minutes). OSHA considers concentrations exceeding 4% as "immediately dangerous to life and health." People who breathe 5% carbon dioxide for more than half an hour show signs of acute hypercapnia, while breathing 7%–10% carbon dioxide can produce unconsciousness in only a few minutes. Carbon dioxide, either as a gas or as dry ice, should be handled only in well-ventilated areas. See also: Arterial blood gas.

Atmosphere

Arterial blood gas As of 2004, the earth's atmosphere is about 0.038% by volume (380 µL/L or ppmv) or 0.053% by weight CO₂. This represents about 2.7 × 10¹² tonnes of CO₂. Because of the greater land area, and therefore greater plant life, in the northern hemisphere as compared to the southern hemisphere, there is an annual fluctuation of about 5 µL/L, peaking in May and reaching a minimum in October at the end of the northern hemisphere growing season, when the quantity of biomass on the planet is greatest. Despite its small concentration, CO₂ is a very important component of Earth's atmosphere, because it absorbs infrared radiation and enhances the greenhouse effect. The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by volcanic activity; this was essential for a warm and stable climate conducive to life. Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 teragrams (145 million to 255 million short tons) of carbon dioxide each year. Volcanic releases are about 1% of the amount which is released by human activities. short tons–2000.]] Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, the atmospheric CO₂ concentration has increased by approximately 110 µL/L or about 40%, most of it released since 1945. Monthly measurements taken at Mauna Loa [http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/sio-mlo.htm] since 1958 show an increase from 316 µL/L in that year to 376 µL/L in 2003, an overall increase of 60 µL/L during the 44-year history of the measurements. Burning fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum is the leading cause of increased man-made CO₂; deforestation is the second major cause. In 1997, Indonesian peat fires may have released 13%–40% as much carbon as fossil fuel burning does [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat#Peat_fires]. Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in carbon dioxide sinks. Not all the emitted CO₂ remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the emitted CO₂ to the increase is atmospheric CO₂ is known as the airborne fraction (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically 57% over longer (5 year) periods.

carbon dioxide sink The Global Warming Theory (GWT) predicts that increased amounts of CO₂ in the atmosphere tend to enhance the greenhouse effect and thus contribute to global warming. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is called the Callendar effect.

Variation in the past

Callendar effect The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air (fluid or gas inclusions) trapped in the Antarctic or Greenland ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO₂ levels were about 260–280µL/L immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years. The longest ice core record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 650,000 years before the present. [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html] During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied between 180–210 µL/L during ice ages, increasing to 280–300 µL/L during warmer interglacials. Some studies have disputed the claim of stable CO₂ levels during the present interglacial (the last 10 kyr). Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al. argued that CO₂ levels during the period 7–10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 µL/L) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO₂. Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO₂ values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from in situ decomposition of calcium carbonate dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO₂ measurements. calcium carbonate On longer timescales, various proxy measurements have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include boron and carbon isotope ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of stomata observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO₂ concentrations (>3,000 µL/L) between 600 and 400 Myr BP and between 200 and 150 Myr BP.[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm] On long timescales, atmospheric CO₂ content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock weathering, and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the carbon cycle over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO₂. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO₂ response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO₂ concentration continued to fall after about 60 Myr BP, and there is geochemical evidence that concentrations were <300 µL/L by about 20 Myr BP. Low CO₂ concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Myr BP. Although contemporary CO₂ concentrations were exceeded during earlier geological epochs, present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 million years [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/107.htm#331] and at the same time lower than at any time in history if we look at time scales longer than 50 million years.

