La historio ampleksas ĉiujn pasintajn okazaĵojn kaj la evoluojn de homoj, popoloj, komunumoj, socioj, civilizoj, landoj, ŝtatoj,regantoj kaj regatoj. La historion studas historiologio (=scienco pri historio/historiscienco). Laŭ pri strikta difino oni nomas historion nur tion, kio estas pruvebla per dokumentoj. Tiusence, la historia tempo komenciĝis nur, kiam aperis skribitajinformoj. Tamen eblas esplori ankaŭ la antaŭan (senskriban) tempon; ĝin oni nomas antaŭhistorio aŭ prahistorio.
(NB! Por historioj de lingvo, teatro ktp., vd. je la koncernataj artikoloj.)
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:Historio de Scienco kaj Teknologio
Historio > Jarcentoj
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Jarcento ampleksas tempon de 100 jaroj.
La jarcentoj post Kristo do komenciĝas je la 1-a de januaro de jaro ..01 kaj finiĝas je la 31-a de decembro ..00. Ekzemple la 20-a jarcento daŭris de la 1-a de januaro1901 ĝis la 31-a de decembro 2000. Tiu oficiala difino ne kongruas kun la populara difino, kiu emas festi la ŝanĝon de la jarcenta cifero en la jarnumero, ekzemple je jarŝanĝo 1999/2000.
La jarcentoj antaŭ Kristo (kiam la Gregoria kalendaro ne estis konata) komenciĝis je la 1-a de januaro de iu jaro ..00 kaj daŭris ĝis la 31-a de decembro ..01. Ekzemple la unua jarcento antaŭ Kristo komenciĝis je la 1-a de januaro -100 kaj daŭris ĝis la 31-a de decembro -1. La sekvan tagon, la 1-an de januaro 1, komenciĝis la unua jarcento post Kristo.
Jarcentoj antaŭ kaj post Kristo:
Kategorio:Tempoja:年表simple:Century
Shoe polish (or boot polish) is a consumer product chiefly used to shine, waterproof, and restore the appearance of leathershoes, thereby extending the garment's life. It is usually a waxy paste or a cream.
Various substances have been used as shoe polish for many hundreds of years, starting with natural substances such as wax and tallow. The first modern shoe polish, Kiwi, was invented in 1906 and is still the most widely used today. Since World War II, shoe polish usage has increased significantly.
Today, shoe polish is usually made from a mix of natural and synthetic materials, including naphtha, turpentine, dyes, and gum arabic, using fairly straightforward chemical engineering processes. If misused, shoe polish can be toxic.
Usage
toxic
Shoe polish generally takes the form of a waxy paste or a cream and is applied to the shoe using a rag, cloth, or brush. Shoe polish is not a cleaning product, and therefore the footwear should be both clean and dry before application. A vigorous rubbing action to apply the polish evenly on the boot, followed by further buffing with a clean, dry cloth or brush usually provides good results.
Shoe polish may also be purchased pre-soaked into a hard sponge, which can be used to buff leather without needing to apply any additional polish to the leather, or to the sponge. This is usually known as an applicator. A number of companies that manufacture shoe care products also sell a liquid shoe polish in a squeezable plastic bottle, with a small sponge applicator at the end. Bottled polish usually has a very low wax content to increase its viscosity.
There are many products closely related to shoe polish, but would not strictly be considered the same product. Other chemical products may be used to clean and shine shoes — in particular whiteners for white shoes, and a variety of sprays and aerosols for cleaning and waterproofing suede shoes.
Although shoe polish is primarily intended for leather shoes, some brands specify that they may also be used on other non-porous materials, such as vinyl. The polish is generally the same colour as the shoes it will be used upon, or it may be neutral, lacking any intrinsic colour.
Because of its viscosity, shoe polish can also be used as a make-shift lubricant. In the early days of baseball, some pitchers were caught using shoe polish to doctor the ball.
Shoe polish is also used as instant camouflage, and was also often used as such to blacken people's faces, such as in blackface performances in minstrel shows in the United States and the United Kingdom in the 1950s and 1960s. In some southern African countries, wooden figurines are produced as "authentic" local crafts to sell to tourists. Formerly, these were made from ebony. However, as ebony becomes increasingly scarce and costly, artists must often resort to using shoe polish as a stain to artificially darken the sculpted wood. It also gives the wood product a polished finish.
History
Pre-1906
intoxicating]
Since medieval times, dubbin, a waxy product, was used to soften and waterproof leather; however, it did not impart shine. It was made from natural wax, oil and tallow. As leather with a high natural veneer became popular in the 18th century, a high glossy finish became important, particularly on shoes and boots. In most cases, a variety of homemade polishes were used to provide this finish, often with lanolin or beeswax as a base.
In the 19th century, many forms of shoe polish became available, yet were rarely referred to as shoe polish or boot polish. Instead, they were often called blacking or dubbin (often incorrectly; dubbin is a different product). Tallow, an animal by-product, was used to manufacture a simple form of shoe polish at this time. Chicago, Illinois, where 82 percent of the meat consumed in the United States was processed, became a major shoe polish producing area for this reason.
