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Transportation

Transportation

:For other article subjects named transport, see Transport (disambiguation). Transportation redirects here, for other uses, see Transportation (disambiguation). Transport or transportation is the movement of people, goods, signals and information from one place to another. The term is derived from the Latin trans ("across") and portare ("to carry").

Aspects of transport

The field of transport has several aspects: loosely they can be divided into a triad of infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Infrastructure includes the transport networks (roads, railways, airways, canals, pipelines, etc.) that are used, as well as the nodes or terminals (such as airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports). The vehicles generally ride on the networks, such as automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, airplanes. The operations deal with the control of the system, such as traffic signals and ramp meters, railroad switches, air traffic control, etc, as well as policies, such as how to finance the system (for example, the use of tolls or gasoline taxes). Broadly speaking, the design of networks are the domain of civil engineering and urban planning, the design of vehicles of mechanical engineering and specialized subfields such as nautical engineering and aerospace engineering, and the operations are usually specialized, though might appropriately belong to operations research or systems engineering.

Modes of transport

Modes are combinations of networks, vehicles, and operations, and include walking, the road transport system, rail transport, ship transport and modern aviation.

Transport and communications

Transport and communication are both substitutes and complements. Though it might be possible that sufficiently advanced communication could substitute for transport, one could telegraph, telephone, fax, or email a customer rather than visiting them in person, it has been found that those modes of communication in fact generate more total interactions, including interpersonal interactions. The growth in transport would be impossible without communication, which is vital for advanced transportation systems, from railroads which want to run trains in two directions on a single track, to air traffic control which requires knowing the location of aircraft in the sky. Thus, it has been found that the increase of one generally leads to more of the other.

Transport and land use

There is a well-known relationship between the density of development, and types of transportation. Intensity of development is often measured by area of Floor Area Ratio (FAR), the ratio of useable floorspace to area of land. As a rule of thumb, FARs of 1.5 or less are well suited to automobiles, those of six and above are well suited to trains. The range of densities from about two up to about four is not well served by conventional public or private transport. Many cities have grown into these densities, and are suffering traffic problems. Personal rapid transit could provide a solution to this problem. Land uses support activities. Those activities are spatially separated. People need transport to go from one to the other (from home to work to shop back to home for instance). Transport is a "derived demand," in that transport is unnecessary but for the activities pursued at the ends of trips. Good land use keeps common activities close (e.g. housing and food shopping), and places higher-density development closer to transportation lines and hubs. Poor land use concentrates activities (such as jobs) far from other destinations (such as housing and shopping). There are economies of agglomeration. Beyond transportation some land uses are more efficient when clustered. Transportation facilities consume land, and in cities, pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 percent of the total land use. An efficient transport system can reduce land waste.

Transport, energy, and the environment

Transport is a major use of energy, and transport burns most of the world's petroleum. Hydrocarbon fuels produce carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas widely thought to be the chief cause of global climate change, and petroleum-powered engines, especially inefficient ones, create air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates (soot). Although vehicles in the United States have been getting cleaner because of environmental regulations, this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles and more use of each vehicle. Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion, toxic runoff from roads and parking lots that can pollute water supplies and aquatic ecosystems, and automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands. Low-pollution fuels can reduce pollution. Low pollution fuels may have a reduced carbon content, and thereby contribute less in the way of carbon dioxide emissions, and generally have reduced sulfur, since sulfur exhaust is a cause of acid rain. The most popular low-pollution fuel at this time is liquified natural gas. Hydrogen is an even lower-pollution fuel that produces no carbon dioxide, but producing and storing it economically is currently not feasible. Other alternative renewable energy sources such as biodiesel are being researched heavily. Another strategy is to make vehicles more efficient, which reduces pollution and waste by reducing the energy use. Electric vehicles use efficient electric motors, but their range is limited by either the extent of the electric transmission system or by the storage capacity of batteries. Electrified public transport generally uses overhead wires or third rails to transmit electricity to vehicles, and is used for both rail and bus transport. Battery electric vehicles store their electric fuel onboard in a battery pack. Another method is to generate energy using fuel cells, which may eventually be two to five times as efficient as the internal combustion engines currently used in most vehicles. Another effective method is to streamline ground vehicles, which spend up to 75% of their energy on air-resistance, and to reduce their weight. Regenerative braking is possible in all electric vehicles and recaptures the energy normally lost to braking, and is becoming common in rail vehicles. In internal combustion automobiles and buses, regenerative braking is not possible, unless electric vehicle components are also a part of the powertrain, these are called hybrid electric vehicles. Shifting travel from automobiles to well-utilized public transport can reduce energy consumption and traffic congestion. Use of non-motorized modes walking and bicycling also reduces the consumption of fossil fuels. However, as most areas get wealthier, the use of these modes declines. There are a few wealthy cities where bicycling comprises a significant share of trips, including Copenhagen, Denmark and Groningen, Netherlands. A number of other cities, including London, Paris, New York, Bogotá, Chicago, and San Francisco, are creating networks of bicycle lanes and bicycle paths to encourage bicycling by increasing safety from traffic.

Transport Research

Transport research facilities are mainly attached to universities or are steered by the state. In most countries (not in France and Spain) one can see now how laboratories are brought into PPP-operation, where industry takes over part of the share. Some major players in Europe:
- Transport Research Laboratory [http://www.trl.co.uk/ TRL UK]
- [http://www.vtt.fi/transport/ VTT FI]
- [http://www.lcpc.fr LCPC FR]
- [http://www.inrets.fr INRETS FR]
- [http://www.certu.fr CERTU FR]
- [http://www.dlr.de/dlr/Verkehr DLR DE]
- [http://www.crf.it CRF IT]
- [http://www.vv.tno.nl TNO NL]
- [http://www.cedex.es/ CEDEX ES]
- [http://www.cemt.org/jtrc/ Joint OECD-ECMT Transport Research Centre]
- [http://www.cemt.org/index.htm European Conference of Ministers of Transport] USA:
- http://www.its.berkeley.edu Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Berkeley
- National Transportation Research Center
- [http://www.trb.org/ Transportation Research Board] The European Commission supports the co-operation and collaboration amongst the transport laboratories by funding projects like EXTR@Web and [http://www.intransnet.org Intransnet]. Especially the transition from planned economy to achieving a stable position on the market will be a challenge for laboratories in the new member states. Another EU-project [http://www.etra.cc etra.cc]is coping with those problems.