Oceans

The Earth's oceans contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions—much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate: CaCO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ Ca²⁺ + 2 HCO₃^- Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO₂. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas, which can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO₂. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks. If all the carbonate rocks in the earth's crust were to be converted back into carbon dioxide, the resulting carbon dioxide would weigh 40 times as much as the rest of the atmosphere. The vast majority of CO₂ added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion, but the process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

History

Carbon dioxide was one of the first gases to be described as a substance distinct from air. In the 17th century, the Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont observed that when he burned charcoal in a closed vessel, the mass of the resulting ash was much less than that of the original charcoal. His interpretation was that the rest of the charcoal had been transmuted into an invisible substance he termed a "gas" or "wild spirit" (spiritus sylvestre). Carbon dioxide's properties were studied more thoroughly in the 1750s by the Scottish physician Joseph Black. He found that limestone (calcium carbonate) could be heated or treated with acids to yield a gas he termed "fixed air." He observed that the fixed air was denser than air and did not support either flame or animal life. He also found that it would, when bubbled through an aqueous solution of lime (calcium hydroxide), precipitate calcium carbonate, and used this phenomenon to illustrate that carbon dioxide is produced by animal respiration and microbial fermentation. In 1772, Joseph Priestley used carbon dioxide produced from the action of sulfuric acid on limestone to prepare soda water, the first known instance of an artificially carbonated beverage. Carbon dioxide was first liquefied (at elevated pressures) in 1823 by Humphrey Davy and Michael Faraday. The earliest description of solid carbon dioxide was given by Charles Thilorier, who in 1834 opened a pressurized container of liquid carbon dioxide, only to find that the cooling produced by the rapid evaporation of the liquid yielded a "snow" of solid CO₂.

References

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External links

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- [http://www.dryiceinfo.com/science.htm Dry Ice information]
- Bassam Z. Shakhashiri: [http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/CO2/CO2.html Chemical of the Week: Carbon Dioxide]
- Keeling, C.D. and T.P. Whorf: [http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/sio-mlo.htm Atmospheric carbon dioxide record from Mauna Loa], 2002
- [http://www.usatoday.com/weather/news/2004-03-21-co2-buildup_x.htm Mauna Loa 2004 update]
- [http://www.uigi.com/carbondioxide.html CO2 Carbon Dioxide Properties, Uses, Applications]
- [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide Computational Chemistry Wiki]
- [http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/CO2/CO2_phase_diagram.gif Pressure-Temperature phase diagram for carbon dioxide] Category:Inorganic carbon compounds Category:Oxides Category:Greenhouse gases Category:Propellants Category:Household chemicals Category:Solvents Category:Refrigerants Category:Fire suppression agents ko:이산화 탄소 ms:Karbon dioksida ja:二酸化炭素 simple:Carbon dioxide th:คาร์บอนไดออกไซด์

Fermentation

In its strictest sense, fermentation (formerly called zymnosis) is the anaerobic metabolic breakdown of a nutrient molecule, such as glucose, without net oxidation. Fermentation does not release all the available energy in a molecule; it merely allows glycolysis (a process that yields two ATP per glucose) to continue by replenishing reduced coenzymes. Fermentation yields lactate, acetic acid, ethanol, or other reduced metabolites. Fermentation is also used much more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium. No distinction is made between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism when the word is used in this sense. This process is often used to produce or preserve food. Fermentation typically refers to the fermentation of sugar to alcohol using yeast, but other fermentation processes include the making of yogurt. The science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation usually implies that the action of the microorganisms is desirable. Occasionally wines are enhanced through the process of cofermentation.

History

Since fruits ferment naturally, fermentation precedes human history. However, humans began to take control of the fermentation process at some point. There is strong evidence that people were fermenting beverages in Babylon circa 5000 BC, ancient Egypt circa 3000 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico circa 2000 BC, and Sudan circa 1500 BC. There is also evidence of leavened bread in ancient Egypt circa 1500 BC and of milk fermentation in Babylon circa 3000 BC. The Chinese were probably the first to develop vegetable fermentation.

