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Spiritual

Spiritual

See:
- Spirituality
- Spiritual music
- Spiritual dance
- The Age of Spiritual Machines
- Spiritual possession

Spirituality

Spirituality is, in a narrow sense, a concern with matters of the spirit, however that may be defined; but it is also a wide term with many available readings. It may include belief in supernatural powers, as in religion, but the emphasis is on personal experience. It may be an expression for life perceived as higher, more complex or more integrated with one's worldview, as contrasted with the merely sensual.

The spiritual and the religious

An important distinction needs to be made between spirituality in religion and spirituality as opposed to religion. In recent years, spirituality in religion often carries connotations of the believer's faith being more personal, less dogmatic, more open to new ideas and myriad influences, and more pluralistic than the faiths of established religions. It also can connote the nature of a believer's personal relationship with Deity, as opposed to the general relationship with Deity understood to be shared by all members of that faith. Those who speak of spirituality as opposed to religion generally believe that there are many "spiritual paths" and that there is no objective truth about which is the best path to follow. Rather, adherants of this definition of the term emphasize the importance of finding one's own path to Deity, rather than following what others say works. The best way to describe this view is: the path which makes the most sense is the correct one (for oneself). Many adherents of orthodox religions who consider spirituality to be an aspect of their religious experience are more likely to contrast spirituality with secular "worldliness" than with the ritual expression of their religion. Others of a more New Age disposition hold that spirituality is not religion, per se, but the active and vital connection to a force, spirit, or sense of the deep self. As cultural historian and yogi William Irwin Thompson put it, "Religion is not identical with spirituality; rather religion is the form spirituality takes in civilization." (1981, 31)

Directed spirituality

One aspect of 'Being spiritual' is goal-directed, with aims such as: simultaneously improve one's wisdom and willpower, achieve a closer connection to Deity/the universe, and remove illusions or false ideas at the sensory, feeling and thinking aspects of a person. The 'Plato's cave' analogy in book VII of The Republic is one of the most well known descriptions of the spiritual development process, and thus, an excellent aid in understanding what "spiritual development" exactly entails. Others say that spirituality is a two-stroke process: the "upward stroke" is inner growth, changing oneself as one changes his/her relationship with God, and the "downward stroke" is manifesting improvements in the physical reality around oneself as a result of the inward change.

Spirituality and personal well-being

Due to its broad scope and individual nature, spirituality is perhaps better understood by highlighting a number of key concepts that arise for people when asked to describe what spirituality means to them. Research by Martsolf & Mickley (1998) highlighted the following areas as worthy of consideration:
- Meaning – significance of life; making sense of situations; deriving purpose.
- Values – beliefs, standards and ethics that are cherished.
- Transcendence – experience and appreciation of a dimension beyond self.
- Connecting – increased awareness of a connection with self, others, God/Spirit/Divine, and nature.
- Becoming – an unfolding of life that demands reflection and experience; includes a sense of who one is and how one knows. Spirituality, according to most adherants, is an essential part of an individual's holistic health and well-being, by developing an awareness of a "transcendent dimension" to life.

The Spiritual and Science

Analysis of spiritual qualities in science is bedeviled by the imprecision of spiritual concepts, the subjectivity of spiritual experience, and the amount of work required to translate and map observable components of a spiritual system into empirical evidence. Hackwrench 03:07, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

Spiritual traditions and communities

- Bahá'í Faith
- Buddhism, Jainism
- Catholic Spirituality
- Feminist spirituality
- Gnosticism
- Hinduism
- Humanism
- Islam, Sufism
- Judaism
- Neo-confucianism, Taoism
- Paganism, Neopaganism, Modern_Gallae
- New Age, New Thought, Spiritualism, The Dances of Universal Peace
- Shamanism
- Sikhism
- Subud
- Surat Shabda Yoga
- Unitarian Universalism