Transport (disambiguation)

Transport can refer to any of the following:
- Transport in the sense of engineering and infrastructure; see also the List of transport topics
- Transport phenomena encountered in physics
- Transport, or movement of molecules or ions across cell membranes or via the bloodstream in biology, including active transport and passive transport
- 'Penal transportation, referring to sending persons abroad as punishment
- In computer science and electrical engineering, the term transport is also used to describe certain computer network protocols (see transport layer).
- For media recording and playback, a transport is a device that handles a particular physical storage medium itself, and extracts or records the information to and from the medium to (and from) an outboard set of processing electronics that the transport is connected to.

Movement

The term Movement has a variety of different meanings related to motion:
- Physical movement between points in space ("A to B"). The amount of movement is called distance. Together with a direction you have a displacement. The rate of movement is the speed. Again, with the direction, you get the velocity. Active movement is called locomotion. See also under motion and transport.
- In biology movement refers to both intracellular movement and the movement of the organism or its parts and organs (See animal movement and plant movement ).
- In health care and medicine a bowel movement refers to the elimination of solid waste from the body.
- In a movie camera or projector, the term refers to the intermittent mechanism that transports the film.
- In aviation, the amount of traffic that an airport handles is described in movements per year, where one "movement" consists of a aircraft taking off or landing.
- In music, a movement is a large division of a larger composition. Symphonies are typically divided into four movements, for example, and concertos into three. Each movement has a distinct tempo and structure. Movement is also the title of New Order's 1981 debut album.
- In computer games, a movement is a special way the player can lead an alter ego through the virtual reality.
- In horology: for a clockwork, a clock, or a watch a movement is the device that is cutting time in equal portions
- In literature movement can also refer to the metrical or rhythmical properties of poetry.
- In linguistics and transformational grammar, syntactic movement refers to a process in which the deep structure of a linguistic expression is transformed to surface structure. One example of such movement is wh-movement.
- In politics, movement may refer to a political movement , e.g. the National Resistance Movement in Uganda, now simply refered to as "the Movement".
- Collected by G. I. Gurdjieff, Movements are sacred dances from Central Asian and African culture.
- Awareness Through Movement lessons are used by Feldenkrais method practitioners and students to discover new ways of using themselves with more ease, grace, and power.
- In various fields (history, sociology, culture studies) movement is the term commonly used to refer to a trend:
- Art movement
- Church Movement
- Cultural movement
- New religious movement
- Social movement
- The Movement in British poetry. ja:運動 simple:Movement

Latin

Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. It gained great importance as the formal language of the Roman Empire. All Romance languages, those being most notably Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian, are descended from Latin, and many words based on Latin are found in other modern languages such as English. The Latin alphabet, derived from the Greek, remains the most widely-used alphabet in the world. It is said that 80 percent of scholarly English words are derived from Latin (in a large number of cases by way of French). Moreover, in the Western world, Latin was a lingua franca, the learned language for scientific and political affairs, for more than a thousand years, being eventually replaced by French in the 18th century and English in the late 19th. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the formal language of the Roman Catholic Church to this day, and thus the official national language of the Vatican. The Church used Latin as its primary liturgical language until the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s. Latin is also still used (drawing heavily on Greek roots) to furnish the names used in the scientific classification of living things. The modern study of Latin, along with Greek, is known as Classics.

Main features

Latin is a synthetic inflectional language: affixes (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, which is called declension; and person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect in verbs, which is called conjugation. There are five declensions (declinationes) of nouns and four conjugations of verbs. There are six noun cases: #nominative (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative), #genitive (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English of or the addition of s to a noun), #dative (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English to or for), #accusative (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases), #ablative (separation, source, cause, or instrument, often represented by the English by, with, from), #vocative (used of the person or thing being addressed). In addition, some nouns have a locative case used to express location (otherwise expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as in), but this survival from Proto-Indo-European is found only in the names of lakes, cities, towns, small islands, and a few other words related to locations, such as "house", "ground", and "countryside". Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin. There are six general tenses in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them. The subjunctive mood, however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses. These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative. The following examples are of the first conjugation verb "laudare" ("to praise") in the indicative mood and the active voice:
Primary sequence tenses
# present (laudo, "I praise") # imperfect (laudabam, "I was praising") # future (laudabo, "I shall praise," "I will praise")
Secondary sequence tenses
# perfect (laudavi, "I praised", "I have praised") # pluperfect (laudaveram, "I had praised") # future perfect (laudavero, "I shall have praised," "I will have praised") The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in "When I will have run...") and so may also sometimes be included in the primary sequence.
Latin and Romance
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Latin evolved into the various Romance languages. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese. The Romance languages evolved from Vulgar Latin, the spoken language of common usage, which in turn evolved from an older speech which also produced the formal classical standard. Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive. Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and vocative. In Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools as Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In Liceo Classico Ancient Greek is a compulsory subject.
Latin and English
See Latin influence in English for a more complete exposition. English grammar is independent of Latin grammar, though prescriptive grammarians in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules — such as the prohibition against the split infinitive — have not worked successfully in regular usage. However, as many as half the words in English were derived from Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, hundreds of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English. During the 16th and on through the 18th century English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words (as if they had spilled from a pot of ink). Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. Imbibe, extrapolate, dormant and inebriation are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word etymology is derived from the Greek word etymologia, meaning "true sense of the word." Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings - perhaps 25% of the total [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/]. However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as the law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university. After the introduction of the Modern Language GCSE in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.
Latin education
The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the Living Latin movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the Vatican and the University of Kentucky. In Britain the Classical Association encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. In the United States there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the National Junior Classical League (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students. Many would-be international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful Interlingua considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (le latino moderne international e simplificate). Latin translations of modern literature such as Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, and The Cat in the Hat have also helped boost interest in the language.
See also

About the Latin language

- Latin grammar
- Latin spelling and pronunciation
- Latin declension
- Latin conjugation
- Latin alphabet
- List of Latin words with English derivatives
- Latin verbs with English derivatives
- Latin nouns with English derivatives
- ablative absolute
- Word order in Latin
About the Latin literary heritage

- Latin literature
- Romance languages
- Loeb Classical Library
- List of Latin phrases
- List of Latin proverbs
- Brocard
- List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
- List of Latin place names in Europe
- Carmen Possum
Other related topics

