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Train Spotting

Train spotting

:"Train spotting" redirects here. For other uses, see Trainspotting. Trainspotting Railfan or railbuff is an American English term for an enthusiast or hobbyist of railroads, usually including historic and modern trains or in British English a trainspotter. Some railfans like to use the term Ferroequinology (the study of the Iron Horse) in describing their hobby. In Australia the term gunzel is also sometimes used. In the British Midlands, railway staff call trainspotters grizzers. Rail enthusiasts are also sometimes referred to as foamers by American railworkers, alluding to foaming at the mouth in excitement over train operations. In Melbourne, Australia, the use of the word foamer is generally used in a derogatory sense, and is directed towards railfans who are unemployed and show little interest in activities other than rail transport. Railfans can be found worldwide.

Activities

The hobby extends to all aspects of the railway systems, though various people have particular concentrations of interest:
- railway engines and cars
- visiting and mapping railway lines and stations
- still used or disused railway lines, tunnels, stations and other infrastructure
- exploring subway systems and stations
- photographing trains and rail transport systems and equipment photograph and she is shown in the colors of her predecessor Southern Railway.]] Most railfans are interested in trains. In the United States, railfans are sometimes known as "foamers". This comes from slang used by railroad workers, who have noted that some people start "foaming" with excitement whenever they see a train. It is a slightly derogatory term but railfans have adopted it with pride. In Europe and especially the United Kingdom, the term "trainspotter" is sometimes used, although this refers to the specific activity of watching trains and tracking the locomotives which pass, and has a much narrower meaning than railfan. However, those with a specific interest in the subject are often called anoraks, as the anorak is the stereotypical attire of trainspotters. Starting in about the 1970s, the term "ferroequinology" began to be used to describe the study of trains and railroading. The term is a play on words of various Latin and Greek roots: ferrous which translates as iron, equine which translates as horse, and ology to indicate "the study of". Therefore, a ferroequinologist is someone who studies the "iron horse", which itself is another name for a locomotive.

Railway photography

Train photography is common among railfans; most railfans do so from public property unless they have permission from a property owner to photograph on their property. Occasionally, they run into problems with law enforcement, especially after September 11, 2001, because they are sometimes mistakenly thought to be terrorists. Railroad companies also sometimes dislike railfans, considering them a nuisance. Railfans respond that their presence makes the railroads safer, since they typically know what is normal behavior and can spot someone who is up to no good, or something that appears to be out of place or unusual. Some railroad photographers have become well known in their own right for their works. Many railfans are very familiar with the works of H. Reid, Otto Perry and O.Winston Link. [http://www.connexmelbourne.com.au Connex Melbourne] now require any railfan wishing to take photographs to apply for and obtain a permit. Permits last for 90 days, except in the case of some select stations in which a permit only lasts for 7 days. This system has been met with resentment from the railfan community, and many refuse to apply for permits. In November, 2005, one railfan was issued with an infringement notice simpy for holding a camera on a platform. 2005 Radio scanners are common equipment for listening in on railroad frequencies in order to know when trains are about to arrive. Model railroads including model trains are common hobbies for railfans when not out watching trains. Toy trains are less accurate but also popular items.

Train spotting

Railfans who call themselves "train spotters" make an effort to spot every piece of rolling stock known to exist for a particular railroad company. To this end, they collect and exchange detailed information about the movements of locomotives and other equipment on the railway network, and become very knowledgeable about its operations. The equipment of a train spotter consists, generally, of a data book listing all the locomotives or other equipment in question, in which locomotives seen are ticked off; a notebook and pens, to note down sightings to transfer into the book at leisure; a thick anorak, to keep warm and dry in unpredictable weather; and an infinite supply of patience. More advanced trainspotters sometimes use a tape recorder instead of the notebook. Modern times have seen the addition of the cellphone and/or pager as an essential tool of communication with others in the hobby, while various Internet mailing lists and web sites allow for the exchange of information as well. There are also websites which allow spotters to record and cross reference their sightings with other spotters. One example is LocoScene and another is [http://www.railspot.co.uk RailSpot] LocoScene] A development from trainspotting is the haulage enthusiast or basher. These individuals are not content merely watching trains; instead, the aim is to ride in them. Some attempt to ride behind as many locomotives as they can, marking them off in a book just like a regular trainspotter. Still others are only interested in certain types and classes of locomotive. Others attempt to cover as much of the railway network as they can, these people are usually referred to as Gricers or track bashers. The term "train spotter" is often used as a derogatory term towards someone perceived to have an enthusiasm for acquiring or hoarding detailed or humdrum information. It was translated in French as the neologism Ferrovipathe which literally means "railway disorder".

Other activities

Some railfans are interested in other aspects of railroads not directly dealing with the trains. They may be interested in studying the history of the railroad companies, their infrastructure and operations, including never-built plans. Abandoned railroad grades can often be found long after the railroad stops using them. Various magazines, clubs and museums are designed mainly for railfans, concentrating on the history of trains and railroads. Some clubs organize fantrips, either by car or by train; the New York Transit Museum owns some old equipment with which fantrips are occasionally run on the New York City Subway. Many railfans also collect "railroadiana". Railroadiana refers to artifacts from railroads and railroad operations and could include nearly anything to do with a particular railroad, including (but not limited to): public or employee timetables, dining car china, passenger train tickets, tools and pieces of equipment such as lanterns, or sometimes items as big as speeders. Although few can afford the price or the space for storage, some railfans even go so far as to collect full size rolling stock. See also: List of railroad-related periodicals.

Reasons

Sometimes the appeal of trains is nostalgic, recalling an earlier era when the railroads played a central role in commerce and transportation, and the train depot was the center of every town. Sometimes the appeal can come from a fondness for the power of large machinery. Sometimes there is an appeal of the scenery of the railroad running through large, uninviting terrain, or the gritty ambiance of the urban train yard. In this case, urban exploration poses a similar appeal. Many people who would not otherwise think of themselves as railfans just like trains. Most cannot explain why. Songs and stories have glorified railroading ever since the invention of the locomotive, especially in the United States, while children's toys and books about trains continue to be popular. The Railroad Tycoon series of simulation computer games is another example of railroads' enduring popularity.

