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Specular Reflection

Specular reflection

Specular reflection is the perfect, mirror-like reflection of light from a surface, in which light from a single incoming direction is reflected onto a single outgoing direction. Such behaviour is described by the law of reflection, which states that the direction of outgoing reflected light and the direction of incoming light make the same angle with respect to the surface normal; this is commonly stated as

\theta _i = \theta _r

. This is in contrast to diffuse reflection, where incoming light is reflected in all directions equally. The most familiar example of the distinction between specular and diffuse reflection would be matte and glossy paints. Matte paints have a higher proportion of diffuse reflection, while glossy paints have a greater proportion of specular reflection. Specular reflection and diffuse reflection are simply approximations. In reality, surfaces exhibit a continuum of modes of reflection between these two. Specular reflection is very important for making good [http://www.amasci.com/amateur/holo1.html scratch holograms], which are optically similar to Benton Rainbow Holograms (AKA: "White Light Holograms"); see also [http://www.amasci.com/amateur/hand1.html SPIE article] and the [http://amasci.com/amateur/holohint.html FAQ], and the main Wikipedia Holography entry. Category:Optics

Mirror

:This article is about the reflective surfaces. For other senses of this word, see mirror (disambiguation).

image:mirror.jpeg

A mirror is a surface with good specular reflection that is smooth enough to form an image. The best known example is the plane mirror. The most common use is in the home for personal grooming but mirrors are also used in scientific apparatus such as telescopes and lasers, and in industrial machinery.

Effect

plane In a plane mirror, a parallel beam of light changes its direction as a whole, whilst still remaining parallel; the images formed by a plane mirror are virtual images, of the same size as the original object (see mirror image). There are also parabolic concave mirrors, where a parallel beam of light becomes a convergent beam, whose rays intersect in the focus of the mirror. Finally, there are convex mirrors, where a parallel beam becomes divergent, with the apparent intersection occurring behind the mirror. Note that spherical concave and convex mirrors do not have a single focal point, as often described in high school physics text books (see spherical aberration in lens (optics) and aberration in optical systems). A beam of light reflects off a mirror at an angle of reflection that is equal to its angle of incidence. That is, if the beam of light is shining on a mirror's surface at a 30° angle from vertical, then it reflects from the point of incidence at a 30° angle from vertical in the opposite direction.

Image in a mirror

For an object with approximate reflection symmetry, a reflection in some mirror plane corresponds to a combination of:
- a translation if the mirror is parallel to the symmetry plane of the object, and otherwise a rotation about the line of intersection of the two planes by an angle which is twice the angle between the two planes
- a reflection in the approximate symmetry plane of the object (due to the assumption this is a minor change) We can apply this to the image in a mirror of, say, a standing person, because people have approximate bilateral symmetry. The image is the most realistic if it is still vertical, i.e., if the rotation is about a vertical axis. This is the case iff the mirror is vertical. In this case the image of the person is in normal standing orientation and vertically in a normal position, at a horizontally different position and with an orientation rotated about a vertical axis, the latter except if the mirror is parallel to the approximate symmetry plane of the person. In particular, if one looks at one's image in a vertical mirror in left-right orientation, the image corresponds to a rotation by 180° about the vertical axis in the mirror, combined with a reflection in one's approximate symmetry plane. When the rotation is so obvious that it is not worth mentioning, the second component in this decomposition of the effect of the mirror is sometimes emphasized, by saying that a mirror "reverses left and right".

Composition

Early mirrors were usually a sheet of polished metal, often silver or copper, for example the Aranmula kannadi. Most modern mirrors consist of a thin layer of aluminium deposited on a sheet of glass. They are back silvered, where the reflecting surface is viewed through the glass sheet; this makes the mirror durable, but lowers the image quality of the mirror due to extraneous reflections from the front surface of the glass. This type of mirror reflects about 80% of the incident light. The "back side" of the mirror is often painted black to completely seal the metal from corrosion.