References

- Azeemi,K.S.Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation. Houston: Plato, 2005.(ISBN 0975887548)
- Bolman, L. G., and Deal, T. E. Leading With Soul. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995.
- Borysenko, J. A Woman's Journey to God. New York: Riverhead Books, 1999.
- Cannon, K. G. Katie's Canon: Womanism and the Soul of the Black Community. New York: Continuum, 1996.
- Deloria, V., Jr. God is Red. 2d Ed. Golden, Co: North American Press, 1992.
- Dillard, C. B.; Abdur-Rashid, D.; and Tyson, C. A. "My Soul is a Witness." International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 13, no. 5 (September 2000): 447-462.
- Dirkx, J. M. "Nurturing Soul in Adult Learning." in Transformative Learning in Action. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education No. 74, edited by P. Cranton, pp. 79-88. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997.
- Eck, D. A New Religious America. San Francisco: Harper, 2001.
- Elkins D.N. et al (1998)Toward a humanistic-phenomenological spirituality: definition, description and measurement. Journal of Humanistic Psychology 28(4), 5-18
- English, L., and Gillen, M., eds. Addressing the Spiritual Dimensions of Adult Learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 85. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000.
- Holtje, D. (1995). [http://www.masterpath.org/masterpath_books/index.htm From Light to Sound: The Spiritual Progression]. Temecula, CA: MasterPath, Inc. ISBN 1885949006
- Martsolf D.S. & Mickley J.R. (1998) "The concept of spirituality in nursing theories: differing world-views and extent of focus" Journal of Advanced Nursing 27, 294-303
- Perry, W. [http://www.fonsvitae.com/treasury.html A Treasury of Traditional Wisdom - An Encyclopedia of Humankind’s Spiritual Truth]. Louisville: Fons Vitae books, 2000
- Thompson, William Irwin, The Time Falling Bodies Take to Light: Mythology, Sexuality, and the Origins of Culture (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981).

External links

- [http://www.fonsvitae.com/MG1.html Resources/Books on World Spirituality]
- [http://www.sahajayoga.org/ sahajayoga.org: a place to experience self realisation for free]
- [http://www.lifetheory.com/ LifeTheory.com: An online forum on life and spirituality]
- [http://www.gnosticweb.com/ Gnosticweb] Providing Free Global Access to Spiritual Information.
- [http://www.edgelife.net/glossary/spirituality.htm A new definition of spirituality]
- [http://www.avatarsearch.com/ AvatarSearch.com: A search engine for spiritual-related topics]
- [http://www.kheper.net/ Kheper.net: An overview of everything spiritual]
- [http://www.ias.org/ International Association of Sufism]
- [http://www.gatheringlight.com/ Long Term (monthly) Private Spiritual Riverside Retreats]
- [http://www.sufiblog.com/ Multi-faith Spirituality]
- [http://www.new-age-spirituality.com/ New Age Spirituality]
- [http://www.sos.org/ Science of Spirituality]
- [http://www.acu-cell.com/sh.html Spiritual aspects of Health and Healing]
- [http://www.masterpath.org/sriGaryOlsen/index.htm Spiritual Awakening and Spiritual Growth]
- [http://www.onespirit.com Spiritual Book Club]
- [http://www.spiritualcinemacircle.com/ Spiritual Cinema Circle]
- [http://www.spiritualforums.com/ Spiritual Forums]
- [http://www.quranichealing.com/bp.asp?caid=53 Spiritual Purification and Wellness]
- [http://www.level-of-consciousness.org/ Spirituality and consciousness forum]
- [http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com Spirituality and Rudraksha]
- [http://www.srcm.org/articles/srcmintro.html Spirituality begins where religion ends - Shri Ram Chandra Mission]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-3/adult.htm Spirituality in Adult and Higher Education]
- [http://amanecerespiritual.tripod.com/index_en.htm Spiritual Dawn - Morality and Philosophy Essay]
- [http://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/Sufism.html Sufism -- Sufis -- Sufi Orders] by Dr. Alan Godlas, University of Georgia
- [http://www.sufiblog.com/ SufiBlog ]Sufism online spiritual magazine of Sufi Meditation (Muraqaba) and Healing
- [http://www.thespiritual.org The Spiritual: Journal of Natural Spirituality] An on-line resource of rare texts and reflections on natural spirituality, thoughtless-ness, egoless-ness and mind-brain duality.
- [http://www.spiritualwisdom.org.uk/ Spiritual Wisdom] There is a universal spirituality which can be expressed in many ways, but this site uses the insights of Emanuel Swedenborg to help explain the meaning of our lives.
- [http://www.spirituality.com Spirituality.com] Christian Science perspective on spirituality and healing. simple:Spirituality

Spiritual (music)

A spiritual is an African American song, usually with a Christian religious text. Originally monophonic and a cappella, these songs are antecedents of the blues. The terms Negro spiritual, Black spiritual, and African-American spiritual are all synonyms; in the 19th century the term jubilee was more common (at least among African-Americans; whites often called them slave songs). Some musicologists call them African-American folk songs.