Biochemistry

Fermentation is a process that is important in anaerobic conditions when there is no oxidative phosphorylation to maintain the production of ATP by glycolysis. During fermentation pyruvate is metabolised to various different compounds. Textbook examples of fermentation products are ethanol (drinkable alcohol), lactic acid, and hydrogen. However, more exotic compounds can be produced by fermentation, such as butyric acid and acetone. Although the final step of fermentation (conversion of pyruvate to fermentation end-products) does not produce energy, it is critical for an anaerobic cell since it regenerates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺), which is required for glycolysis. This is important for normal cellular function, as glycolysis is the only source of ATP in anaerobic conditions. Fermentation products contain chemical energy (they are not fully oxidised) but are considered waste products since they cannot be metabolised further without the use of oxygen (or other more highly-oxidised electron acceptors). A consequense is that the production of ATP by fermentation is less efficient than oxidative phosphorylation, where pyruvate is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide. Fermentation produces two ATP molecules per molecule of glucose compared to approximately 36 by aerobic respiration. Even in vertebrates, however, it is used as an effective means of energy production during short, intense periods of exertion, where the transport of oxygen to the muscles is insufficient to maintain aerobic metabolism. In humans, for example, lactic acid fermentation provides energy for a period ranging from 30 seconds to 2 minutes. The speed at which ATP is produced is about 100 times that of oxidative phosphorylation. The pH in the cytoplasm quickly drops when lactic acid accumulates in the muscle, eventually inhibiting enzymes involved in glycolysis.

Products

Products produced by fermentation are actually waste products produced during the reduction of pyruvate to regenerate NAD+ in the absence oxygen.
- Ethanol fermentation (done by yeast and some types of bacteria) breaks the pyruvate down into ethanol and carbon dioxide. It is important in bread-making, brewing, and wine-making. When the ferment has a high concentration of pectin, minute quantities of methanol can be produced. Usually only one of the products is desired; in bread the alcohol is baked out, and in alcohol production the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
- Lactic acid fermentation breaks down the pyruvate into lactic acid. It occurs in the muscles of animals when they need energy faster than the blood can supply oxygen. It also occurs in some bacteria and some fungi. It is this type of bacteria that convert lactose into lactic acid in yogurt, giving it its sour taste. The burning sensation in muscles during hard exercise used to be attributed to the production of lactic acid during a shift to anaerobic glycolosis, as oxygen is converted to carbon dioxide by aerobic glycolysis faster than the body can replenish it; but muscle soreness and stiffness after hard exercise is actually due to microtrauma of the muscle fibres. The body falls back on this less-efficient but faster method of producing ATP under low-oxygen conditions. This is thought to have been the primary means of energy production in earlier organisms before oxygen was at high concentration in the atmosphere and thus would represent a more ancient form of energy production in cells. The liver later gets rid of this excess lactate by transforming it back into an important glycolysis intermediate called pyruvate. Aerobic glycolysis is a method employed by muscle cells for the production of lower-intensity energy over a longer period of time. Bacteria generally produce acids. Vinegar (acetic acid) is the direct result of bacterial fermentation. In milk, the acid coagulates the casein, producing curds. In pickling, the acid preserves the food from pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria.

Uses

The primary benefit of fermentation is the conversion, e.g., converting juice into wine, grains into beer, and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide to leaven bread. According to Steinkraus (1995), food fermentation serves five main purposes: #Enrichment of the diet through development of a diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in food substrates #Preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcoholic, acetic acid, and alkaline fermentations #Biological enrichment of food substrates with protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, and vitamins #Detoxification during food-fermentation processing #A decrease in cooking times and fuel requirements Fermentation has some benefits exclusive to foods. Fermentation can produce important nutrients or eliminate antinutrients. Food can be preserved by fermentation, since fermentation uses up food energy and can make conditions unsuitable for undesirable microorganisms. For example, in pickling the acid produced by the dominant bacteria inhibit the growth of all other microorganisms. Depending on the type of fermentation, some products (e.g., fusel alcohol) are harmful to people's health. In alchemy, fermentation is often the same as putrefaction, meaning to allow the substance to naturally rot or decompose.