Safety

Railfans can also keep the railroad areas safer by reporting crimes and suspicious activity. In the United Kingdom the British Transport Police have used railfans' vast knowledge and widespread presence to their advantage, and have actively encouraged them to report any suspicious persons or activities. In America, however, concerns over terrorism have led to situations where railfans are followed or confronted by local law enforcement or railroad police. Many experienced railfans have enhanced knowledge of railroad operations and hazards that can help the railroad, such as reporting malfunctioning crossing gates and other equipment. The history of the railway industry is full of accidents that could have been easily prevented had someone reported what they had seen, for example a fire in the last carriages of a long train may be obvious to a track-side observer but not to those in the locomotive. Unfortunately, some overeager railfans can hinder railroad operations by their unsafe activities, and even thefts from railroad property. Railfans often like to collect railroadiana, and in some cases, may resort to theft to acquire new pieces for their collections. Railfans who are not conscious of proper safety procedures or who trespass upon railroad property can become problems for the very industry that they appreciate so much.

Railfan hotspots

Various places are popular for train-watching railfans due to the large numbers of trains that pass through or nice views.

Canada

;Ontario
- Bayview Junction in Burlington, Ontario ;Quebec
- Dorval in Montreal, Quebec A busy 4-track mainline

United States

;California
- BNSF's Seligman Subdivision, Needles, California to Winslow, Arizona
- Cajon Pass located between Victorville, California and San Bernardino, California
- San Bernardino, California in 1987.]] Tehachapi Loop in Tehachapi, California
- Donner Pass located near Truckee, California where the first transcontinental railroad crossed the Sierra Nevada Mountains
- BNSF Harbor Subdivision from downtown Los Angeles to the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach ;Colorado
- Moffat Tunnel located near Winter Park, Colorado is one of the longest railroad tunnels in North America and was Denver & Rio Grande Western's route across the Rocky Mountains. ;Georgia
- Howell Tower in Atlanta, Georgia
- Hair in Dalton, Georgia
- Folkston Railfan Platform in Folkston, Georgia
- Jesup Railfan Platform in Jesup, Georgia
- Manchester Railfan Platform in Manchester, Georgia ;Illinois
- Illinois.]] Rochelle Railroad Park in Rochelle, Illinois at a busy junction of the BNSF and Union Pacific
- The Loop in Chicago, Illinois ;Indiana
- Porter, Indiana ;Louisiana
- Huey P. Long Bridge at New Orleans, Louisiana ;Michigan
- Delray Tower in Detroit, Michigan
- Durand Union Station in Durand, Michigan
- Trowbridge diamond/junction in East Lansing, Michigan ;Missouri
- Historic Kirkwood Amtrak Stationin Kirkwood, Missouri ;Montana
- The footbridge across the Montana RailLink yards in Missoula, Montana ;Ohio
- Bellevue, Ohio and the Mad River and NKP Railroad Museum
- Fostoria Amtrak Station in Fostoria, Ohio
- Historic Marion Union Station in Marion, Ohio
- Historic Wauseon NYC Depot in Wauseon, Ohio ;Pennsylvania
- Pennsylvania.]] Horseshoe Curve in Altoona, Pennsylvania (Location for new and inexperienced railfans)
- Cresson Railfan Deck/Park in Cresson, Pennsylvania west of Horseshoe Curve
- Gallitzin Tunnels in Gallitzin, Pennsylvania ;Tennessee
- Tennessee River Bridge (Tennbridge) in Chattanooga, Tennessee
- 23rd Street in Chattanooga, Tennessee (where the TVRM, NS, CSX, and C&C converge) ;Texas
- Tower 55 in Fort Worth, Texas ;Utah
- Wall Avenue in Ogden, Utah ;Washington
- "The Funnel", from Latah Junction on the west side of Spokane, Washington east to Sandpoint, Idaho
- Amtrak Station/wye in Vancouver, Washington

Railfan jargon

Railfans have a lot of jargon that can be foreign to other people. Some railfan terms are:
- Black Widow: Southern Pacific Locomotive (All black with some silver)
- Bloody Nose: Southern Pacific Locomotive (grey and red paint scheme)
- [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:H3sideview.jpg Burlington Nike Santa Fe]: BNSF Railway's new paint scheme, H3.
- Catfish: Norfolk Southern's C40-9W locomotives
- Ches-C: Chessie System's kitten logo
- Dark future: The new CSX paint scheme
- Ex-Con: Former Conrail unit
- Fallen flag: a railroad company that no longer operates
- Wings/Flags/Flares (W/F/F): Characteristics used to designate Union Pacific's paint scheme and engine type. Wings="Wing" Decal on the engine nose, Flags="American Flag" Decal on engine body, Flares="Flared Radiators" on the engine body. Some engines have one or more of these UP characteristics.
- Fatheads:Widecab (North American Cab) engines
- Ford Edsel: Amtrak AMD 103 locomotives
- Furball/Furbie: Locomotive owned by First Union Rail (FURX)
- Horsehead: Norfolk Southern's new paint job with a horse's head embedded in the NS Logo.
- Kodachrome: Southern Pacific Santa Fe Railroad's red, yellow and black paint scheme
- Mating Worms: Penn Central logo
- Pumpkin: BNSF's current paint scheme, CSX's MOW paint scheme
- Red Barns: Canadian Pacific's SD40-2F locomotives
- Rent-a-Wreck: Locomotive owned by a leasing company
- Vomit bonnet: BNSF's first attempt at a paint scheme
- Warbonnet: Santa Fe's red and silver paint scheme (less common since the BNSF Railway merger in 1995)
- YN1: CSX 1st paint scheme (Yellow Nose, 1st attempt)
- YN2: CSX 2nd paint scheme (Yellow Nose, 2nd attempt)
- YN3: CSX 3nd paint scheme (Yellow Nose, 3nd attempt) UK Terms
- Shed: A Canadian built class 66 locomotive
- HST: High-Speed Train (Given to class 43 locomotives) More can be found at [http://www.railspot.co.uk www.railspot.co.uk]

See also


- Anorak %28slang%29
- Rail terminology
- Rail transport modelling
- aircraft spotting
- bus spotting
- gongoozler
- metrophile
- Roadgeek
- Rivet counter
- Darius McCollum - who has been arrested for impersonating NYCTA employees and operating trains without authority