Historical background

Spirituals are primarily expressions of religious faith, originated by African slaves in the United States. Slavery was introduced into the European colonies in 1619, and slaves largely replaced indentured servants as an economic labor force during the 17th century. This labor force would remain in bondage for the entire 18th century and much of the 19th century. They were set free with the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution by United States Secretary of State William Henry Seward on December 18, 1865. The Amendment was passed by Congress January 31, 1865, and was ratified by 27 of the then 36 states. During slavery in the U.S., there were systematic efforts to de-Africanize the captive black workforce. Slaves were forbidden to speak their native languages, to play drums, or practice their mostly Animist and Muslim faiths. They were urged and often forced to become Christians by slavemasters who often used Christianity as a tool of control. Scholars debate the degree to which Christianity among African slaves in the U.S. was a syncretic faith, but there is no doubt blacks suffused their practice of religion with African religious beliefs and customs. The imprint of Africa was evident in the oral and musical traditions in the style and cadence of liturgical delivery, and in call and response in song and sermon; in the use of blue notes and syncopation in musical expression and dance styles; in the sometimes exuberant, but always very personal and democratic, self-expression through testifying, possession and speaking in tongues; and in full-immersion baptism. In comparison with the worship style of whites, Africanized Christianity was often lively, loud and spontaneous. It was not long before further restrictions were placed on the religious expression of slaves. Rows of benches in places of worship discouraged congregants from spontaneously jumping to their feet and dancing. The use of musical instruments of any kind often was forbidden, and slaves were ordered to desist from the "paganism" of the practice of spiritual possession. Because they were unable to express themselves freely in ways that were spiritually meaningful to them, slaves often held secret religious services. During these “camp meetings” and “bush meetings,” worshippers were free to engage in African religious rituals such as spiritual possession, speaking in tongues and shuffling in counterclockwise ring shouts to communal shouts and chants. It was there also that slaves further crafted the impromptu musical expression of field songs into the so-called "line signing" and intricate, multi-part harmonies of struggle and overcoming, faith, forbearance and hope that have come to be known as "Negro Spirituals." While slaveowners used Christianity to teach slaves to be long-suffering, forgiving and obedient to their masters, as practiced by slaves, it became a kind of liberation theology. The story of Moses and The Exodus of the "children of Israel" and the idea of an Old Testament warrior God who struck down the enemies of His "chosen people" resonated deeply with slaves ("He's a battleaxe in time of war and a shepherd in time of the storm"). In black hands and hearts, Christian theology became an instrument of liberation. So, too, in many instances did the spirituals themselves. Spirituals sometimes provided comfort and eased the boredom of daily tasks, but above all, they were an expression of spiritual devotion and a yearning for freedom from bondage. In song, lyrics about the Exodus were a metaphor for freedom from slavery. Songs like "Steal Away (to Jesus)", or "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" raised unexpectedly in a dusty field, or sung softly in the dark of night, signalled that the coast was clear and the time to escape had come. The River Jordan became the Ohio River, or the Mississippi, or another body of water that had to be crossed on the journey to freedom. “Wade in the Water” contained explicit instructions to fugitive slaves on how to avoid capture and the route to take to successfully make their way to freedom.[http://www.localdial.com/users/jsyedu133/Soulreview/Understandingpages/coded.htm] Leaving dry land and taking to the water was a common strategy to throw pursuing bloodhounds off one's trail. “The Gospel Train”, and “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” all contained veiled references to the Underground Railroad, and "Follow the Drinking Gourd" contained a coded map to the Underground Railroad. The title itself was an Africanized reference to the Big Dipper, which pointed the way to the North Star and freedom. "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" is one of the best known spirituals: ::(Refrain) ::Swing low, sweet chariot, ::Coming for to carry me home, ::Swing low, sweet chariot, ::Coming for to carry me home. ::I looked over Jordan, and what did I see? ::Coming for to carry me home, ::A band of angels coming after me, ::Coming for to carry me home. ::(Refrain) ::If you get there before I do, ::Coming for to carry me home, ::Tell all my friends I’m coming, too. ::Coming for to carry me home. ::(Refrain) ::I’m sometimes up and sometimes down, ::Coming for to carry me home, ::But still my soul feels heavenly bound, ::Coming for to carry me home. ::(Refrain) ::The brightest day that I can say, ::Coming for to carry me home, ::When Jesus washed my sins away, ::Coming for to carry me home. ::(Refrain) :::: - Traditional