Fermented foods, by region

- World wide: alcohol, wine, vinegar, olives, yoghurt
- Asia
- India: achar, gundruk, Indian pickles, Idli
- South East Asia: asinan, bai-ming, belacan, burong mangga, dalok, jeruk, fish sauce, leppet-so, miang, nata de coco, nata de pina, naw-mai-dong, pak-siam-dong, paw-tsaynob in snow (雪裡蕻), sake (:ja:日本酒), seokbakji, soy sauce, szechwan cabbage (四川泡菜), tai-tan tsoi, takana, takuan, totkal kimchi, tsa tzai, tsukemono (:ja:漬物), wasabi-zuke (:ja:山葵漬け), yen tsai (醃菜), stinky tofu
- Central Asia: kumis (mare milk), kefir, shubat (camel milk)
- Africa: hibiscus seed, hot pepper sauce, lamoun makbouss, mauoloh, msir, mslalla, oilseed, ogili, ogiri, Garri
- Americas: cheese, pickling (pickled vegetables), sauerkraut, lupin seed, oilseed, chocolate, vanilla, fermented fish, fish heads, walrus, seal oil, birds (in Inuit cooking)
- Middle East: kushuk, lamoun makbouss, mekhalel, torshi, tursu
- Europe: cheese, sauerkraut, soured milk products such as quark, kefir and filmjölk, fermented Baltic herring, sausages

References

- Steinkraus, K. H., Ed. (1995). Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc.
- The 1811 Household Cyclopedia Category:Oenology Category:Beer Category:Food science Category:Metabolism Category:Food preservation Category:Alchemical processes Category:Biochemistry Category:Food science Category:Microbiology Category:Mycology ko:발효 ja:醗酵

Charmat process

The Charmat process, also known as the bulk process, is an inexpensive way to create bubbles in sparkling wine. The wine undergoes fermentation in stainless steel tanks rather than individual bottles, and is bottled under pressure in a continuous process. The process resembles that used for soft drinks, except that the carbon dioxide is produced by fermentation rather than being injected from an external source. The result is coarser, larger bubbles and simpler flavors than bottle fermentation. However, bulk process sparkling wines can be sold much more cheaply than méthode champenoise wines. Popular examples include U.S. brands such as Cooks and Andre. The process was invented in 1907 by French winemaker Eugène Charmat. Category:Oenology

Synonym

Synonyms (in ancient Greek syn 'συν' = plus and onoma 'όνομα' = name) are different words with similar or identical meanings and are interchangable. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings. (Synonym and antonym are antonyms.) An example of synonyms are the words cat and feline. Each describes any member of the family Felidae. Similarly, if we talk about a long time or an extended time, long and extended become synonyms. In the figurative sense, two words are often said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation: :"a widespread impression that … Hollywood was synonymous with immorality" (Doris Kearns Goodwin) Synonyms can be nouns, adverbs or adjectives, as long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech. More examples of English synonyms:
- baby and infant (noun)
- student and pupil (noun)
- pretty and attractive (adjective)
- sick and ill (adjective)
- interesting and fascinating (adjective)
- quickly and speedily (adverb) Note that the synonyms are defined with respect to certain senses of words; for instance, pupil as the "aperture in the iris of the eye" is not synonymous with student. Similarly, expired as "having lost validity" (as in grocery goods) doesn't necessarily mean death. Some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. However, many people feel that the synonyms they use are identical in meaning for all practical purposes. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason: feline is more formal than cat; long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others, such as a long arm and an extended arm. Synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. The purpose of a thesaurus is to offer the user a listing of similar or related words; these are often, but not always, synonyms. In a way, hyponyms are similar to synonyms. In contrast, antonyms (an opposite pair) would be:
- dead and alive (compare to synonyms: dead and deceased)
- near and far (compare to synonyms: near and close)
- war and peace (compare to synonyms: war and armed conflict)
- tremendous and awful (compare to synonyms: tremendous and remarkable) In biology, synonym is used with a closely defined meaning, different for animals and plants, see synonym (zoology) and synonym (botany).