- Roman Empire
- Internationalism
References

- Bennett, Charles E. Latin Grammar (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
- N. Vincent: "Latin", in The Romance Languages, M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
- Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
- Wheelock, Frederic. Latin: An Introduction (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237
External links

- [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
- [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
- [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
- [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
- [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
- [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
- [http://augustinus.eresmas.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
- [http://www.learnlatin.tk LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin
- [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
- [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
- [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin–English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
- [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
- [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
- [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
- [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
- [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&type=text&text=Replace%20Me&from=eng&to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
- [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old & New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English. Category:Classical languages Category:Ancient languages Category:Fusional languages Category:Languages of Italy Category:Languages of Vatican City als:Latein zh-min-nan:Latin-gí ko:라틴어 ja:ラテン語 simple:Latin language th:ภาษาละติน

Vehicle

:This article is about the means of transport. For the political meaning, see electoral vehicle. For the economical meaning, see economic vehicle Vehicles are non-living means of transportation. They are most often man-made (e.g. cars, motorcycles, trains, ships, and aircraft), although some other means of transportation which are not made by man can also be called vehicles; examples include icebergs and floating tree trunks. Vehicles may be propelled by animals, e.g. a chariot or an ox-cart. However, animals on their own, though used as a means of transportation, are not called vehicles. This includes humans carrying another human, for example a child or a disabled person. Most land vehicles have wheels. Please see the wheel article for examples of vehicles with and without wheels. Movement without the help of a vehicle or an animal is called locomotion. The word vehicle itself comes from the Latin vehiculum. AVL stands for Automatic Vehicle Location.

Types of vehicles

- Aircraft
- Cars
- Auto rickshaws
- Boats
- Buses
- Coaches
- Motorcycles
- Trains
- Ships
- Vans
- Bicycles
- More...

External Links

- [http://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/ Green Vehicle Guide]
- [http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars Vehicle Information] Category:Transportation simple:Vehicle

Road

:This page is related to transport; you may be looking for the 2002 Bollywood movie Road. Road Road A road is a strip of land, smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel, connecting two or more destinations. Some roads are streets, chiefly in urban areas. In the context of railways (railroads in American English), a road is a single track, which may be part of a multi-track system or may be an isolated line. In the context of sea transport, a road is an anchorage.

Usage and etymology

anchorage In original usage, a "road" was simply any pathway fit for riding ("road" is cognate with "ride", e.g.: ships ride at anchor in roads). The word “street,” whose origin is the Latin strata, was kept for paved pathways that had been prepared to ease travel in some way. Thus, many "Roman Roads" have the word "street" as part of their street name. However, modern usage does not usually make this distinction and it is only important since place names often hold the earlier usage in them; these days, roads are also prepared in some way. This includes, at the least, the removal of trees and smoothing of the ground. In some dialects, lower grade roads are called trails and tracks and it is uncertain where "road" begins and trail ends. Roads are a prerequisite for road transport of goods on wheeled vehicles. The word “road” emphasizes its function of transportation along its length, while a “street” may be considered to have activity and commerce taking place on it (see street life). street life.]]

History

The first pathways were the trails made by migrating animals. By about 10,000 BC, these rough pathways were used by human hunter nomads following these herds. Street paving has been found from the first human settlements around 4,000 BC. The oldest engineered road discovered is the Sweet Track causeway in England, dating from the 3800 BC. The Ancient Egyptians constructed a stone paved road to help move materials for the building of the Great Pyramid in about 3000 BC. The ancient Chinese constructed an extensive system of roads, some paved, from about 1100 BC onwards. By 20 AD, the Chinese road network extended over 40,000km. The Incas built fine highways for couriers through the Andes, and the Mayans built an extensive network of paved roads in Mexico before the European discovery of the New World. In ancient times, transport by river was far easier and faster than travel by road, especially considering the cost of road construction and the difference in carrying capacity between carts and river barges. A hybrid of road transport and ship transport is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank. From about 300 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, in support of its military campaigns. Road construction and maintenance in Britain was traditionally done on a local parish basis. The poor and variable state of the roads that resulted lead to the first of the 'Turnpike Trusts' around 1706. These were formed to build good roads and collect tolls from passing vehicles. Eventually there were approximately 1,100 Trusts in Britain and some 38,000 km of engineered roads. Engineered roads in the age of horse drawn transport aimed for a maximum gradient of 1 in 30 on a macadamized surface since this was the steepest a horse could exert to pull a load up hill which it could manage easily on the flat. Notable road engineers from this period are Pierre Marie Jérôme Trésaguet (1716-1796) in France and John Loudon McAdam (1756-1836) in England. During the industrial revolution,the railway developed as a solution to the problem of rutting of the road surface by heavy carts. Instead of trying to build a strong surface across the whole road the cart was constrained to run either on rails or grooves which could be made of much stronger , wear resistant material. Today, roads are almost exclusively built to enable travel by car and other wheeled vehicles. In most countries, road transport is the most utilized way to move goods. Also, in most developed countries, roads are formally divided into lanes to ensure the safe and smooth movement of traffic.

Funding

Road building and maintenance is an area of economic activity (compare military spending) that remains dominated by the public sector (though often through private contractors). Roads (except those on private property not accessible to the general public) are typically paid for by taxes (often raised through levies on fuel), though some public roads, especially highways are funded by tolls.

Driving on the right or the left

Traffic drives on the right or on the left side of the road depending on the country. See Rules of the road. In countries where traffic drives on the right, traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road, roundabouts (traffic circles) go counter-clockwise, and pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic from the left first. In countries where traffic drives on the left, the reverse is true. Traffic flow and road design in both cases are each other's mirror image.

Design

Road design consists of two important technical aspects:
- geometrical road design
- structural road design Besides these two technical sides of the design, environmental issues, planning issues and juridical issues are important.

Construction

structural road design Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel. Removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) are often needed. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building. The soil is tested to see if it will support weight and if not, a layer of soil is removed and replaced. The soil is compacted to form what is known as a "base course". On top of the base course is placed a wearing course which consists of asphalt concrete or concrete. While the main purpose of the wearing course is to prevent moisture from entering the road, for safety reasons this wearing course must also be constructed to ensure adequate grip (and skid resistance) with vehicles. Modern roads, and indeed many ancient ones, such as those built by the Romans, feature a convex lateral surface known as camber. This is designed to allow water to drain away from the road to its edges. Water is then carried away by gutters to drains placed at intervals. Some roads don't have gutters and water simply drains away to a naturally porous verge, or into ditches. Modern roads that carry motor traffic also employ camber in curves to aid traffic stability by allowing them to "bank into" the bend to some extent. On the side of the road there may be retroreflectors on pegs, rocks or crash barriers, white toward the direction of the traffic on that side of the road, and red toward the other direction. In the road surface there may be cat's eyes: retroreflectors that protrude slightly, but which can be driven over without damage. Road signs are often also made retroreflective or even illuminated in rare circumstances. For greater visibility of road signs at daytime, sometimes fluorescence is applied to get very bright colors.