Choral arrangements of the spiritual

With the advent of Harry Burleigh (1866-1949), the spiritual began to develop into a sophisticated art form. Burleigh attended the conservatory in New York City that was founded by Jeannette Thurber. Seeking to attract a prestigious faculty, Thurber had asked Czech composer Antonín Dvořák to head her conservatory; Dvořák agreed to do so, on the condition that talented Native American or African American composers be allowed to attend without paying tuition. Burleigh was accepted as a student, and became Dvořák's protegé, during which time he sang the traditional spirituals for Dvořák. With Dvořák's encouragement, Burleigh began to compose classical song and choral arrangements of spirituals, which were later made famous by artists such as the Fisk Jubilee Singers, Marian Anderson, Robert McFerrin Sr., and William Warfield. Another notable artist who had a successful career singing classical music and spirituals was Roland Hayes. In fact he made history by coming to Boston from Georgia to study voice, but was faced with obstacles all along the way. He never gave up and became the first African-American singer to sing in Boston's Symphony Hall. He went on to sing to great acclaim in Europe and throughout the United States. Today, the Roland Hayes School of Music, Boston's only and oldest high school of music, stands as a testament to his contribution to music and his people. Another great composer of classical settings of spirituals was Hall Johnson (1887-1970). Some examples of spirituals which were set in this way are "Ride On King Jesus," "Ain't Got Time to Die," and "Hold On."

Samples

- Listen to "Pharaoh's Army Got Drowned," artists unknown (765 KB)
- Download recording of "My Good Lord Done Been Here" spiritual song from the Library of Congress' John and Ruby Lomax 1939 Southern States Recording Trip; performed by Aunt Florida Hampton on May 29, 1939, at the home of Mr. and Mrs. P.W. Tartt in Livingston, Alabama
- Download recording - "Roll the Old Chariot Along" spiritual and sea shanty from the Library of Congress' [http://www.loc.gov/folklife/Gordon/sideAbandA1.html#rolltheoldchariotalong Gordon Collection]; performed by unknown persons in the Bay Area of California in the early 1920s
- Download recording - "Deep Down in My Heart" - Spiritual from the Library of Congress' [http://www.loc.gov/folklife/Gordon/sideBbandB1.html Gordon Collection]; performed by W. M. Givens in Darien, Georgia, on about March 19, 1926

External links

- http://st-takla.org/Multimedia/_Multimedia-index.html Examples of Coptic Orthodox Music of Egypt at Saint Takla Haymanout the Ethiopian Church, Alexandria - Egypt
- http://www.negrospirituals.com/ Singers, songs, history, and composers
- http://www.tnstate.edu/library/digital/FISK.HTM Fisk Jubilee Singers
- [http://www.localdial.com/users/jsyedu133/Soulreview/Understandingpages/coded.htm "Coded Slave Songs," with an analysis of "Follow the Drinkin' Gourd"]
- [http://www.library.upenn.edu/special/gallery/anderson/av/index.html Video and Audio Excerpts relating to Marian Anderson]
- [http://www.radioblack.com/gospel_webcast.html Gospel radio stations] Category:Christian music Category:Songs ja:スピリチュアル

The Age of Spiritual Machines

The Age Of Spiritual Machines is a book by futurist Ray Kurzweil about the future course of humanity, particularly relating to the development of artificial intelligence and its impact on human consciousness. It is also a study on the concept of singularity. Originally published in 1999, the book predicts that machines with human-like intelligence will be available from affordable computing devices within a couple of decades, revolutionising most aspects of life, and that eventually humanity and its machinery will become one and the same. In order to help the reader understand the concepts portrayed in the book (and for the book to make its predictions pseudo-realistic), the author has conversations with Molly, a typical human being. At the start of the book, Molly is a 23-year-old woman who has little understanding of the concepts that are discussed in the book, yet has an enigmatic (sometimes romantic) interest in the author, which keeps her interested. By the time the book reaches Part III, Facing the Future, Molly has somewhat of a grasp on all these concepts. It is during Part III that she physiologically and technologically evolves (as predicted by the author) as the years go by, to the point that by the year 2099 (the farthest point in the author's scope), she has shed all biological matter and has become a dynamic, conscious sub-entity within a larger, singular entity, all within a machine (A Spiritual Machine, as if it were). "Molly" has become so dynamic, in fact, that she is (in her words) ready to do anything, or be anything, you want or need. Alex Proyas, the director of the film I, Robot, asked every cast member to read this book before filming. In early 2000, Mike Turner, founding member and guitarist of the Canadian band Our Lady Peace, had stumbled upon the book at a bookstore, and though he was initially attracted by the shininess of the book, he bought the book intrigued by the concepts that the book contained. He was so inspired by the book's information, that with the rest of the band, he created the concept album Spiritual Machines. They recruited Kurzweil to voice several tracks, of which he read select passages from the book.