Applications

back silvered

Viewing one's own body

A mirror is used for inspecting parts of one's body which are difficult or impossible to see directly, such as the face, neck or the whole body. This may be to check physical appearance (including clothing, make-up, hair, etc.) or to control applying make-up, shaving, cutting hair, fixing one's tie, etc.

Instruments

Telescopes and other precision instruments use front silvered mirrors, where the reflecting surface is placed on the front surface of the glass, which gives better image quality. Some of them use silver, but most are aluminum, which is more reflective at short wavelengths than silver. All of these coatings are easily damaged and require special handling. They reflect 90% to 95% of the incident light when new. The coatings are typically applied by vacuum deposition. A protective overcoat is usually applied before the mirror is removed from the vacuum, because the coating otherwise begins to corrode as soon as it is exposed to oxygen and humidity in the air. Front silvered mirrors have to be resurfaced occasionally to keep their quality. The reflectivity of the mirror coating can be measured using a reflectometer and depends on the wavelength of light as well as the metal. This is exploited in some optical work to make cold mirrors and hot mirrors. A cold mirror is made by using a transparent substrate and choosing a coating material that is more reflective to visible light and more transmissive to infrared light. A hot mirror is the opposite, the coating preferentially reflects infrared. Mirror surfaces are sometimes given thin film overcoatings both to retard degradation of the surface and to increase their reflectivity in parts of the spectrum where they will be used. For instance, aluminum mirrors are commonly coated with magnesium fluoride. The reflectivity as a function of wavelength depends on both the thickness of the coating and on how it is applied. For scientific optical work, dielectric mirrors are often used. These are glass (or sometimes other material) substrates on which one or more layers of dielectric material are deposited, to form an optical coating. By careful choice of the type and thickness of the dielectric layers, the range of wavelengths and amount of light reflected from the mirror can be specified. The best mirrors of this type can reflect >99.999% of the light (in a narrow range of wavelengths) which is incident on the mirror. Such mirrors are often used in lasers. In astronomy, adaptive optics is a technique to measure variable image distortions and adapt a mirror accordingly on a timescale of milliseconds, to compensate for the distortions.

Safety and easier viewing

Rear-view mirror are applied in and on vehicles (such as cars, or bicycles), to allow drivers to see other vehicles coming up behind them. Some motorcycle helmets have a built-in so-called MROS (Multiple Reflective Optic System): a set of reflective surfaces inside the helmet which together function as a rear-view mirror [http://www.reevu.nl]. There exist rear view sunglasses, of which the left end of the left glass and the right end of the right glass work as mirrors. thumb Rounded mirrors are sometimes placed at road junctions, and corners of places such as parking lots or stores, allowing people to see around corners to avoid crashing into other vehicles or shopping carts. Mirrors are also sometimes used as part of security systems, so that a single video camera can show more than one angle at a time. A mirror is sometimes used for voyeurism, e.g. upskirt.

One-way mirror

A one-way mirror, also called two-way mirror, reflects about half of the light and lets the other half pass. It is a sheet of glass coated with a layer of metal only a few dozen atoms thick, allowing some of the light through the surface (from both sides). It is used between a dark room and a brightly lit room. Persons on the brightly lit side see their own reflection - it looks like a normal mirror. Persons on the dark side see through it - it looks like a transparent window. It may be used to observe criminal suspects or customers (to watch out for theft). The same type of mirror, when used in an optical instrument, is called a half-silvered mirror or beam splitter. Its purpose is to split a beam of light so that half passes straight through, while the other half is reflected -- this is useful for interferometry.

Decoration

Mirrors, typically large and unframed, are frequently used in interior decoration to create an illusion of space, and amplify the apparent size of a room. A decorative reflecting sphere of thin metal-coated glass, working as a reducing wide-angle mirror, is sold as a Christmas tree decoration called a bauble.