Maintenance

retroreflective]] Like all outdoor structures, roads deteriorate over time. They may develop cracks or potholes, or be washed away altogether by floods. Cracks can be filled with various sealants and potholes can be filled with fresh asphalt, but eventually a whole new surface is needed. Lack of maintenance speeds up the deterioration, especially in frost-prone areas, as water enters the cracks, and freezes under the road. The resulting ice has a bigger volume than the water, which causing a localized rising and falling (when the ice melts again) of the wearing course which can severely damage the road. Most European countries have strict standards for road construction that ensure that most roads should be able to go 30 years or longer between major resurfacings. The United States and many other countries have less stringent standards under which most roads last only 20 to 25 years. However, even those countries with stricter standards suffer from increasing levels of truck traffic, which is mainly responsible for road damage (see below). On any road, the load per vehicle axle passing over it is mainly responsible for the amount of wear. According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined that the effective wear done to the road is roughly proportional to the 4th power of vehicle weight. As a result, truck traffic almost always is the exclusive 'real' cause of road damage. In an example, a hypothetical car weighs half a ton per axle. A 6-axle, 38-ton truck also travelling on the same road weighs in at over 6 tons per axle. The truck causes 20,736 times the wear of the car (12 times the car's axle load, with a power of 4, yielding 12^4 = 20,736). Actual trucks can have even higher axle loads, though there is a wide variation in the configuration of trucks, with some having larger, wider tyres, or multiple tyres per axle, which will cause the exact figures to vary. While such figures sound dramatic, it should be realised that a single car causes almost no wear at all, so 20,000 times this figure still may not be very high. The wear is only measurable over an extended period.

Terminology

AASHO Road Test]
- arterial road
- asphalt
- autobahn
- autoroute
- autostrasse
- bitumen
- byway
- bypass
- bottleneck
- boulevard
- cat's eye
- chicane
- concrete
- corduroy road
- corniche
- cul-de-sac
- curb extension
- dirt road
- divided highway
- expressway
- farm to market
- freeway
- gravel road
- guard rail
- green lane green lane
- hard shoulder
- highway
- Interchange
- Intersection
- Interstate
- lane
- median
- mountain pass
- milestone
- motorway
- off-ramp
- on-ramp
- Parkway
- pavement
- pavement markings
- pedestrian crossing
- performance
- plank road
- private highway
- private road
- public road
- public space
- ranch road
- range road
- ridge road
- road number
- road safety
- road junction
- roadworks roadworks, England. A British Airways Boeing 777-200 is being towed across a public road on its way to the maintenance hangars.]]
- roundabout intersection
- rural route
- state highway
- street
- super-highway
- toll road
- traffic calming
- traffic circle
- traffic light
- traffic sign
- US highway
- winter road

References

- Lay MG, Ways of the world. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, (1992). ISBN 0813517583 .

External links

- [http://www.2pass.co.uk/goodluck.htm List of countries where traffic drives on the left, as well as historical background.]
- [http://www.travel-library.com/general/driving/drive_which_side.html Which side of the road do they drive on?]
- [http://www.ce.ksu.edu/facultystaff/stefan/ce777/docs/L02.pdf Kansas State University Department of Civil Engineering - History of Concrete Road Building] (PDF file) Category:Road infrastructure Category:Road transport ja:道路 simple:Road th:ถนน

Canal

, France]] France] Canals are man-made waterways, usually connecting existing lakes, rivers, or oceans. Irrigation canals are man-made waterways for the delivery of water and preceded the use of transportation canals used by barges or narrowboats on smaller canals, and by ships on ship canals that connect to the ocean. The oldest-known canals were built in Mesopotamia, c. 4000 BC. Ancient canals in the West were dwarfed by the Grand Canal of China, the longest canal built in ancient times. In Europe and then in the young United States, inland canals preceded the development of railroads during the earliest phase of the Industrial Revolution; some canals were later drained and used as railroad rights-of-way. Navigable canals reached into previously isolated areas and brought them in touch with the world economy. The Erie Canal, for instance, opened up a connection from the populated Northeast to the fertile Great Plains. Erie Canal] The pace of draining of fenland and polder in the Low Countries quickened in the 14th century and canalization made the village of Amsterdam a port. Canals are so deeply identified with Venice that many cities that have canals used as waterways have been called "the Venice of..." Some rivers have also been 'canalised' to make them navigable. Competition from the railroad network made many canals obsolete for commercial transportation, and many fell into decay. A movement that began in Britain and France to use the picturesque early industrial canals for pleasure boats has spurred rehabilitation of stretches of historic canals. Canals have found another use in the 21st century, as wayleaves for fibre optic telecommunications networks.

Miscellaneous

For a time in the early 20th century, it was believed that there were canals on Mars. canals on Mars

Famous canals and lists

- List of waterways
- Canals of Ireland
- List of canals in the United States
- Canals of the United Kingdom
- Suez Canal
- Panama Canal
- Corinth Canal
- Venice
- Amsterdam
- Welland Canal - Central Canada
- Saint Lawrence Seaway - Quebec, Ontario, Canada
- Rideau Canal - Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Shubie Canal - Nova Scotia, Canada

Pipeline transport

] Pipeline transport is a transportation of goods through a tube. Most commonly, liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes that transport solid capsules using compressed air have also been used. As for gases and liquids, any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline. Therefore sewage, slurry, water, or even beer pipelines exist; but arguably the most important are those transporting oil and natural gas. Often these pipelines are inspected and cleaned using Pipeline Inspection Gauges ('pigs').