External links


- [http://www.urbanrail.net UrbanRail.net]
- [http://www.railfan.net Railfan.net]
- [http://www.railroadradio.net Live Railroad Radio Communications]
- [http://www.trains.com Trains Magazine]
- [http://www.railfan.com Railfan & Railroad Magazine]
- [http://www.trainweb.org Trainweb.org]
- [http://www.raillinks.com Raillinks.com]
- [http://www.railroadforums.com Railroadforums.com]
- [http://www.railsearch.com Railsearch.com]
- [http://www.railcams.com Railcams.com]
- [http://www.frograil.com Frograil.com]
- [http://www.trainfoamers.com Trainfoamers.com]
- [http://www.trainorders.com Trainorders.com]
- [http://www.idiotrailfan.com The Idiot Railfan]
- [http://railroad.net Railroad.net]
- [http://www.rrpicturearchives.net RRPictureArchives.net]
- [http://www.railpictures.net Railpictures.net]
- [http://www.michiganrailroads.com Michiganrailroads.com]
- [http://railfan4-4.tripod.com/ PA and OH Railfan Locations] Good and Safe Railfan Locations
- [http://www.railfanusa.com/rosters/ RailfanUSA Rosters] Railroad Rosters
- [http://www.railfanswelcome.com/RailfansWelcome.htm RailfansWelcome] Nice and safe locations
- [http://www.straphangers.org/cgi-bin/ultimatebb.cgi Straphangers' Rider Diaries] - Popular railfan message board for the NYC Subway
- [http://www.vicsig.net Vicsig - Victorian Signals - Comprehensive resource for Australian Railways]
- [http://www.irfca.org Indian Railways Fan's Club]
- [http://www.transitalk.info Transitalk]
- [http://www.locoscene.co.uk LocoScene] UK train spotting database
- [http://railfanning.org/ Railfanning.org] US railfanning Web site Category:Rail transport Category:Observation Category:Hobbies ja:鉄道ファン

Trainspotting

Trainspotting or trainspotter may refer to one of the following.
- Train spotting, the hobby
- Trainspotting, the 1993 novel by Irvine Welsh
- Trainspotting, the 1996 film based upon the above-mentioned novel.
- Trainspotting, the soundtracks for the film.
- Trainspotter (music), a slang music term.

American English

American English (AmE) is the dialect of the English language used mostly in the United States of America. Crystal (1997) estimates that approximately two thirds of native speakers of English live in the United States. American English is also sometimes called United States English or U.S. English.

History

English was inherited from British colonization. The first wave of English-speaking immigrants was settled in North America in the 17th century. In that century, there were also speakers in North America of the Dutch, French, German, myriad Native American, Spanish, Swedish, Scots, Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Finnish languages.

Phonology

In many ways, compared to British English, American English is conservative in its phonology. The conservatism of American English is largely the result of the fact that it represents a mixture of various dialects from the British Isles. Dialect in North America is most distinctive on the East Coast of the continent; this is largely because these areas were in contact with England, and imitated prestigious varieties of British English at a time when those varieties were undergoing changes. The interior of the country was settled by people who were no longer closely connected to England, as they had no access to the ocean during a time when journeys to Britain were always by sea. As such the inland speech is much more homogeneous than the East Coast speech, and did not imitate the changes in speech from England. East Coast-influenced non-rhotic pronunciations may be found among blacks throughout the country.]]Most North American speech is rhotic, as English was in most places in the 17th century. Rhoticity was further supported by Hiberno-English, Scottish English, and West Country English. In most varieties of North American English, the sound corresponding to the letter "R" is a retroflex semivowel rather than a trill or a tap. The loss of syllable-final r in North America is confined mostly to the accents of eastern New England, New York City and surrounding areas, South Philadelphia, and the coastal portions of the South. Dropping of syllable-final r sometimes happens in natively rhotic dialects if r is located in unaccented syllables or words and the next syllable or word begins in a consonant. In England, lost 'r' was often changed into (schwa), giving rise to a new class of falling diphthongs. Furthermore, the 'er' sound of (stressed) fur or (unstressed) butter, which is represented in IPA as stressed or unstressed is realized in American English as a monophthongal r-colored vowel. This does not happen in the non-rhotic varieties of North American speech. Some other British English changes in which most North American dialects do not participate:
- The shift of to (the so-called "broad A") before alone or preceded by . This is the difference between the British Received Pronunciation and American pronunciation of bath and dance. In the United States, only linguistically conservative eastern-New-England speakers took up this innovation.
- The shift of intervocalic to glottal stop , as in for bottle. This change is not universal for British English (and in fact is not considered to be part of Received Pronunciation), but it does not occur in most North American dialects. Newfoundland English and the dialect of New Britain, Connecticut are notable exceptions. On the other hand, North American English has undergone some sound changes not found in Britain, at least not in standard varieties. Many of these are instances of phonemic differentiation and include
- The merger of and , making father and bother rhyme. This change is nearly universal in North American English, occurring almost everywhere except for parts of eastern New England, like the Boston accent.
- The replacement of the lot vowel with the strut vowel in what, was, of, from, everybody, nobody, somebody, anybody, because, and in some dialects want.
- The merger of and . This is the so-called cot-caught merger, where cot and caught are homophones. This change has occurred in eastern New England, in Pittsburgh and surrounding areas, and from the Great Plains westward.
- Vowel merger before intervocalic . Which (if any) vowels are affected varies between dialects.
- The merger of and after palatals in some words, so that cure, pure, mature and sure rhyme with fir in some speech registers for some speakers.
- Dropping of after alveolar consonants so that new, duke, Tuesday, suit, resume, lute are pronounced , , , , , .
- Æ-tensing in environments that vary widely from accent to accent. In some accents, particularly those from Philadelphia to New York City, and can even contrast sometimes, as in Yes, I can vs. tin can .
- Laxing of , and to , and before , causing pronunciations like , and for pair, peer and pure.
- The flapping of intervocalic and to alveolar tap before reduced vowels. The words ladder and latter are mostly or entirely homophonous, possibly distinguished only by the length of preceding vowel. For some speakers, the merger is incomplete and 't' before a reduced vowel is sometimes not tapped following or when it represents underlying 't'; thus greater and grader, and unbitten and unbidden are distinguished. Even among those words where and are flapped, words that would otherwise be homophonous are, for some speakers, distinguished if the flapping is immediately preceded by the diphthongs or ; these speakers tend to pronounce writer with and rider with . This is called Canadian raising; it is general in Canadian English, and occurs in some northerly versions of American English as well (often just applying to the diphthong , but not to ).
- Both intervocalic and may be realized as or , making winter and winner homophones. This does not occur when the second syllable is stressed, as in entail.
- The pin-pen merger, by which is raised to before nasal consonants, making pairs like pen/pin homophonous. This merger originated in Southern American English but is now widespread in the Midwest and West as well. Some mergers found in most varieties of both American and British English include:
- The horse-hoarse merger of the vowels and before 'r', making pairs like horse/hoarse, corps/core, for/four, morning/mourning etc. homophones.
- The wine-whine merger making pairs like wine/whine, wet/whet, Wales/whales, wear/where etc. homophones. Many older varieties of southern and western American English still keep these distinct, but the merger appears to be spreading.