Synopsis

Imagine a world where the difference between man and machine blurs, where the line between humanity and technology fades, and where the soul and the silicon chip unite. This is not science fiction. This is the twenty-first century according to Ray Kurzweil, the inventor of the most innovative and compelling technology of our era. In his inspired hands, life in the new millennium no longer seems daunting. Instead, it promises to be an age in which the marriage of human sensitivity and artificial intelligence fundamentally alters and improves the way we live. More than just a list of predictions, Kurzweil's prophetic blueprint for the future guides us through the inexorable advances that will result in: computers exceeding the memory capacity and computational ability of the human brain by the year 2020 (with human-level capabilities not far behind); relationships with automated personalities who will be our teachers, companions, and lovers; and information fed straight into our brains along direct neural pathways. Eventually, the distinction between humans and computers will have become sufficiently blurred that when the machines claim to be conscious, we will believe them.

References

- Age of Spiritual Machines Age of Spiritual Machines Age of Spiritual Machines Age of Spiritual Machines

Balam-Agab

Maya mythology refers to the pre-Columbian Maya civilization's extensive polytheistic religious beliefs. These beliefs had most likely been long-established by the time the earliest-known distinctively Maya monuments had been built and inscriptions depicting their deities recorded, considerably pre-dating the 1st millennium BC. Over the succeeding millennia this intricate and multi-faceted system of beliefs was extended, varying to a degree between regions and time periods, but maintaining also an inherited tradition and customary observances. The Maya shared many traditions and rituals with the other civilizations and cultures in the Mesoamerican region, both preceding and contemporary societies, and in general the entire region formed an interrelated mosaic of belief systems and conceptions on the nature of the world and human existence. However, the various Maya peoples over time developed a unique and continuous set of traditions which are particularly associated with their societies, and their achievements. Despite the ca. early 10th century "Terminal collapse", during which Maya monument construction and inscription recording effectively ceased over large areas and many centers were subsequently abandoned, the Maya peoples themselves endured and continued to maintain their assorted beliefs and traditions. The maintenance of these traditions can be seen in the relics and products of those centers which flourished during the Post-Classic phase, such as in the northern Yucatán peninsula, occasionally combined with other influences more characteristic of the Gulf coast and central Mexican regions. Although the southern lowland and highland Maya regions of present-day Guatemala saw very little further monument building during this period, the maintenance of traditional beliefs among the local Maya is attested by the accounts and reports of the 16th and 17th century Spanish. During and after the Spanish conquest, the stories and traditions of the Maya coninued to be handed down to succeeding generations, albeit much influenced and restricted by the influx of European practices and beliefs, Roman Catholicism in particular. Many Maya have experienced considerable persecution for their beliefs and political oppression over the centuries since the first European arrivals; although there can be no doubt that Maya society and tradition has undergone substantial change, many Maya people today maintain an identity which is very much informed by their collective history, traditions and beliefs– a heritage which is distinctively Maya even where substantially combined with the widespread adoption of Christianity. Apart from epigraphic inscriptions on monuments (which deal primarily with commemorations and dynastic successions), only three complete Maya texts and a fragment of a fourth have survived through the years. The majority of the Maya codices were burned by Europeans like Bishop Diego de Landa during their conquest of Mesoamerica and subsequent efforts to convert the Mayan people to Christianity. Available knowledge of Maya mythology, as such, is rather limited. What is known is drawn largely from 16th - 17th century accounts of post-conquest Maya beliefs and traditions, which do not necessarily correspond with the traditions which were maintained in earlier times.

Overview

The Maya believed there were five different cardinal directions four of which were associated with colors: north/white, south/yellow, east/red, west/black, and center which was associated with a great ceiba tree that was the center of the cosmos. Mayan gods had different aspects based on these five directions as well as the different natural cycles that the Maya observed. The gods also had dualistic natures associating them with day or night, life or death. There were thirteen gods of the thirteen heavens of the Maya religion and nine gods of the nine underworlds. Between the upperworlds of the heavens and the underworlds of the night and death was the earthly plane which is often shown in Mayan art as a two-headed caiman or a turtle lying in a great lake. Natural elements, stars and planets, numbers, crops, days of the calendar and periods of time all had their own gods. The gods' characters, malevolence or benevolence, and associations changed according to the days in the Maya calendar or the positions of the sun, moon, Venus, and the stars. The Quiché Maya creation story is outlined in the Popol Vuh. This has the world created from nothing by the will of the Maya pantheon of gods. Man was made unsuccessfully out of mud and then wood before being made out of maize and being assigned tasks which praised the gods — silversmith, gem cutter, stone carver, potter, etc. Some argue this story adds credence to the belief that the Maya did not believe in art per se; all of their works were for the exaultation of the gods. After the creation story, the Popol Vuh tells of the struggles of the legendary hero twins, Hunahpu and Ixbalanque, in defeating the lords of Xibalba, the underworld. The twins descend into the underworld, perish, and are eventually miraculously reborn. This myth provides a metaphor for the agricultural cycle and the annual rebirth of the crops. These two stories are focal points of Maya mythology and often found depicted in Maya art.