Signaling

With the sun as light source, a mirror can be used to signal, by variations in the orientation of the mirror. The signal can be used over long distances, possibly up to 60 kilometres on a clear day. This technique was used by Native American tribes and numerous militaries to transmit information between distant outposts.

Entertainment

The hall of mirrors, commonly found in amusement parks, is an attraction in which a number of distorted mirrors are used to produce unusual reflections of the visitor.

Mirrors in literature

Mirrors, along with labyrinths, figure prominently in the work of Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges, who often used them as symbols of infinity, impersonation, and illusion. In The Zahir, he writes of fearing that his reflection would move independently or change shape before his eyes. In Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius, a fictional heresiarch declares that "mirrors and copulation are abominable, since they both multiply the numbers of men."

External links

- [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cacodes/pen/639-653.1.html California penal code] (see art. 653n about two-way mirrors)
- [http://vision2form.nl/mirror_history.html History of mirrors and glass] Category:Optical devices ja:鏡

Surface normal

A surface normal, or just normal to a flat surface is a three-dimensional vector which is perpendicular to that surface. A normal to a non-flat surface at a point p on the surface is a vector which is perpendicular to the tangent plane to that surface at p. The word normal is also used as an adjective as well as a noun with this meaning: a line normal to a plane, the normal component of a force, the normal vector, etc.

Image:SurfaceNormalDrawing.PNG
A polygon and its normal

Calculating a surface normal

For a polygon (such as a triangle), a surface normal can be calculated as the vector cross product of two edges of the polygon. For a plane given by the equation

ax+by+cz=d

, the vector

(a, b, c)

is a normal. If a (possibly non-flat) surface S is parametrized by a system of curvilinear coordinates x(s, t), with s and t real variables, then a normal is given by the cross product of the partial derivatives :

\times .

If a surface S is given implicitly, as the set of points

(x, y, z)

satisfying

F(x, y, z)=0

, then, a normal at a point

(x, y, z)

on the surface is given by the gradient :

\nabla F(x, y, z).

If a surface does not have a tangent plane at a point, it does not have a normal at that point either. For example, a cone does not have a normal at its tip.

Uniqueness of the normal

Surface normal at a point to a surface does not have a unique direction; the vector pointing in the opposite direction of a surface normal is also a surface normal. For an oriented surface, the surface normal is usually determined by the right-hand rule.

Uses

- Surface normals are essential in defining surface integrals of vector fields.
- Surface normals are commonly used in 3D computer graphics for lighting calculations, see Lambert's cosine law.

External link

- An [http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/directx9_c/directx/graphics/programmingguide/GettingStarted/3DCoordinateSystems/facevertexnormalvectors.asp explanation of normal vectors] from Microsoft's MSDN Category:Geometry Category:Vector calculus Category:3D computer graphics

Matte (surface)

:See also List of optical topics. Gloss is an optical property, which is based on the interaction of light with physical characteristics of a surface. It is actually the ability of a surface to reflect light into the specular direction. The factors that affects gloss are the refractive index of the material, the angle of incident light and the surface topography. Gloss can be said as a view of material appearance. Materials with smooth surfaces appear glossy, while very rough surfaces reflect no specular light and therefore appear matte. Gloss is also expressed as lustre or sheen in certain fields of application.

Qualitative and Quantitative View of Gloss

Surface gloss is considered to be the amount of incident light that is reflected at the specular reflectance angle of the mean of that surface. So, specular gloss is proportional to the reflectance of the surface. The Fresnel formula gives the specular reflectance,

R_s

, for an unpolarized light of intensity

I_0

, at angle of incidence

i

, giving the intensity of specularly reflected beam of intensity

I_r

, while the refractive index of the surface specimen is

m

. The Fresnel equation is given as follows :

R_s = \frac

R_s = \frac \left[\left(\frac\right)^2 + \left(\frac\right)^2\right]