Differences in British English and American English

Main article: American and British English differences American English has both spelling and grammatical differences from British English (or Commonwealth English), some of which were made as part of an attempt to rationalize the English spelling used by British English at the time. Unlike many 20th century language reforms (for example, Turkey's alphabet shift, Norway's spelling reform) the American spelling changes were not driven by government, but by textbook writers and dictionary makers. The first American dictionary was written by Noah Webster in 1828. At the time America was a relatively new country and Webster's particular contribution was to show that the region spoke a different dialect from Britain, and so he wrote a dictionary with many spellings differing from the standard. Many of these changes were initiated unilaterally by Webster. Webster also argued for many "simplifications" to the idiomatic spelling of the period. Somewhat ironically, many, although not all, of his simplifications fell into common usage alongside the original versions, resulting in a situation even more confused than before. Many words are shortened and differ from other versions of English. Spellings such as center are used instead of centre in other versions of English. Conversely, American English sometimes favors words that are morphologically more complex, whereas British English uses clipped forms, such as AmE transportation and BrE transport or where the British form is a back-formation, such as AmE burglarize and BrE burgle (from burglar).

English words that arose in the U.S.

A number of words that arose in the United States have become common, to varying degrees, in English as it is spoken internationally. Although its origin is disputed, the most famous word is probably OK, which is sometimes used in other languages as well. Other American introductions include "belittle," "gerrymander" (from Elbridge Gerry), "blizzard", "teenager", and many more.

English words obsolete outside the U.S.

A number of words that originated in the English of the British Isles are still in everyday use in North America, but are no longer used in most varieties of British English. The most conspicuous of these words are fall, the season; to quit, as in "to cease an activity" (as opposed to "to leave a location" as still used in most other Anglophone countries); and gotten as a past participle of get. Americans are more likely than Britons to name a stream whose breadth or volume is judged insufficient for it to be a river or a creek. The word diaper goes back at least to Shakespeare, and usage was maintained in the U.S. and Canada, but was replaced in the British Isles with nappy. Some of these words are still used in various dialects of the British Isles, but not in formal standard British English. Many of these older words have cognates in Lowland Scots. The subjunctive mood is livelier in North American English than it is in British English; it appears in some areas as a spoken usage, and is considered obligatory in more formal contexts in American English. British English has a strong tendency to replace subjunctives with auxiliary verb constructions.

Regional differences

Main article: American English regional differences Spoken American English is not homogeneous throughout the country, and various regional and ethnic variants exist. These differences affect both pronunciation and the lexicon, and can make one accent a little difficult for speakers of another accent to understand. General American is the name given to any American accent that is relatively free of noticeable regional influences. It enjoys high prestige among Americans, but is not a standard accent in the way that Received Pronunciation is in England.

See also


- Regional accents of English speakers
- Regional Vocabularies of American English
- Dictionary of American Regional English
- International Phonetic Alphabet for English
- IPA chart for English
- Dialects: African American Vernacular English, Liberian English (a descendant of American English)
- UK-US Heterologues A-Z
- List of dialects of the English language

Further reading


- The American Language 4th Edition, Corrected and Enlarged, H. L. Mencken, Random House, 1948, hardcover, ISBN 0394400755
- How We Talk: American Regional English Today, Allan Metcalf, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000, softcover, ISBN 0618043624
  - 1st and 2nd supplements of above.
- Craig M. Carver. American Regional Dialects: A Word Geography. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1987. ISBN 0472100769

References

External links


- [http://www.pbs.org/speak/ Do You Speak American]: PBS special
- [http://cfprod01.imt.uwm.edu/Dept/FLL/linguistics/dialect/ Dialect Survey] of the United States, by Bert Vaux et al., Harvard University. The answers to various questions about pronunciation, word use etc. can be seen in relationship to the regions where they are predominant.
- [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/home.html Phonological Atlas of North America] at the University of Pennsylvania
- [http://students.csci.unt.edu/~kun Guide to Regional English Pronunciation] includes working versions of the Telsur Project maps from the Phonologial Atlas site
- [http://www.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionary/ The American•British British•American Dictionary]
- [http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/ Speech Accent Archive]
- [http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organization]
- [http://www.esuus.org English Speaking Union of the United States]
- [http://canadianenglish1.narod.ru American Canadian British English Lexical Differences In One Table]
- [http://australianenglish1.narod.ru Australian American British English Lexical Differences In One Table And More]
- [http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words_list/british_american.htm British, American, Australian English - Lists and Online Exercises]
- [http://www.globalenglishsalon.com/ Listen to spoken American English (midwest

Train

:For other types of train see train (disambiguation) In rail transport, a train consists of a single or several connected rail vehicles that are capable of being moved together along a guideway to transport freight or passengers from one place to another along a planned route. The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of conventional rail tracks, but might also be monorail or maglev. Propulsion for the train is typically provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Power is usually derived from diesel engines or from electricity supplied by trackside systems. Historically the steam engine was the dominant form of locomotive power, and other sources of power (such as horses, pneumatics, or gas turbines) are possible as well. In American railway terminology, a consist is used to describe the group of rail vehicles which make up a train.

Types of trains

railway terminology, Perth ]] There are various types of trains designed for particular purposes, see rail transport operations. A train can consist of a combination of a locomotive and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit (or occasionally a single powered coach, called a railcar). Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, or run downhill by gravity. Special kinds of trains running on corresponding special 'railways' are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, Dinky Trains, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. cog railway A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives, and one or more coaches. Alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a "multiple unit". In many parts of the world, particularly Japan and Europe, high-speed rail is utilized extensively for passenger travel. Freight trains comprise wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains (especially Travelling Post Offices) are outwardly more like passenger trains. In the United Kingdom, a train hauled by two locomotives is said to be "double-headed", and in Canada and the United States it is quite common for a long freight train to be headed by three, four, or even five locomotives. Trains can also be mixed, hauling both passengers and freight, see e.g. Transportation in Mauritania. Such mixed trains became rare in many countries, but were commonplace on the first 19th-century railroads. Special trains are also used for track maintenance; in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A single uncoupled rail vehicle is not technically a train, but is usually referred to as such for signaling reasons.

Motive power

maintenance of way] The first trains were rope-hauled or pulled by horses, but from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. From the 1920s onwards they began to be replaced by less labor intensive and cleaner (but more expensive) diesel locomotives and electric locomotives, while at about the same time self-propelled multiple unit vehicles of either power system became much more common in passenger service. Most countries had replaced steam locomotives for day-to-day use by the 1970s. A few countries, most notably the People's Republic of China where coal is in cheap and plentiful supply, still use steam locomotives, but this is being gradually phased out. Historic steam trains still run in many other countries, for the leisure and enthusiast market. coal Electric traction offers a lower cost per mile of train operation but at a very high initial cost, which can only be justified on high traffic lines. Since the cost per mile of construction is much higher, electric traction is less favored on long-distance lines. Electric trains receive their current via overhead lines or through a third rail electric system.