Oil and natural gas pipelines

When talking about the transportation of large quantities of oil or natural gas on the surface, pipeline transport is the only economically feasible way. Compared to railroad, it has lower cost per unit and also higher capacity. Although pipelines can be built even under the sea, that process is both economically and technically very demanding, so the majority of oil at sea is transported by tanker ships. Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes with inner diameter from 30 to 120 cm (about 12 to 47 inches). Where possible, they are built above the surface. However, in more developed, urban or environmentally sensitive areas they are buried underground at a typical depth of about 1 metre (about 3 feet). The oil is kept in motion by a system of pump stations built along the pipeline and usually flows at speed of about 1 to 6 m/s. Multi-product pipelines are used to transport two or more different products in sequence in the same pipeline. Usually in multi-product pipelines there is no physical separation between the different products. Some mixing of adjacent products occurs to produce interface. This interface is removed from the pipeline at receiving facilities and segregated to prevent contamination. For natural gas, smaller feeder lines are used to distribute the fuel to homes and businesses. Government regulations in Canada and the United States require that buried fuel pipelines must be protected from corrosion. Often the most economical method of corrosion control is by use of pipeline coating in conjunction with cathodic protection.

Accidents

Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material such as natural gas or oil pose special safety concerns.
- June 4, 1989 - sparks from two passing trains detonated gas leaking from an LPG pipeline near Ufa, Russia. Up to 645 people were reported killed.
- October 17, 1998 - at Jesse in the Niger Delta in Nigeria, a petroleum pipeline exploded killing about 1200 villagers, some of whom were scavenging gasoline - the worst of several similar incidents in this country.
- June 10, 1999 - a pipeline in a Bellingham, Washington park leaked gasoline, vapor from leak exploded and killed 2 children
- July 30, 2004 - a major natural gas pipeline exploded in Ghislenghien, Belgium near Ath (thirty kilometres southwest of Brussels), killing at least 23 people and leaving 122 wounded, some critically. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml;jsessionid=HXJX3BKM0LDU0CRBAE0CFFA?type=worldNews&storyID=5832363 (Reuters)] [http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/07/30/belgium.gas.blast/index.html (CNN)]

List of pipelines

- Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline (BTC)
- Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline Project
- Colonial Pipeline
- Druzhba pipeline
- Lakehead Pipeline
- Odessa-Brody pipeline
- Operation Pluto - world's first undersea oil pipeline (1942)
- Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline (TAP)
- Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS)
- Trans-Israel pipeline
- Trans Korea Pipeline (TKP)
- South-North Pipeline (SNP) in South Korea NATO maintains a pipeline network supplying its airfields in Central Europe.

Pipelines for other liquids and gases

Water pipelines

Pipelines are useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigation over long distances when it needs to move over hills, or where canals or channels are poor choices due to considerations of evaporation, pollution, or environmental impact. Example significant water pipelines in South Australia are the Morgan-Whyalla (completed 1944) and Mannum-Adelaide [http://www.sawater.com.au/SAWater/AboutUs/InTheCommunity/Mannum+Adelaide+Pipeline.htm] (completed 1955) pipelines.

Beverage pipelines

Beer pipelines

Bars in the Veltins-Arena, a major football ground in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, are interconnected by a 5 km long beer pipeline. It is the favourite method for distributing beer in such large stadiums, because the bars have to overcome big differences between demands during various stages of a match; this allows them to be supplied by a central tank.

Airport

An airport is a facility where aircraft can take off and land. At the very minimum, an airport consists of one runway (or helipad), but other common components are hangars and terminal buildings. Apart from these, an airport may have a variety of facilities and infrastructure, including fixed base operator services, air traffic control, passenger facilities such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services. A military airport is known as an airbase in North American terminology (other countries may use the term airfield or air station in current parlance). The terms airfield and airstrip may also be used to refer to a facility that has nothing more than a runway. The term aerodrome refers to any surface used for take off or landing. The term airport refers to an aerodrome that is licensed by the responsible government organization (ie FAA, Transport Canada). Airports have to be maintained to higher safety standards. There is usually no minimum standards for a basic aerodrome.

Attributes

Airports vary in size, with smaller or less-developed airports often having only a single runway shorter than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Larger airports for international flights generally have paved runways 2,000 m (6,600 ft) or longer. Many small airports have dirt, grass, or gravel runways, rather than asphalt or concrete. In the United States, the minimum dimensions for dry, hard landing fields are defined by the FAR Landing And Takeoff Field Lengths. These include considerations for safety margins during landing and takeoff. Typically heavier aircraft require longer runways. The longest public-use runway in the world is at Ulyanovsk-Vostochny International Airport, in Ulyanovsk, Russia. It has a length of 16,404ft. As of 2005, there were approximately 50,000 airports around the world, including 19,815 in the United States alone.

Airport structures

Russia Airports are divided into landside and airside areas. Landside areas include parking lots, tank farms and access roads. Airside areas include all areas accessible to aircraft, including runways, taxiways and ramps. Access from landside areas to airside areas is tightly controlled at most airports. Passengers on commercial flights access airside areas through terminals, where they can purchase tickets, clear security, check or claim luggage and board aircraft. The waiting areas which provide passenger access to aircraft are typically called concourses, although this term is often used interchangeably with terminal. The area where aircraft park next to a terminal to load passengers and baggage is known as a ramp. Parking areas for aircraft away from terminals are generally called aprons. Both large and small airports can be towered or uncontrolled, depending on air traffic density and available funds. Due to their high capacity and busy airspace, most international airports have air traffic control located on site.

International airports

Customs facilities for international flights define an international airport, and often require a more conspicuous level of physical security. International airports generally have a complex of buildings where passengers can embark on airliners, and where cargo can be stored and loaded. The largest international airports are often located next to freeways or are served by their own freeways. Often, traffic is fed into two access roads, designed as loops, one sitting on top of the other. One level is for departing passengers and the other is for arrivals. Many airports also have light rail lines or other mass transit systems directly connected to the main terminals.

Shops and food services

mass transits.]] Most international airports have shops and food courts. These services usually provide the passengers food and drinks before they board their flight. Many recognizable chain food restaurants have opened branches in large airports to serve often hungry passengers. London's Heathrow Airport, for example, is home to both a Harrods and a Hamleys Toy Shop, providing Duty Free for international passangers. International areas usually have a duty-free shop where travellers are not required to pay the usual duty fees on items. Larger airlines often operate member-only lounges for premium passengers. Airports have a captive audience, and consequently the prices charged for food is generally higher than are available elsewhere in the region. However, some airports now regulate food costs to keep them comparable to so-called "street prices". captive audience

Cargo and freight services

In addition to people, airports are responsible for moving large volumes of cargo around the clock. Cargo airlines often have their own on-site and adjecent infrastructure to rapidly transfer parcels between ground and air modes of transportation.