Surface Roughness

Fresnel Surface roughness in micrometer range influences the specular reflectance levels. The diagramme on the right depicts the reflection at an angle

i

on a rough surface with a characteristic roughness height

h

. The path difference between rays reflected from the top and bottom of the surface bumps is: :

\Delta r = 2h cos i \;

When the wavelength of the light is

\lambda

, the phase difference will be: :

\Delta \phi = \frac \;

\Delta \phi \;

is small, the two beams (see Figure 1) are nearly in phase and therefore the specimen surface can be considered as smooth. But when

\Delta \phi = \pi \;

, then beams are not in phase and through interference, cancellation of each other will occur. Low intensity of specularly reflected light means the surface is rough and it scatters the light in other directions. If an arbitrary criterion for smooth surface is

\Delta \phi < \frac

, then substitution into the equation above will produce: :

h < \frac  \;

This smooth surface condition is known as the Rayleigh criterion.

Gloss Measurement

Specular reflection is measured with a specular glossmeter. Unpolarised white light is concentrated by a condenser lens onto a field aperture, which is located in the focal plane of the source lens. The reflected beam at the surface is later collected by the receptor lens. The intensity of the beam is then measured through a photodetector. The common angles of incidence for gloss measurement are 20°, 60° and 85°. Low gloss surfaces are recommended to be measured with 85° settings. The typical standards for gloss measurements are ASTM D 2457, DIN EN ISO 2813 and DIN 67530.

References

- Meeten, G.H., "Optical Properties of Polymers," Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1986, pp. 326 - 329. ISBN 0-85334-434-5 Category:Optics

Glossy

Qualitative and Quantitative View of Gloss

R_s

, for an unpolarized light of intensity

I_0

, at angle of incidence

i

, giving the intensity of specularly reflected beam of intensity

I_r

, while the refractive index of the surface specimen is

m

. The Fresnel equation is given as follows :

R_s = \frac

R_s = \frac \left[\left(\frac\right)^2 + \left(\frac\right)^2\right]

Surface Roughness

Fresnel Surface roughness in micrometer range influences the specular reflectance levels. The diagramme on the right depicts the reflection at an angle

i

on a rough surface with a characteristic roughness height

h

. The path difference between rays reflected from the top and bottom of the surface bumps is: :

\Delta r = 2h cos i \;

When the wavelength of the light is

\lambda

, the phase difference will be: :

\Delta \phi = \frac \;

\Delta \phi \;

is small, the two beams (see Figure 1) are nearly in phase and therefore the specimen surface can be considered as smooth. But when

\Delta \phi = \pi \;

\Delta \phi < \frac

, then substitution into the equation above will produce: :

h < \frac  \;

This smooth surface condition is known as the Rayleigh criterion.

Gloss Measurement

References

- Meeten, G.H., "Optical Properties of Polymers," Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1986, pp. 326 - 329. ISBN 0-85334-434-5 Category:Optics

Paints

: :For information on the U.S. borough, see Paint, Pennsylvania. Paint, Pennsylvania Paint is the general term for a family of products used to protect and add color to an object or surface by covering it with a pigmented coating. As a verb, painting is the application of paint. One who paints is called a painter. Paint is very common and is applied to almost every kind of object. It is a method of producing art, an industrial coating, a driving aid (lane markings), a preservative (to prevent corrosion or water damage), and has a myriad of other uses. With art, it has also been used for centuries in the creation of great works, such as Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and Vincent Van Gogh's Starry Night.