Passenger trains

Passenger trains have Passenger cars. Passenger trains travel between stations; the distance between stations may vary from under 1 km to much more. Long-distance trains, sometimes crossing several countries, may have a dining or restaurant car; they may also have sleeping cars, but not in the case of high-speed rail, these arrive at their destination before the night falls and are in competition with airplanes in speed. Very long distance trains such as those on the Trans-Siberian railway are usually not high-speed. Very fast trains sometimes tilt, like the Pendolino or Talgo. Tilting is a system where the passenger cars automatically lean into curves, reducing the centrifugal forces acting on passengers and permitting higher speeds on curves in the track with greater passenger comfort. For trains connecting cities, we can distinguish inter-city trains, which do not halt at small stations, and trains that serve all stations, usually known as local trains or "stoppers" (and sometimes an intermediate kind, see also limited-stop). limited-stop For shorter distances many cities have networks of commuter trains, serving the city and its suburbs. Some carriages may be laid out to have more standing room than seats, or to facilitate the carrying of prams, cycles or wheelchairs. Some countries have some double-decked passenger trains for use in conurbations. Double deck high speed and sleeper trains are becoming more common in Europe. Passenger trains usually have emergency brake handles (or a "communication cord") that the public can operate. Abuse is punished by a fine. fine Large cities often have a metro system, also called underground, subway or tube. The trains are electrically powered, usually by third rail, and their railroads are separate from other traffic, without level crossings. Usually they run in tunnels in the city center and sometimes on elevated structures in the outer parts of the city. They can accelerate and decelerate faster than heavier, long-distance trains. A light one- or two-car rail vehicle running through the streets is not called a train but a tram, trolley, light rail vehicle or streetcar, but the distinction is not strict. The term light rail is sometimes used for a modern tram, but it may also mean an intermediate form between a tram and a train, similar to metro except that it may have level crossings. These are often protected with crossing gates. They may also be called a trolley. Maglev trains and monorails represent minor technologies in the train field. The term rapid transit is used for public transport such as commuter trains, metro and light rail. However, in New York City, lines on the New York City Subway have been referred to as "trains".

See also


- people mover
- Passenger train human waste disposal.

Freight trains

Passenger train human waste disposal Freight trains have freight cars. Much of the world's freight is transported by train. In the USA the rail system is used mostly for transporting freight (or cargo). Under the right circumstances, transporting freight by train is highly economic, and also more energy efficient than transporting freight by road. Rail freight is most economic when freight is being carried in bulk and over long distances, but is less suited to short distances and small loads. The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much of the freight business to road competition. Many governments are now trying to encourage more freight onto trains, because of the environmental benefits that it would bring. road competition]] There are many different types of freight train, which are used to carry many different kinds of freight, with many different types of wagon. One of the most common types on modern railways are container trains, whereby the containers can be lifted on and off the train by cranes and loaded off or onto trucks or ships. ship in 1992.]] This type of freight train has largely superseded the traditional "box wagon" type of freight train, whereby the cargo had to be loaded or unloaded manually. In some countries "piggy back" trains are used whereby trucks can drive straight onto the train and drive off again when the end destination is reached. A system like this is used on the Channel Tunnel between England and France. Piggy back trains are the fastest growing type of freight trains in the United States, where they are also known as 'trailer on flat car' or TOFC trains. There are also some "inter-modal" vehicles, which have two sets of wheels, for use in a train, or as the trailer of a road vehicle. There are also many other types of wagon, such as "low loader" wagons for transporting road vehicles. There are refrigerator wagons for transporting food. There are simple types of open-topped wagons for transporting minerals and bulk material such as coal and tankers for tranporting liquids and gases. Freight trains are sometimes illegally boarded by passengers who do not wish, or do not have the money, to travel by ordinary means. This is referred to as "Hopping" and is considered by some communities to be a viable form of transport. Most hoppers sneak into train yards and stow away in boxcars. More bold hoppers will catch a train "on the fly", that is, as it is moving, leading to occasional fatalities, some of which go unrecorded.

Famous train routes

Main article: Famous trains Famous historical train services include the:
- Orient Express in Europe.
- Trans-Siberian in Russia.
- Blue Train in South Africa.
- Train-de-Luxe from Johannesburg to Victoria Falls.
- Chihuahua al Pacifico in Mexico.
- Palace on Wheels in Rajasthan, India.
- Frontier Mail and Grand Trunk Express, India.
- The Canadian in Canada.
- 20th Century Limited in the USA.
- City of New Orleans in the USA.
- California Zephyr in the USA.
- The Indian-Pacific and The Ghan in Australia (long-distance rail).
- Puffing Billy and The Gulflander in Australia (heritage and touring).
- Rheingold Express in The Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland, following the course of the Rhine.

Fictional trains

See also: Rail transport in fiction
- Hogwarts Express — Takes Harry Potter to Hogwarts Academy.
- Taggart Comet (Atlas Shrugged)
- The Great Train Robbery — feature film based on a true story, also title of a modern film.
- Starlight Express (Andrew Lloyd Webber) — Musical about an old steam engine being replaced by an electrical engine.
- Galaxy Express 999 — From the manga and anime of the same name by Leiji Matsumoto, this train travels the galaxy from planet to planet.
- The Polar Express — From the book of the same name, this train takes children to the North Pole.
- Runaway Train — Film about escaped inmates on a runaway train.
- Atomic Train — TV movie (1999) A runaway train carrying an atomic bomb into a town.
- Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends TV Series originated from The Railway Series by the Rev.W.Awdry For a list of railway movies, see [http://www.spikesys.com/Trains/rly_movs.html] (website last updated December 5, 1995).