Support services

Aircraft maintenance, pilot services, aircraft rental, and hangar rental are most often performed by a fixed base operator (FBO). At major airports, particularly those used as hubs, airlines may operate their own support facilities.

History and development

The earliest airplane landing sites were simply open, grassy fields. The plane could approach at any angle that provided a favorable wind direction. Early airfields were often built for the purpose of entertainment. These aerodromes consisted of a grassy field, with hangar for storage and servicing of airplanes, and observation stands for the visitors. Increased aircraft traffic during World War I led to the construction of regular landing fields. Airplanes had to approach these from certain directions. This led to the development of aids for directing the approach and landing slope. Following the war, some of these military airfields added commercial facilities for handling passenger traffic. One of the earliest such fields was Le Bourget, near Paris. The first international airport to open was the Croydon Airport, in South London [http://www.sutton.gov.uk/leisure/heritage/croydon+airport.htm]. In 1922, the first permanent airport and commercial terminal solely for commercial aviation was built at Königsberg, Germany. The airports of this era used a paved "apron", which permitted night flying as well as landing heavier airplanes. The first lighting used on an airport was during the later part of the 1920s; in the 1930s approach lighting came into use. These indicated the proper direction and angle of descent. The colors and flash intervals of these lights became standardized under the ICAO. In the 1940s, the slope-line approach system was introduced. This consisted of two rows of lights that formed a funnel indicating an aircraft's position on the glideslope. Additional lights indicated incorrect altitude and direction. Following World War II, airport design began to become more sophisticated. Passenger buildings were being grouped together in an island, with runways arranged in groups about the terminal. This arrangement permitted expansion of the facilities. But it also meant that passengers had to travel further to reach their plane.

Airport designation and naming

Airports are uniquely represented by their IATA airport code and ICAO airport code. IATA airport codes are often, but not always, abbreviated forms of the common name of the airport, such as PHL for Philadelphia International Airport. Exceptions to this rule often occur when an airport's name is changed. O'Hare International Airport in Chicago, Illinois retains the IATA code ORD, from its former name of Orchard Field. In many countries airports are often named after a prominent national celebrity, commonly a politician, e.g. John F. Kennedy International Airport, Indira Gandhi International Airport or Charles de Gaulle International Airport.

Airport security

Airports are required to have safety precautions in most countries. Rules vary in different countries, but there are common elements worldwide. Airport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, airport security has been dramatically increased worldwide.

Airport operations

Outside the terminal, there is a large team of people who work in concert to ensure aircraft can land, take off, and move around quickly and safely. These processes are largely invisible to passengers, but they can be extraordinarily complex at large airports.

Air traffic control

Air traffic control (or ATC) is system whereby ground-based controllers direct aircraft movements, usually via radio. This coordinated oversight facilitates safety and speed in complex operations where traffic moves in all three dimensions. Air traffic control responsibilities at airports are usually divided into two main areas: ground and tower. radio.]] Ground Control is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated "movement areas," except the traffic on runways. This includes planes, baggage trains, snowplows, grass cutters, fuel trucks, and a wide array of other vehicles. Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use, which runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it is safe to cross runways. When a plane is ready to take off it will stop short of the runway, at which point it will be turned over to Tower Control. After a plane has landed, it will depart the runway and be returned to Ground Control. Tower Control controls aircraft on the runway and in the controlled airspace immediately surrounding the airport. Tower controllers use radar to identify and accurately locate an aircraft's position in three-dimensional space. They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and direct aircraft on how to safely join and leave the circuit. Aircraft which are only passing through the airspace must also contact Tower Control in order to be sure that they remain clear of other traffic and do not disrupt operations.

Traffic pattern

radar Smaller airports and military airfields use a traffic pattern to assure smooth traffic flow between departing and arriving aircraft. Generally, this pattern is a circuit consisting of five "legs" that form a rectangle (two legs and the runway form one side, with the remaining legs each form another side). Each leg is named (see diagram), and ATC directs pilots on how to join and leave the circuit. Traffic patterns are flown at one specific altitude, usually 1000 ft AGL. Most traffic patterns are left-handed, meaning all turns are made to the left. Right-handed patterns do exist, usually because of obstacles such as a mountain or to reduce noise for local residents. The predetermined circuit helps pilots look for other aircraft, and helps reduce the chance of a mid-air collision. At extremely large airports, a circuit is not usually used. Rather, ATC schedules aircraft for landing while they are still hours away from the airport. Airplanes can then take the most direct approach to the runway and land without worrying about interference from other aircraft. While this system keeps the airspace free and is simpler for pilots, it requires detailed knowledge of how aircraft are planning to use the airport ahead of time and is therefore only possible with large commercial airliners on pre-scheduled flights. The system has recently become so advanced that controllers can predict whether an aircraft will be delayed on landing before it even takes off; that aircraft can then be delayed on the ground, rather than wasting expensive fuel waiting in the air.

Navigational aids

Before takeoff, pilots usually check an Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) for information about airport conditions where they exist. The ATIS contains information about weather, which runway and traffic patterns are in use, and other information that pilots should be aware of. When flying, there are a number of aids available to pilots, though not all airports are equipped with them. A VASI helps pilots fly a perfect approach for landing once they have found the airport. Some airports are equipped with a VOR to help pilots find the direction to the airport, VORs are often accompanied by a DME to determine the distance to the airport. In poor weather, pilots will use an Instrument Landing System to find the runway and fly the correct approach, even if they cannot see the ground. Larger airports sometimes offer Precision Approach Radar (PAR). The aircraft's horizontal and vertical movement is tracked via radar, and the controller tells the pilot his position relative to the approach slope. Once the pilots can see the runway lights, they may continue with a visual landing.

Guidance signs

approach slope Airport guidance signs provide direction and information to taxiing aircraft and airport vehicles and assist in safe and expedient movement of aircraft. Smaller airports may have few or no signs, relying instead on airport diagrams and charts. There are two classes of signage at airports, with several types of each:

Operational guidance signs

- Location signs - yellow on black background. Identifies the runway or taxiway currently on or entering.
- Direction/Runway Exit signs - black on yellow. Identifies the intersecting taxiways the aircraft is approaching, with an arrow indicating the direction to turn.
- Other - Many airports use conventional traffic signs such as stop and yield signs throughout the airport.