The Creation Myth

In Maya mythology, Tepeu and Gucumatz (also known as Kukulkan, and as the Aztec's Quetzalcoatl) are referred to as the Creators, the Makers, and the Forefathers. They were two of the first beings to exist and were said to be as wise as sages. Huracan, or the Heart of Heaven, also existed and is given less personification. He acts more like a storm, of which he is the god. Tepeu and Gucumatz hold a conference and decide that, in order to preserve their legacy, they must create a race of beings who can worship them. Huracan does the actual creating while Tepeu and Gucumatz guide the process. Earth is created, but the gods make several false starts in setting humanity upon the earth. Animals were created first; however, with all of their howling and squawking they did not worship their creators and were thus banished forever to the forest. Man is created first of mud, but they just crumbled and dissolved away. Other gods are summoned and man is next created of wood but has no soul, and they soon forgot their makers, so the gods turned all of their possessions against them and brought a black resinous rain down on their heads. Finally man is formed of masa or corn dough by even more gods and their work is complete. As such, the Maya believed that maize was not just the cornerstone of their diet, but they were also made of the same stuff.

Notable Gods

- Ah Puch - God of Death
- Chac - God of Rain and Thunder
- Camazotz - Bat god, tries to kill the Hero Twins in the Popol Vuh.
- Gucumatz - Snake god and creator.
- Hunahpu - One of the Maya Hero Twins.
- Huracan - Storm and fire god, one of the creator deities.
- Ixbalanque - One of the Maya Hero Twins.
- Ixchel - Earth and Moon goddess.
- Ixtab - Goddess of suicide.
- Zipacna - Underworld demon.

Bacabs

The Bacabs were four brothers, the sons of Itzamna and Ixchel. A creator god placed these skybearers at the four corners of the universe. Because each stands at one of the four cardinal directions, each is associated with a color and with a specific segment in the Maya calendar.
- Hobnil (later replaced by Chac) - bacab of the east, is assigned the color red and the Kan years.
- Can Tzicnal - bacab of the north, is assigned the color white, and the Muluc years.
- Zac Cimi - bacab of the west, is assigned the color black and the Ix years.
- Hozanek - bacab of the south, is assigned the color yellow and the Cauac years. References to the Bacabs are found in the writings of sixteenth-century historian Diego de Landa and the various Mayan histories known as the Chilam Balams. At some point, the brothers became associated with the figure of Chac, a Maya rain god. In the Yucatan, the Maya of Chan Kom referred to the four skybearers as the four Chacs. They were also believed to be jaguar gods, and are associated with beekeeping. Like many other deities, the Bacabs were important in divination ceremonies, being approached with questions about crops, weather or the health of bees.

The First Humans

The Men

;B'alam Agab :Meaning "night jaguar," he was the second of the men created from maize after the Great Flood sent by Hurakan. He married Choimha. ;B'alam Quitze :Meaning "jaguar with the sweet smile," was the first of the men created from maize after the Great Flood sent by Hurakan. The gods created Caha-Paluma specifically for him to marry. Alernative names: Balam Quitze, Balam Quitzé ;Iqi B'alam :Meaning "moon jaguar," he was the third of the men created from maize after the Great Flood sent by Hurakan. The gods created Cakixia specifically to be his wife. ;Mahucatah :Meaning "distinguished name," he was the fourth of the men created from maize after the Great Flood sent by Hurakan. The woman Tzununiha was created just for him.

Their Wives

;Caha-Paluma :Meaning "falling water," she was a woman created specifically to be the wife of Balam-Quitzé. ;Cakixia :Meaning "water of parrots," she was a woman created specifically to be the wife of Iqi-Balam. ;Choimha :Meaning "beautiful water", she was a woman created by the gods specifically to marry B'alam Agab. ;Tzununiha :Meaning "house of the water," she was a woman created specifically to be the wife of one of the first men, Mahucatah.