See also


- Amtrak
- Armoured train
- Coupling
- List of railway companies
- Toy train
- Train whistle
- Train wreck

Further reading


- Jonathan Glancey - The Train (2004)

External links


- [http://www.raileurope.co.uk Book European rail travel online]
- [http://www.railfaneurope.net High Speed Train]
- Official [http://ojp.nationalrail.co.uk/planmyjourney/time_table/journey_requirements.asp train times] in the UK (from [http://www.nationalrail.co.uk/ National Rail]).
- [http://www.railserve.com/ RailServe.com: The Internet Railroad Directory] - directory of 10,000 train sites
- [http://www.trainfoamers.com Trainfoamers.com] - It's Free To Talk Trains Again!
- [http://www.trainorders.com Trainorders.com] - Focus on trains of North America Category:Vehicles Category:Rail transport ms:Keretapi ja:列車

Australia

The Commonwealth of Australia is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the world's smallest continent and a number of islands in the Southern, Indian and Pacific Oceans. Australia's neighbouring countries are Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the northeast, and New Zealand to the southeast. The continent of Australia has been inhabited for over 40,000 years by Indigenous Australians. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the north and by European explorers and merchants starting in the 17th century, the eastern half of the continent was claimed by the British in 1770 and officially settled as the penal colony of New South Wales on 26 January 1788. As the population grew and new areas were explored, another five largely self-governing Crown Colonies were successively established over the course of the 19th century. On 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. Since federation, Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system and remains a Commonwealth Realm. The current population of around 20.4 million is concentrated mainly in the large coastal cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.

Origin and history of the name

The name Australia is derived from the Latin australis, meaning southern. Legends of an "unknown southern land" (terra australis incognita) date back to the Roman times and were commonplace in mediæval geography, but they were not based on any actual knowledge of the continent. The Dutch adjectival form Australische ("Australian," in the sense of "southern") was used by Dutch officials in Batavia to refer to the newly discovered land to the south as early as 1638. The first English language writer to use the word "Australia" was Alexander Dalrymple in An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean, published in 1771. He used the term to refer to the entire South Pacific region, not specifically to the Australian continent. In 1793, George Shaw and Sir James Smith published Zoology and Botany of New Holland, in which they wrote of "the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or New Holland." New Holland was established on this site.]] The name "Australia" was popularised by the 1814 work A Voyage to Terra Australis by the navigator Matthew Flinders. Despite its title, which reflected the view of the Admiralty, Flinders used the word "Australia" in the book, which was widely read and gave the term general currency. Governor Lachlan Macquarie of New South Wales subsequently used the word in his dispatches to England. In 1817 he recommended that it be officially adopted. In 1824, the British Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia.

History

England, claiming the land for Britain in 1770. This replica was built in Fremantle in 1988 for Australia's bicentenary.]] The first human habitation of Australia is estimated to have occurred between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago. The first Australians were the ancestors of the current Indigenous Australians; they arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from present-day India or Southeast Asia. Most of these people were hunter-gatherers, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, inhabited the Torres Strait Islands and parts of far-north Queensland; they possess distinct cultural practices and practised subsistence agriculture. The first undisputed recorded European sighting of the Australian continent was made by the Dutch navigator Willem Jansz, who sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in 1606. During the 17th century, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of what they called New Holland, but made no attempt at settlement. In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Britain. The expedition's discoveries provided impetus for the establishment of a penal colony there following the loss of the American colonies that had previously filled that role. penal colony was Australia's largest penal colony.]] The British Crown Colony of New South Wales started with the establishment of a settlement at Port Jackson by Captain Arthur Phillip on 26 January 1788. This date was later to become Australia's national day, Australia Day. Van Diemen's Land, now known as Tasmania, was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825. Britain formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1829. Separate colonies were created from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859. The Northern Territory (NT) was founded in 1863 as part of the Province of South Australia. Victoria and South Australia were founded as "free colonies"—that is, they were never penal colonies, although the former did receive some convicts from Tasmania. Western Australia was also founded "free", but later accepted transported convicts due to an acute labour shortage. The transportation of convicts to Australia was phased out between 1840 and 1868. The Indigenous Australian population, estimated at about 350,000 at the time of European settlement, declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly because of infectious disease, and forced migration, the removal of children and other colonial government policies, that some historians and Indigenous Australians have argued could be considered to constitute genocide by today's understanding. Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by some as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons. Following the 1967 referendum, the Federal government gained the power to implement policies and make laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of land—native title—was not recognised until the High Court case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) overturned the notion of Australia as terra nullius at the time of European occupation. terra nullius ceremony in Port Melbourne, Victoria, 25 April 2005. Ceremonies such as this are held in virtually every suburb and town in Australia.]] A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the Eureka Stockade rebellion in 1854 was an early expression of nationalist sentiment. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence and international shipping. On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation and voting, and the Commonwealth of Australia was born, as a Dominion of the British Empire. The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra (Melbourne was the capital from 1901 to 1927). The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911. Australia willingly participated in World War I; many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action. Much like Gallipoli the Kokoda Track Campaign is regarded by many as a nation defining battle from World War II. The Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and Britain, but Australia did not adopt the Statute until 1942. The shock of Britain's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US under the auspices of the ANZUS treaty. After World War II, Australia encouraged mass immigration from Europe; since the 1970s and the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and other parts of the world was also encouraged. As a result, Australia's demography, culture and image of itself were radically transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and Britain ended in 1986 with the passing of the Australia Act 1986, ending any British role in the Australian States, and ending judicial appeals to the UK Privy Council. Although Australian voters rejected a move to become a republic in 1999 by a 55% majority, Australia's links to its British past are increasingly tenuous. Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972, there has been an increasing focus on the nation's future as a part of the Asia-Pacific region.

Politics

Whitlam Government was opened in 1988 replacing the provisional Parliament House building opened in 1927.]] The Commonwealth of Australia is a constitutional monarchy and has a parliamentary system of government. Queen Elizabeth II is the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. The Queen is nominally represented by the Governor-General; although the Constitution gives extensive executive powers to the Governor-General, these are normally exercised only on the advice of the Prime Minister. The most notable exercise of the Governor-General's reserve powers outside the Prime Minister's direction was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975. There are three branches of government.
- The legislature: the Commonwealth Parliament, comprising the Queen, the Senate (the Red house), and the House of Representatives (the Green house); the Queen is represented by the Governor-General, who in practice exercises little or no power over the Parliament.
- The executive: the Federal Executive Council (the Governor-General as advised by the executive councillors); in practice, the councillors are the prime minister and ministers of state, whose advice the Governor-General accepts, with rare exceptions.
- The judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts. The State courts became formally independent from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council when the Australia Act was passed in 1986. The bicameral Commonwealth Parliament consists of the Queen, the Senate (the upper house) of 76 senators, and a House of Representatives (the lower house) of 150 members. Members of the lower house are elected from single-member constituencies, commonly known as 'electorates' or 'seats'. Seats in the House of Representatives are allocated to states on the basis of population. In the Senate, each state, regardless of population, is represented by 12 senators, with the ACT and the NT each electing two. Elections for both chambers are held every three years; typically only half of the Senate seats are put to each election, because senators have overlapping six-year terms. The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms Government, with its leader becoming Prime Minister. There are three major political parties: the Labor Party, the Liberal Party and the National Party. Independent members and several minor parties—including the Greens, Family First and the Australian Democrats—have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses, although their influence has been marginal. Since the 1996 election, the Liberal/National Coalition led by the Prime Minister, John Howard, has been in power in Canberra. In the 2004 election, the Coalition won control of the Senate, the first time that a party (or coalition of governing parties) has done so while in government in more than 20 years. The Labor Party is in power in every state and territory. Voting is compulsory in each state and territory and at the federal level.