Mandatory instruction signs

Madatory instruction signs are white on red. They show entrances to runways or critical areas. Vehicles and aircraft are required to stop at these signs until the control tower gives clearance to proceed.
- Runway signs - White on a red. These signs simply identify a runway intersection ahead.
- Frequency Change signs - Usually a stop sign and an instruction to change to another frequency. These signs are used at airports with different areas of ground control.
- Holding Position signs - A single solid yellow bar across a taxiway indicates a position where ground control may require a stop. If a two solid yellow bars and two dashed yellow bars are encountered, this indicates a holding position for a runway intersection ahead; runway holding lines must never be crossed without permission. At some airports, a line of red lights across a taxiway is used during low visibility operations to indicate holding positions.

Lighting

Many airports have lighting that help guide planes using the runways and taxiways at night or in rain or fog. On runways, green lights indicate the beginning of the runway for landing, while red lights indicate the end of the runway. Runway edge lighting is white lights spaced out on both sides of the runway, indicating the edge. Some airports have more complicated lighting on the runways including lights that run down the centerline of the runway and lights that help indicate the approach. Low-traffic airports may use Pilot Controlled Lighting to save electricity and staffing costs. Along taxiways, blue lights indicate the taxiway's edge, and some airports have embedded green lights that indicate the centerline.

Wind indicators

Planes take-off and land into the wind in order to achieve maximum performance. Wind speed and direction information is available through the ATIS or ATC, but pilots need instantaneous information during landing. For this purpose, a windsock is kept in view of the runway.

Safety management

Air safety is an important concern in the operation of an airport, and almost every airfield includes equipment and procedures for handling emergency situations. Commercial airfields include one or more emergency vehicles and their crew that are specially equipped for dealing with airfield accidents, crew and passenger extractions, and the hazards of highly flammable airplane fuel. The crews are also trained to deal with situations such as bomb threats, hijacking, and terrorist activities. Potential airfield hazards to aircraft include debris, nesting birds, and environmental conditions such as ice or snow. The fields must be kept clear of debris using cleaning equipment so that loose material doesn't become a projectile and enter an engine duct. Similar concerns apply to birds nesting near an airfield, and crews often need to discourage birds from taking up residence. In adverse weather conditions, ice and snow clearing equipment can be used to improve traction on the landing strip. For waiting aircraft, equipment is used to spray special deicing fluids on the wings. During the 1980s, a phenomenon known as microburst became a growing concern due to accidents caused by microburst wind shear. (For example, see Delta Air Lines Flight 191.) Microburst radar was developed as an aid to safety during landing, giving two to five minutes warning to aircraft in the vicinity of the field of an microburst event.

Environmental concerns

The traffic generated by airports both in the air and on the surface can be a major source of aviation noise and air pollution which may interrupt nearby residents' sleep or, in extreme cases, be harmful to their health . The construction of new airports, or addition of runways to existing airports, is often resisted by local residents because of the effect on the countryside, historical sites, local flora and fauna. As well, due to the risk of collision between birds and airplanes, large airports undertake population control programs where they frighten or shoot birds to ensure the safety of air travellers. The construction of airports has been known to change local weather patterns. For example, because they often flatten out large areas, they can be succeptible to fog in areas where fog rarely forms. In addition, because they generally replace trees and grass with pavement, they often change drainage patterns in agricultural areas, leading to more flooding, run-off and erosion in the surrounding land.

Military Airbase

An Airbase, sometimes referred to as a military airport or airfield, provides basing and support of military aircraft. Some airbases provide facilites similar to their civilian counterparts. For example, RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire, England has a terminal which caters to passengers for the Royal Air Force's scheduled Tristar flights to the Falkland Islands. A special military airfield is an Aircraft Carrier.

Aircraft Carriers

An aircraft carrier is a warship that functions as a floating airport for military aircraft. Aircraft carriers allow a naval force to project air power great distances without having to depend on local bases for land-based aircraft. After their development in World War II, aircraft carriers rapidly replaced the battleship as the centrepiece of a modern fleet. Unescorted carriers are considered vulnerable to missile or submarine attacks and therefore travel as part of a carrier battle group that includes a wide array of other ships with specific functions.

Airports in Entertainment

Airports have occasionally played major roles in motion pictures and television shows due to being transportation hubs, but also because of their unique characteristics. One such example of this is the movie The Terminal, a film about a man who becomes permanently grounded in an airport terminal and must survive only on the food and shelter provided by the airport. If nothing else, this movie demonstrates the sustaining properties of airport terminals. Movies such as Airplane!, Airport, Die Hard II, Jackie Brown, and Get Shorty also revolve around the unique culture of the major city airports.

Airport Directories

Each national aviation authority has its own system for pilots to be able to keep track of information about airports in their country.
- The United States uses the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), seven volumes that contain information such as elevation, airport lighting, runway information, communications, hours of operation, nearby NAVAIDs and much more.
- In Canada, a single publication, the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) provides equivalent information.

External links

- [http://www.airnav.com/airports/ AirNav.com] - complete list of U.S. airports, with detailed airport information
- [http://www.pspda.com/efad.html eFAD] - the most powerful electronic airport directory (A/FD) on earth!
- [http://www.fly.faa.gov/flyfaa/usmap.jsp ATCSCC Real-time Airport Status page] - shows airport delay times for major U.S. airports
- [http://www.africaspotter.at.tt AFRICASPOTTER.at.tt] - Airports in Southern Africa
- [http://www.fortliberty.org/american-politics/airport-security.shtml U.S. airport security]
- [http://www.dft.gov.uk Department for Transport] (United Kingdom)
- [http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Government_Role/landing_nav/POL14.htm History of Aircraft Landing Aids]
- [http://www.numlink.com Airport satellite images] Category:Aviation Category:Transport infrastructure Category:Buildings and structures ko:공항 ms:Lapangan terbang ja:空港 simple:Airport th:สนามบิน