Gods and Supernatural Beings

;Ac Yanto :Considered responsible for the creation of European immigrants and their products. He appeared in the latter days of Maya civilization. His brother is the creator god Hachacyum and his name means 'our helper.' ;Acan :The god of wine. His name means 'groan.' ;Acat :The god of tattoo artists. ;Ah Bolom Tzacab : Meaning "the lead-nosed god," he was a god of agriculture, thunder and rain. He was depicted with a leaf in his nose. Alternative names: Ah Bolon Dz'acab, God K ;Ah Cancum :A god of hunting. ;Ah Chun Caan :The patron deity of the city of T'ho, modern Mérida, Yucatán. ;Ah Chuy Kak :A god of war. ;Ah Ciliz :A god of solar eclipses. ;Ah Cun Can :A god of war. ;Ah Cuxtal :A god of childbirth. ;Ah Hulneb :Associated with the island of Cozumel, he was a god of war. Ah Hulneb means "he the spear thrower." ;Ah Kin :Meaning "he of the sun," he was a solar deity and controlled disease and drought. ;Ah Kumix Uinicob :Minor water gods. ;Ah Mun :A maize god. ;Ah Muzencab :The gods of bees. ;Ah Patnar Uinicob :Minor water gods. ;Ah Peku :The god of thunder. ;Ah Tabai :The god of the hunt. ;Ah Uincir Dz'acab :A god of healing and medicine. ;Ah Uuc Ticab :A chthonic god of the Earth. ;Ahau Chamahez :A god of medicine and good health. ;Ahau-Kin : Meaning "lord of the sun face," he was a sun god and moon god; he had two manifestations. At night, he became a jaguar god and lord of the underworld. ;Ahmakiq :An agriculture god who protected crops from the wind. ;Ahulane :A war god, also called the archer. The island Cozumel was the location of Ahulane's shrine. ;Ajbit :One of the thirteen creator gods who helped construct humanity from maize. ;Ajtzak :One of the thirteen creator gods who helped construct humanity from maize. ;Akhushtal :The goddess of childbirth. ;Akna :Meaning "mother," she was a goddess of fertility and childbirth. ;Alaghom Naom :A goddess of wisdom, consciousness, education and the intellect. Also known as Alaghom Naom Tzentel and the Mother of Mind. ;Alom :A sky god and one of the creator deities who participated in the last two attempts at creating humanity. ;Backlum Chaam :The god of masculine sexual prowess. ;Balam :Any of a group of jaguar gods who protected people and communities against threats. ;Balam-Agab :Meaning "night jaguar," he was the second of the men created from maize after the Great Flood sent by Hurakan. He married Choimha. ;Bitol :A sky god and one of the creator deities who participated in the last two attempts at creating humanity. ;Bolontiku :A group of underworld gods. ;Buluc Chabtan :Sometimes referred to as "God F," he was a war god who received human sacrifices. ;Cabaguil :A sky god. ;Cabrakan :A god of mountains and earthquakes. He was a son of Vucub Caquix and Chimalmat. He had six children, though only the name of one survives: Chalybir. ;Cacoch :A creator god. ;Cakulha :A lightning god, an underling of Yaluk. His brother was Coyopa. ;Camaxtli :A god of hunting, war, fate and fire (which he invented). He was one of the four creator gods, who made the Earth. The Chichimec considered him their tribal deity. ;Camulatz :A bird that ate the heads of the first men. ;Cay :A water deity. ;Chac Uayab Xoc :A fish god and the patron deity of fishermen. He blessed their catches, yet also ate them if they drowned. ;Chalybir :The son of Cabrakan. He is only mentioned once in the surviving literature, in the epic "On the Shores of the Dead". ;Chamer :A god of death, particularly popular in Guatemala. He was married to Ixtab. ;Chaob :The four wind gods. ;Chibirias :A goddess of the earth. ;Chiccan :A group of four rain gods who live in lakes and make rain clouds from the water in those lakes. Each of the rain gods was associated with a cardinal direction, similar to the Bacabs. Chiccan was also the name of a day in the Tzolkin cycle of the maya calendar. ;Chirakan :A fertility goddess. ;Cit-Bolon-Tum :A boar-headed god of medicine and healing. ;Chimalmat :A giant who, by Vucub Caquix, was the mother of Cabrakan and Zipacna. ;Cizin :A god of death who lived in Metnal. ;Colel Cab :A mother and fertility goddess. ;Colop U Uichkin :A god of the sky. ;Coyopa :The god of thunder and brother of Cakulha. ;Cum Hau :A god of death and the underworld. ;Ekchuah :Also spelled Ek Chuah, the "black war chief" was the patron god of warriors and merchants, depicted carrying a bag over his shoulder. In art, he was a dark-skinned man with circles around his eyes, a scorpion tail and dangling lower lip. In early modern studies of Maya art and iconography, he was sometimes referred to as God M before his identity