States and territories

Voting is compulsory Australia consists of six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. In most respects, the territories function similarly to the states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation overrides state legislation only with respect to certain areas as set out in Section 51 of the Constitution; all residual legislative powers are retained by the state parliaments, including powers over hospitals, education, police, the judiciary, roads, public transport and local government. Each state and territory has its own legislature (unicameral in the case of the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the remaining states). The lower house is known as the Legislative Assembly (House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania) and the upper house the Legislative Council. The heads of the governments in each state and territory are called premiers and chief ministers, respectively. The Queen is represented in each state by a governor; an administrator in the Northern Territory, and the Governor-General in the ACT, have analogous roles. Australia also has several minor territories; the federal government administers a separate area within New South Wales, the Jervis Bay Territory, as a naval base and sea port for the national capital. In addition Australia has the following, inhabited, external territories: Norfolk Island, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and several largely uninhabited external territories: Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands and the Australian Antarctic Territory.

Foreign relations and military

Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States, through the ANZUS pact and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific, particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation. Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for co-operation. Much of Australia's diplomatic energy is focused on international trade liberalisation. Australia led the formation of the Cairns Group and APEC, and is a member of the OECD and the WTO. Australia has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the US–Australia Free Trade Agreement. Australia is a founding member of the United Nations, and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5bn for development assistance; as a percentage of GDP, this contribution is less than that of the UN Millennium Development Goals. Australia's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force (ADF)—comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army, and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). All branches of the ADF have been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping (most recently in East Timor, the Solomon Islands and Sudan), disaster relief, and armed conflict, including the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The government appoints the chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services; the current chief is Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston. In 2005–06, the defence budget is A$17.5bn.

Geography and climate

Angus Houston Australia's 7,686,850 km² (2,967,909 mi²) landmass is on the Indo-Australian Plate. Surrounded by the Indian, Southern and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas. Australia has a total 25,760 km (16,007 mi) of coastline and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 km² or 3,146,057 mi² (excluding the Australian Antarctic Territory). Climate is highly influenced by ocean currents, including the El Niño southern oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia. By far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid. Australia is the driest inhabited continent, the flattest, and has the oldest and least fertile soils. Only the south-east and south-west corners of the continent have a temperate climate. The northern part of the country, with a tropical climate, has a vegetation consisting of rainforest, woodland, grassland and desert. The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 km (1,250 mi). The world's two largest monoliths are located in Australia, Mount Augustus in Western Australia is the largest and Uluru in central Australia is the second largest. At 2,228 m (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland, although Mawson Peak on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island is taller at 2,745 m (9,006 ft).

Flora and fauna

Heard Island of the wallaby is currently being sequenced; when the sequencing is completed, it will be a major contribution to marsupial biology.]] Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it covers a diverse range of habitats, from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests. Because of the great age and consequent low levels of fertility of the continent, its extremely variable weather patterns, and its long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique and diverse. About 85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic. Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced plant and animal species. The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is a legal framework used for the protection of threatened species. Numerous protected areas have been created to protect and preserve Australia's unique ecosystems, 64 wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention, and 16 World Heritage Sites have been established. Australia was ranked 13th in the World on the 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index. Environmental Sustainability Index.]] Most Australian plant species are evergreen and many are adapted to fire and drought, including the eucalypts and acacias. Australia has a rich variety of endemic legume species that thrive in nutrient-poor soils because of their symbiosis with Rhizobia bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi. Well-known Australian fauna include monotremes (the platypus and echidna), and a host of marsupials, including the koala, kangaroo, wombat, and birds such as the emu, cockatoo, and kookaburra. The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people that traded with Indigenous Australians around 4000 BCE. Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after human settlement, including the Australian megafauna; many more have become extinct since European settlement, among them the Thylacine (Tasmanian Tiger).

Economy

Thylacine Australia has a prosperous, Western-style mixed economy, with a per capita GDP slightly higher than those of the UK, Germany and France. The country was ranked third in the United Nations' 2005 Human Development Index and sixth in The Economist worldwide quality-of-life index 2005. In recent years, the Australian economy has been resilient in the face of global economic downturn. Rising output in the domestic economy has been offsetting the global slump, and business and consumer confidence remains robust. Australia's emphasis on reform is another key factor behind the economy's strength. In the 1980s, the Labor Party, led by Prime Minister Bob Hawke and Treasurer Paul Keating, started the process of modernising the Australian economy by floating the Australian dollar in 1983, and deregulating the financial system. Since 1996, the Howard government has continued the process of micro-economic reform, including the partial deregulation of the labour market and the privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the telecommunications industry. Substantial reform of the indirect tax system was achieved in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% Goods and Services Tax, which has slightly reduced the heavy reliance on personal and company income tax that still characterises Australia's tax system. The Australian economy has not suffered a recession since the early 1990s. As of July 2005, unemployment was 5.0% with 10,030,300 persons employed. The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, comprises 69% of GDP. Agriculture and natural-resources represent only 3% and 5% of GDP, respectively, but contribute substantially to Australia's export performance. Australia's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, South Korea and New Zealand. Areas of concern to some economists include the chronically high current account deficit and also high levels of net foreign debt.