Components

There are generally three components to a paint: binder, diluent and additives. However, only the binder is absolutely required. The binder is the part which eventually solidifies to form the dried paint film. The diluent serves to adjust the viscosity of the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film. Anything else is an additive. Typical binders include synthetic or natural resins such as acrylics, polyurethanes, polyesters, melamines, oils, or latex. Typical diluents include organic solvents such as alcohols, ketones, esters, glycol ethers, and the like. Water is a common diluent. Sometimes volatile low-molecular weight synthetic resins also serve as diluents. Typical additives include pigments, dyes, catalysts, thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, texturizers, adhesion promoters, flatteners (de-glossing agents), and the like. After application, the paint solidifies and becomes tack-free. Depending on the type of binder, this hardening may be a result of curing (polymerization), evaporation, or even cooling. In oil-based paint, curing takes the form of oxidation, for example oxidation of linseed oil to form linoxin to create a varnish. Other common cured films are prepared from crosslinkers, such as polyurethane or melamine resins, reacted with acrylic polyester or polyurethane resins, often in the presence of a catalyst which serves to make the curing reaction proceed more quickly or under milder conditions. These cured-film paints can be either solvent-borne or waterborne. Other waterborne paints are emulsions of solid binders in water (in fact, such paints are often called simply "emulsions"). When the diluent evaporates, the molecules of the binder coalesce to form a solid film. Such emulsion paints are also known as latex paints because the polymer is formed through an emulsion polymerization through which the monomers are emulsified in a water-continuous phase. The polymer itself is not soluble in water and hence the paint is water resistant after it has dried. Residual surfactants in the paint as well as hydrolytic effects with some polymers cause the paint to remain susceptiable to softening and, over time, degradation by water. Still other films are formed by cooling of the binder. For example, encaustic or wax paints are liquid when warm, and harden upon cooling.

Art

wax Since the time of the Renaissance, siccative (drying) oil paints, primarily linseed oil, have been the most commonly used kind of paints in fine art applications; oil paint is still common today. However, in the 20th century, water-based paints, including watercolors and acrylic paints, became very popular with the development of latex and acrylic pigment suspensions. Milk paints (also called casein), where the medium is derived from milk, were popular in the 19th century and are still available today. Egg tempera (where the medium is egg yolk) is still in use as well, as are encaustic wax-based paints. Gouache is a variety of watercolor paint which was also used in the Middle Ages and Renaissance for manuscript illumination. The pigment was often made from ground semiprecious stones such as lapis lazuli and the binder made from either gum arabic or egg white. Gouache is commercially available today. Poster paint has been used primarily in the creation of student works, or by children.

Pigment

:Main article: Pigment Pigments, usually insoluble powders, are used both to provide color, and to make paint opaque, thus protecting the substrate from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light while also increasing a paint's hiding power. Some pigments are toxic, such as those used in lead paint. Paint manufacturers replaced lead white with a less toxic substitute, which can even be used to color food titanium white (Titanium Dioxide) which was first used in paints in the 19th century. The titanium white used in most paints today is often coated with silicon or aluminum oxides for better durability. Some newer paints - called prism paint - can produce effects where the color changes depending on the angle (orientation) at which it is viewed. Modern U.S. and Canadian banknotes, specifically the newer higher denomination notes, have this effect on them. This effect is produced by having pigment molecules that are long and thin and are meant to dry in a specific orientation, with different ends of the molecule being different colors.