Bus station

:For other meanings, see Bus stop (disambiguation). A bus stop is a place where a public transport bus stops for the purpose of allowing passengers to board or leave the bus. The simplest kind can be just a sign saying "bus stop", or it can be a post with special colouring or other marks identifying it as a bus stop; however, line numbers and/or destinations are often indicated. The times the bus departs may be given, or the whole timetable for the lines involved. A map of the bus lines and tariff information may be provided. Electronic signs may be present to tell real-time when the next bus will come, regardless of schedules; NextBus is one such system. A recent innovation in London is the addition of automatic terminals to buy tickets from: these save time when boarding. In many places the signs themselves are covered in operators stickers. Sometimes, these stickers are out of date or misleading. Defunct routes can get left up further confusing people. There may be a shelter, a bench, lighting and a garbage receptacle. These components have the general term street furniture. There are two main kinds of stops:
- Scheduled stop: The bus arrives at the stop at a set time, at which point it allows some or all passengers to disembark and lets those waiting at the stop board. It departs at another set time later.
- Request or flag stop: The bus does not come to a halt unless it is signalled to do so. Passengers may signal either by pressing a button or pulling a cord, or by verbally alerting the driver. A person waiting at the stop may be required to flag down the bus (no sign may be present), or his/her presence may be sufficient. Some bus stops have a button which controls a traffic signal for the bus at some distance before the stop. A "demand stop" is a variant of a request stop in which a bus passenger tells the driver to leave them off at a specific bus stop, otherwise the bus will not travel to the bus stop. People are not picked up at a "demand stop", only let off the bus. A location with a large number of bus stops is called a bus station, bus interchange, bus depot, or transportation center; in the case of an end destination it may be called a terminal station. It also may house one or more stations for other forms of mass transit, such as a train station. It may have a waiting room instead of just shelters. (In the UK a bus stop is a single place where one or more buses stop; a bus station is a building which buses stop at, commonly facilities for drivers and passengers, a ticket office, refreshment outlets and a waiting room will be provided; and a bus depot is a storage area and garage for buses, used when the buses are not in operation. A location containing more than one form of transport is more commonly referred to as an interchange in the UK.) Platforms may be assigned to fixed bus lines, or variable in combination with a dynamic passenger information system [http://www.vialis.nl/engels_vialis/content3-1-17.htm]. The latter requires fewer platforms, but does not supply the passenger the comfort of knowing the platform well in advance and waiting there. interchange In bus rapid transit systems, bus stops may be more elaborate. They may have enclosed areas to allow the collection of fares prior to the arrival of the bus. This allows for rapid boarding of the bus using all doors on the bus instead of queueing through the front doors and paying fares. The most famous such system is in Curitiba, Brazil.

Bus stop placement

Historically bus stops have been placed in the roadway. In cases where on street parking is allowed, having a bus stopped in the lane closest to the curb usually does not pose a problem. In cases where on street parking is not allowed, the stopped bus closes a travel lane to all traffic. To prevent this, a bus turnout is sometimes used to allow the bus to stop without blocking a traffic lane.

Bus stop location

bus turnout Bus stops are typically located to provide a balance of bus passenger convenience and vehicle operating efficiency. Having too many bus stops along a bus line results in slow and unreliable service, whereas too few bus stops means that many passengers will have to walk a long way to get to their bus. A number of research efforts have concluded that the optimal bus stop spacing for most transit routes is somewhere between 1000-2000 feet (300-600m). Many transit agencies have developed guidelines for preferred bus stop spacing. In Seattle, Washington, King County Metro’s guidelines call for an ideal stop spacing of 4-6 stops per mile in an urban environment, to achieve the proper balance of service coverage and vehicle performance. TriMet, in Portland, Oregon, uses bus stop spacing guidelines of every 3 blocks or 780' (240m) in dense areas, and every 4 blocks or 1000' in medium to low density areas. The Public Transport Council in Singapore uses a guideline of 400m - 350m (1300ft - 1150ft) spacing between bus stops. The Milwaukee (Wisconsin) County Transit System (MCTS) has bus stops every two (2) blocks. In most U.S. Cities, however, the typical bus stop spacing is between 650 and 900 feet (200-275 m), well below the optimal. Often the existing pattern of stops is the result of a reactive process spanning many decades. New bus stops are commonly installed in response to citizen requests or complaints in a reactive manner without consideration of the corridor-level context. Then, as people become accustomed to established bus stop locations, removal of existing bus stops can be a painful process, even if the original purpose for a bus stop is no longer an issue. After several decades of reactive process without corridor-level vision, an over-saturation of bus stops can result. U.S.]] Transit agencies are increasingly looking at bus stop consolidation as a way to improve service cheaply and easily. Bus stop consolidation is the process of evaluating the bus stop pattern along an established bus route and developing a new pattern for optimal bus stop placement. Bus stop consolidation involves evaluating each bus stop and identifying critical stops, stops that could be removed or combined, and stops that could be moved for better service. The goal of bus stop consolidation is to create a good balance of service accessibility, transit vehicle performance/schedule reliability, and investment in public facilities. Bus stop consolidation has been proven to improve operating efficiency and ridership on bus routes.

Bus stops in music

A 1966 hit song by The Hollies by the title of "Bus Stop" describes a romantic relationship that starts by sharing an umbrella at a bus stop.

External links

- [http://www.topofthestops.co.uk Top of the Stops] - A site dedicated to British Bus stops
- [http://www.the-bus-stops-here.org/ The Bus Stops Here] - Same premise, with more of a U.S. focus
- [http://www.dtgrafic.com/e/index.html Bus Stop Screensaver]
- [http://prahamhd.vhd.cz/zastavky.htm Bus Stops in Prague (Czech republic)] Category:Bus transport
- Category:Street furniture ja:バス停留所

Seaport

]] A port is a facility at the edge of an ocean, river, or lake for receiving ships and transferring cargo and persons to them. Ports have specially-designed equipment to help in the loading and unloading of these vessels. Cranes and refrigerated storage may be provided by private interests or public bodies. Often, canneries or other processing facilities will be located very close by. Ports tend to be divided into container terminals. The term seaport is used for ports that handle ocean-going vessels, and river port is used for facilities that handle river traffic. Sometimes a port on a lake or river also has access to the ocean, and is then referred to as an inland port. A fishing port is a type of port or harbor facility particularly suitable for landing and distributing fish. A dry port is a term sometimes used to describe a yard used to place containers or conventional bulk cargo, usually connected to a seaport by rail or road. While the term airport is derived from port, such places are never referred to as ports, except when international airports (as well as some land border crossings) are referred to as ports of entry. The presence of deep

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Airport structures

International airports

Shops and food services

Cargo and freight services

Support services

History and development

Airport designation and naming

Airport security

Airport operations

Air traffic control

Traffic pattern

Navigational aids

Guidance signs

Operational guidance signs

Mandatory instruction signs

Lighting

Wind indicators

Safety management

Environmental concerns

Military Airbase

Aircraft Carriers

Airports in Entertainment

Airport Directories

See also

External links

Bus station