Champagne (beverage)

Champagne is a sparkling wine produced by inducing the secondary fermentation of wine. It is named after the Champagne region of France. While the term "champagne" is often used by makers of sparkling wine in other parts of the world, such as California and Canada, it should properly be used to refer only to the wines made in the region of Champagne, France. The community, under the auspices of the Comité Interprofessionel du Vin de Champagne has developed a comprehensive set of rules and regulations for all wine that comes from the region. These rules are designed to ensure that the highest quality product is produced and include a codification of the most suitable places for grapes to grow, the most suitable types of grapes – all Champagne is produced from one or a blend of up to three varieties of grapes: chardonnay, pinot noir, and pinot meunier – and has identified a lengthy set of requirements that specify most aspects of viticulture. This includes vine pruning, the yield of the vineyard, the degree of pressing applied to the grapes, and the time that bottles must remain on the lees. Only if a wine meets all these requirements may the name Champagne be placed on the bottle. The rules that have been agreed upon by the CIVC are then presented to the INAO for final approval. In Europe and most other countries, the name "champagne" is legally protected as part of the Treaty of Madrid (1891) to mean only sparkling wine produced in its namesake region and adhering to the standards defined for that name as an Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée. This right was reaffirmed in the Treaty of Versailles following World War I. Even the term méthode champenoise, or champagne method is, as of 2005, forbidden in favor of méthode traditionelle. There are sparkling wines made all over the world, and many use special terms to define their own sparkling wines: Spain uses Cava, Italy calls it spumante, and South Africa uses Cap Classique. A sparkling wine made from Muscat grapes in Italy uses the DOCG Asti. In Germany, Sekt is a common sparkling wine. Even other regions of France are forbidden to use the name Champagne; for example, wine-makers in Burgundy and Alsace produce Crémant. Other sparkling wines not from Champagne sometimes use the term "sparkling wine" prominently on their label. While most countries have labeling laws that protect wine producing locations such as Champagne, some – including the United States – continue to allow U.S. wine producers to utilize the name “Champagne” on the label of products that do not come from Champagne. To allow this practice, the U.S. Congress passed a law claiming that the term "Champagne" is semi-generic. This often leads to consumer confusion about genuine Champagne and is seen as deceptive by some consumers and wine experts. While some U.S. companies ironically claim that their long usage of the term prevents them from dropping the word champagne on the bottle, many quality U.S. sparkling winemakers have ceased use of the term, instead favoring "sparkling wine" as their identifier. Champagne's sugar content varies. The sweetest level is doux (meaning sweet), proceeding in order of increasing dryness to demi-sec (half-dry), sec (dry), extra sec (extra dry), brut (almost completely dry), and extra brut / brut nature / brut zero (no additional sugar, sometimes ferociously dry.).

How is Champagne made?

Grapes used for Champagne are generally picked earlier, when sugar levels are lower and acid levels higher. Except for pink or rosé Champagnes, the juice of harvested grapes is pressed off quickly, to keep the wine white. The traditional method of making Champagne is known as the Méthode Champenoise. The first fermentation begins in the same way as any wine, converting the natural sugar in the grapes into alcohol while the resultant carbon dioxide is allowed to escape. This produces the "base wine". This wine is not very pleasurable by itself, being too acidic. At this point the blend is assembled, using wines from various vineyards, and, in the case of non-vintage Champagne, various years. The blended wine is put in bottles along with yeast and a small amount of sugar, called the liqueur de tirage, and stored in a wine cellar horizontally, for a second fermentation. During the secondary fermentation the carbon dioxide is trapped in the bottle, keeping it dissolved in the wine. The amount of added sugar will determine the pressure of the bottle. To reach the standard value of 6 bars inside the bottle is necessary to have 18 grams of sugar, and the amount of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is regulated by the European Commission (Regulation 1622/2000, 24 July 2000) to be 0.3 grams per bottle. The "liqueur de tirage" is then a mixture of sugar, yeast and still champ