Application

Paint can be applied as a solid, a gaseous suspension or a liquid. Techniques vary depending on the practical or artistic results desired. As a solid (usually in industrial and automotive applications), the paint is applied as a very fine powder, then baked at high temperature. This melts the powder and causes it to adhere (stick) to the surface. The reasons for doing this involve the chemistries of the paint, the surface itself, and perhaps even the chemistry of the substrate (the overall object being painted). As a gas or as a gaseous suspension, the paint is suspended in solid or liquid form in a gas that is sprayed on an object. The paint sticks to the object. The reasons for doing this include:
- the application mechanism is air and thus no solid object ever touches the object being painted;
- the distribution of the paint is very uniform so there are no sharp lines
- it is possible to deliver very small amounts of paint or to paint very slowly;
- a chemical (typically a solvent) can sprayed along with the paint to dissolve together both the delivered paint and the chemicals on the surface of the object being painted;
- some chemical reactions in paint involve the orientation of the paint molecules. In the liquid application, paint can be applied by direct application using brushes, paint rollers, blades, other instruments, or body parts. Examples of body parts include fingerpainting, where the paint is applied by hand, whole-body painting (popular in the 1960s avant-garde movement), and cave painting, in which a pigment (usually finely-ground charcoal) is held in the mouth and spat at a wall (Note: doing this with modern paints, which are highly toxic, might cause death or permanent injury). Rollers generally have a handle that allows for different lengths of poles which can be attached to allow for painting at different heights. Generally, roller application takes two coats for even color. A roller with a thicker nap is used to apply paint on uneven surfaces. Edges are often finished with an angled brush. After liquid paint is applied, there is an interval during which it can be blended with additional painted regions (at the "wet edge") called "open time." The open time of an emulsion paint can be extended by adding white spirit, similar glycols such as Dowanol™ (propylene glycol ether) or commercial open time prolongers. This can also facilitate the mixing of different wet paint layers for aesthetic effect. Paint may also be applied by flipping or spraying the paint, dripping, or by dipping an object in paint.

Product Variants

- Wood stain is a type of paint that is very "thin," that is, low in viscosity, and formulated so that the pigment penetrates the surface rather than remaining in a film on top of the surface. Stain is predominantly pigment or dye and solvent with little binder, designed primarily to add color without providing a surface coating.
- Varnish and shellac provide a protective coating without changing the color. They are paints without pigment.
- Lacquer is usually a fast-drying solvent-based paint or varnish that produces an especially hard, durable finish.
- An enamel paint is a paint that dries to an especially hard, usually glossy, finish. Enamel can be made by adding varnish to oil-based paint.
- Fingerpaint
- Inks are similar to paints, except they are typically made using dyes exclusively (no pigments), and are designed so as not to leave a thick film of binder.
- Titanium dioxide is extensively used for both house paint and artist's paint, because it is permanent and has good covering power. Titanium oxide pigment accounts for the largest use of the element. Titanium paint is an excellent reflector of infrared, and is extensively used in solar observatories where heat causes poor seeing conditions.
- Anti-climb paint is a thick, non-drying coating for parapets, downcomers, pipes, window sills, fencing and walls etc. It acts as an extremely effective deterrent to would be intruders and burglars by making surfaces virtually unclimbable, whilst marking intruders hands and clothing. Coated surfaces appear normal but will remain unset and slippery a period of time.

History

Ancient painted walls, to be seen at Dendera, Egypt, although exposed for many ages to the open air, still possess a perfect brilliancy of color, as vivid as when painted, perhaps 2000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with some gummy substance, and applied them detached from each other without any blending or mixture. They appeared to have used six colors: white, black, blue, red, yellow, and green. They first covered the field entirely with white, upon which they traced the design in black, leaving out the lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, and generally of a dark tinge. Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea, which had been executed at a date prior to the foundation of Rome. He expresses great surprise and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries. :See also lacquer, varnish, fresco

External links

- [http://www.realpaints.com/history.htm History of Paint]
- [http://www.ibiblio.org/ecolandtech/rural-skills/homemade/homemade-paint 20 recipes for homemade paint] (text)
- [http://www.ravenna.portage.k12.oh.us/schools/childcare/hpaint.htm Homemade Paint Recipes for Children]
- [http://www.passionforpaint.com/OilPaints.html The Quest of Purchasing Oil Paints]
- For a glossary of terms used in the paint industry go to [http://www.occa.org.za Oil & Colour Chemists' Association] and click on Paintopedia. Category:Painting materials ja:塗料

Category:Optics

Optics is the science of light and its interaction with matter. See also: list of optical topics Category:Electromagnetism Category:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics Category:Technology ko:분류:광학 ja:Category:光学

Kategória:Herci

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