Demographics

current account deficit Most of the estimated 20.4 million Australians are descended from 19th- and 20th-century immigrants, the majority from Britain and Ireland. Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I , spurred by an ambitious immigration program. In 2001, the five largest groups of the 27.4% of Australians who were born overseas were from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Italy, Vietnam and China. Following the abolition of the White Australia policy, numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism. Australia’s population has increased by about 60 times since European settlement. The self-declared indigenous population—including Torres Strait Islanders, who are of Melanesian descent—was 410,003 (2.2% of the total population) in 2001, a significant increase from the 1977 census, which showed an indigenous population of 115,953. Indigenous Australians have higher rates of imprisonment and unemployment, lower levels of education and life expectancies for males and females that are 17 years lower than those of other Australians. Perceived racial inequality is an ongoing political and human rights issue for Australians. human rights.]] In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002–03) live outside their home country. Australia has maintained one of the most active immigration programs in the world to boost population growth. Most immigrants are skilled; the quota includes categories for family members and refugees. English is the official language, and is spoken and written in a distinct variety known as Australian English. According to the 2001 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for around 80% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Chinese (2.1%), Italian (1.9%) and Greek (1.4%). A considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are bilingual. It is believed that there were between 200 and 300 Australian Aboriginal languages at the time of first European contact. Only about 70 of these languages have survived, and all but 20 of these are now endangered. An indigenous language remains the main language for about 50,000 (0.02%) people. Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which is the main language of about 6,500 deaf people. The Australian Constitution guarantees the separation of church and state; there is no state religion. The 2001 census identified that 68% of Australians call themselves Christian: 27% identifying themselves as Roman Catholic and 21% as Anglican. Five per cent of Australians identify themselves as followers of non-Christian religions, and 26% as non-religious. Like many Western countries, the level of active participation in church worship is much lower than this; weekly attendance at church services is about 1.5 million, about 7.5% of the population. School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia between the ages of 6–15 years (16 years in South Australia and Tasmania), contributing to an adult literacy rate that is assumed to be 99%. Government grants have supported the establishment of Australia's 38 universities, and although several private universities have been established, the majority receive government funding. There is a state-based system of vocational training colleges, known as TAFE Institutes, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople. Approximately 58% of Australians between the ages of 25 and 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications.

Culture

apprenticeship.]] The primary basis of Australian culture up until the mid-20th century was Anglo-Celtic, although distinctive Australian features had been evolving from the environment and indigenous culture. Over the past 50 years, Australian culture has been strongly influenced by American popular culture (particularly television and cinema), large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking countries, and Australia's Asian neighbours. Australia has a long history of visual arts, starting with the cave and bark paintings of its indigenous peoples. From the time of European settlement, a common theme in Australian art has been the Australian landscape, seen in the works of Arthur Streeton, Arthur Boyd and Albert Namatjira, among others. The traditions of indigenous Australians are largely transmitted orally and are closely tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the Dreamtime. Australian Aboriginal music, dance and art have a palpable influence on contemporary Australian visual and performing arts. Australia has an active tradition of music, ballet and theatre; many of its performing arts companies receive public funding through the federal government's Australia Council. There is a symphony orchestra in each capital city, and a national opera company, Opera Australia, first made prominent by the renowned diva Dame Joan Sutherland; Australian music includes classical, jazz, and many popular music genres. Australian literature has also been influenced by the landscape; the works of writers such as Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson captured the experience of the Australian bush. The character of colonial Australia, as embodied in early literature, resonates with modern Australia and its perceived emphasis on egalitarianism, mateship, and anti-authoritarianism. In 1973, Patrick White was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, the only Australian to have achieved this; he is recognised as one of the great English-language writers of the 20th century. Australian English is a major variety of the language; its grammar and spelling are largely based on those of British English, overlaid with a rich vernacular of unique lexical items and phrases, some of which have found their way into standard English. Australia has two public broadcasters (the ABC and SBS), three commercial television networks, three pay TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Australia's film industry has achieved critical and commercial successes. Each major city has daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. According to Reporters Without Borders in 2005, Australia is in 31st position on a list of countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (9th) and the United Kingdom (28th) but ahead of the United States. This ranking is primarily due to the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia. Most Australian print media in particular is under the control of either News Corporation or John Fairfax Holdings. John Fairfax Holdings Sport is an important part of Australian culture, assisted by a climate that favours outdoor activities; 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities. At an international level, Australia has particularly strong teams in cricket, field hockey, netball, rugby league, rugby union, and performs well in cycling and swimming. Australia has participated in every summer Olympic Games of the modern era, and every Commonwealth Games. Australia has hosted the 1956 and 2000 Summer Olympics, and has ranked among the top five medal-takers since 2000. It has also hosted the 1938, 1962 and 1982 Commonwealth Games, and will host the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne. Australian rules football is one of the most popular national sports, albeit it, one that is only played in Australia; players gain some international prominence through International Rules which is an annual meeting between the Australian code and Irish Gaelic Football. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and élite athletes is common in Australia. Televised sport is popular; some of the highest rating television programs include the summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions.

Related topics

References

Gillespie, R. (2002). Dating the first Australians. Radiocarbon 44:455-472
Smith, L. (1980), The Aboriginal Population of Australia, Australian National University Press, Canberra
Tatz, C. (1999). [http://www.aiatsis.gov.au/rsrch/rsrch_dp/genocide.htm Genocide in Australia], AIATSIS Research Discussion Papers No 8, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Canberra
Windschuttle, K. (2001). [http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/sept01/keith.htm# The Fabrication of Aboriginal History], The New Criterion Vol. 20, No. 1, September 20.
Bean, C. Ed. (1941). [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/ww1/1/index.asp Volume I - The Story of Anzac: the first phase], First World War Official Histories 11th Edition.
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Parliamentary Library (1997). [http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General]
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Department of the Environment and Heritage. [http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/about-biodiversity.html About Biodiversity]
Macfarlane, I. J. (1998). [http://www.rba.gov.au/PublicationsAndResearch/Bulletin/bu_oct98/bu_1098_2.pdf Australian Monetary Policy in the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century]. Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin, October
Parham, D. (2002). [http://www.pc.gov.au/research/confproc/mrrag/mrrag.pdf Microeconomic reforms and the revival in Australia’s growth in productivity and living standards]. Conference of Economists, Adelaide, 1 October
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External links


- [http://wikitravel.org/en/Australia Wikitravel guide to Australia]
- [http://www.gov.au/ Australian Government Entry Portal]
- [http://www.australia.gov.au/ Commonwealth Government Online]
- [http://www.immi.gov.au/ Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA)]
- [http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/australia/index.html DFAT: Country Information]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-27.000000,133.000000&spn=38.871300,61.703613&t=h&hl=en Satellite images of Australia] (Google Maps)
- [http://www.nla.gov.au/ National Library of Australia]
- [http://www.nma.gov.au/ National Museum of Australia]
- [http://www.australia.com/ Official Australia Tourism Website]
- [http://www.bom.gov.au/ Bureau of Meteorology]
- [http://www.m2006.com.au/ Official website of the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games] A Category:Continents Category:Island nations Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Monarchies Category:Oceanic countries zh-min-nan:Ò-tāi-lī-a ko:오스트레일리아 ms:Australia ja:オーストラリア simple:Australia th:ประเทศออสเตรเลีย

Australia

The Commonwealth of Australia is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the world's smallest continent and a number of islands in the