was firmly established. ;Ghanan :An agricultural and fertility god. ;Hacha'kyum :Worshipped by the Lacandon people, he was their patron deity. ;Hun Came :A demonic lord of the underworld Xibalba who, along with Vucub Caquix, killed Hun Hunahpu. They were killed by his sons, the Maya Hero Twins. ;Hun Hunahpu :The father of the Maya Hero Twins Ixbalanque and Hun-Apu by a virgin. He was beheaded in Xibalba, the underworld, by the rulers of Xibalba, Hun Came and Vucub Caquix. His sons avenged his death. ;Hunab Ku :The highest god. He rebuilt the world after three Great Floods, which came from the mouth of a sea monster. He is father of Itzamna and husband of Ixazalvoh. ;Hunahpu-Gutch :One of the thirteen creator gods who helped construct humanity. ;Itzamna :The founder of the Maya culture, he taught his people to grow maize and cacao, as well as writing, calendars and medicine. With Ixchel, he was the father of the Bacabs. He was associated with snakes and mussels. His father was Kinich Ahau or Hunab Ku. The city of Izamal was sacred to him. ;Itzananohk'u :The patron god of the Lacandon people. ;Ixmucane :One of the thirteen creator gods who helped construct humanity. ;Ixpiyacoc :One of the thirteen creator gods who helped construct humanity. ;Ixzaluoh :A goddess of water and weaving. ;Kan-u-Uayeyab :A protector of cities. ;Kan-xib-yui :A creator god. ;Kianto :The god of foreign aliens, and the disease they brought with them. ;K'in :Meaning "Sun" or day, he was a solar deity. ;Kinich Ahau :A solar deity and father of Itzamna. ;Kinich Kakmo :A solar deity represented by a macaw. ;Nacon :A god of war. ;Naum :The god who invented the mind and consciousness. ;Nohochacyum :A creator god, he is the most important deity of the Lacandon. His name means "Our True Lord". ;Qaholom :one of the second set of creator gods. ;Tecumbalam :A bird that dearly injured the first men. ;Tepeu :A sky god and one of the creator deities who participated in all three attempts at creating humanity. ;Tlacolotl :A god of evildoers and villains. ;Tohil :Tohil is the Quiché name for Huracan and was their patron deity. There was a great temple to him at their ancient capital of Rotten Cane (Q'umaraq aj or Gumarcaj). ;Voltan :An earth and drum god (originally a human hero who was deified), married to Ixchel. ;Vucub Caquix :A powerful ruling demon in the underworld, Xibalba, and, by Chimalmat, the father of the demonic giants Cabrakan and Zipacna. He and his children were arrogant and the divine twins Hunahpu and Ixbalangue killed Vucub Caquix and Zipacna, along with Vucub Caquix's co-regent in the underworld, Hun Came, as revenge for the beheading of their father Hun Hunahpu. ;Xaman Ek :A god of travelers and merchants, who gave offerings to him on the side of roads while traveling. ;Xecotcovach :A bird which tore the eyes out of the first men. ;Xmucane and Xpiayoc :A deific creator god couple who helped creat the first humans. They are also the parents of Hun Hunahpu (one hunahpu) and Vucub Hunahpu (seven hunahpu). They were called Grandmother of Day, Grandmother of Light and Bearer twice over, begetter twice over and given the titles midwife and matchmaker. ;Yaluk :The chief lightning god, and ruled over the lesser ones, such as Cakulha. ;Yum Caax :The personification of maize and a god of agriculture and nature. Alternative names: Yum Kaax, God E ;Zotz :The god of bats, caves and the patron of the Tzotzil people. Zotz was also the name of one of the months of the Maya calendar. Alternative name: Zotzilaha, Sotz'

Locations

;Metnal :The lowest and most horrible of the nine hells of the underworld. It was ruled by Ah Puch. Ritual healers would intone healing prayers banishing diseases to Metnal. ;Xibalba :Also known as Xibalbá or Xibalbay, is a dangerous underworld ruled by the demons Vucub Caquix and Hun Came. The road to it is said to be steep, thorny and very forbidding. Much of the Popol Vuh describes the adventures of the Maya Hero Twins in their struggle with the evil lords of Xibalba.

Reference

- Roys, Ralph L. "Ritual of the Bacabs: A Book of Maya Encantations." University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, 1965.
- Thompson, J. Eric S. "Maya History and Religion." University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, 1970.
- Martin, Simon, and Mary Miller. Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2004.
- Demarest, Arthur. Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of the Rainforest Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
- Category:Pre-Hispanic_Mesoamerica ja:マヤ神話

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