Prior to 1906, shoe polish was not well known as a purchasable product, nor was it particularly sophisticated. While sales were not especially high, a few brands, like Nugget, were available in England during the 1800s. The practice of shining people’s shoes gradually caught on and soon many shoeshine boys in the city streets were offering shoe shines using a basic form of shoe polish along with a polishing cloth.
Invention
Scottish expatriates William Ramsay and Hamilton McKellan began making "boot polish" in a small factory in 1904 in Melbourne, Australia. Their formula was new, but they worked on further improvements. Ramsay launched Kiwi in 1906 and began marketing it in Melbourne. Ramsey would load boxes of his boot polish on his horse and wagon, and sell it to ranchers to protect their boots.
He named the shoe polish after the kiwi, the national bird of New Zealand; Ramsay's wife, Annie Elizabeth Meek Ramsay, was a native of Oamaru, New Zealand.
Kiwi was a major improvement on previous brands. It preserved shoe leather, made leather shine, and restored colour. By the time Kiwi Dark Tan was released in 1908, it incorporated agents that added suppleness and water resistance. Australian-made boot polish was then considered the world's best. Black and a range of colours became available, and exports to Britain, continental Europe, and New Zealand began.
A rival brand of the time was Cobra Boot Polish, based in Sydney. Cobra was noted for a series of cartoon advertisements in The Sydney Bulletin, starting in 1909, using a character called "Chunder Loo of Akim Foo." (The word chunder, meaning "to vomit", possibily originated through the rhyming slang of Chunder Loo and spew.)
Surge in popularity
rhyming slang
At the end of the 19th century, leathershoes and boots became affordable to the masses, and with the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the demand for large numbers of polished army boots led to a need in the market for a product that would allow boots to be polished quickly, efficiently and easily. The polish was also used to shine leather belts and horse tacks. This demand led to a rapid increase in the sales of shoe and boot polish. The popularity of Kiwi shoe polish spread throughout the British Commonwealth and the United States. Rival brands began to emerge, including Shinola (United States), Cherry Blossom (United Kingdom), Parwa (India), Cirage (France), and many others. Advertising became more prominent, many using fictional figures and historical characters.
Shoe polish was to be found just about everywhere Allied troops ventured. American war correspondent Walter Graeber wrote for TIME magazine from the Tobruk trenches in 1942 that "old tins of British-made Kiwi polish lay side by side with empty bottles of Chianti." A story indicative of the rise in global significance of shoe polish is told by Jean (Gertrude) Williams, a New Zealander who lived in Japan during the Allied occupation straight after World War II. American soldiers were then finding the dullness of their boots and shoes to be a handicap when trying to win the affections of Japanese women.
When the British Commonwealth Occupation Forces arrived in Japan—all with boots polished to a degree not known in the U.S. forces—the G.I.s were more conscious than ever of their feet. The secret was found to rest not only in spit and polish, but in the superior Australian boot polish, a commodity which was soon exchanged with the Americans on a fluctuating basis of so many packets of cigarettes for one can of Kiwi boot polish.
Soldiers returning from the war continued to use the product, leading to a further surge in its popularity. A few years after World War II, Kiwi opened a manufacturing plant in Philadelphia, making only black, brown, and neutral shoe polish in tins.
New Zealand is the only nation whose colloquial identity has been defined by a brand of shoe polish. In the early years of the European settlement a variety of symbols — predominantly the moa, silver fern, Southern Cross and kiwi — were used to represent the new nation, and even by the early 1900s there still wasn't a clear consensus. The spread of Kiwi shoe polish around the world enhanced the popular appeal of the Kiwi as the New Zealander's national symbol.
Modern day
kiwi]]
Shoe polish products are low-value items and infrequently purchased. Demand is inelastic or largely insensitive to price change, and sales volumes are generally low. In the shoe polish market as a whole, some 26 percent of sales are accounted for by pastes, 24 percent by creams, 23 per cent by aerosols, and 13 percent by liquids. In recent years, the demand for shoe polish products has either been static or declined; one reason is the gradual switch from formal shoes to sneakers.
Kiwi remains the predominant shoe polish brand in most of the world, being sold in over 180 countries and holding a 53 percent market share worldwide. Today, it is manufactured in Australia, Canada, France, India, Pakistan, South Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Other leading brands include Shinola, Lincoln Shoe Polish, Meltonian, and Cherry Blossom.
Kiwi was aquired by the American company Sara Lee following its purchase of Reckitt and Colman in 1991 and Knomark in 1987. The Federal Trade Commission ruled that Sara Lee had to divest its ownership of these companies in 1994 to prevent it from becoming a monopoly. Since this ruling, Sara Lee have been prevented from acquiring any further assets or firms associated with chemical shoe care products in the United States without prior commission approval. The Competition Commission in the United Kingdom also investigated the potential monopoly of Sara Lee in the shoe care industry.
In India, shoeshine boys are known as boot polish boys, and can still be found in operation today, particularly at railway platforms. There are numerous brands available, as well as store brands. There are two chief areas of shoe polish sales: to the general public, and to specialists and trade, such as shoe repairers, and cobblers. There are few differences in sales percentages between the two.
Composition and toxicology
Shoe polish consists of a waxy colloidalemulsion — that is to say, it is composed of a number of partially immiscible liquids and solids mixed together. It is usually made from ingredients including some or all of naphtha, lanolin, turpentine, wax (often Carnauba wax), gum arabic and if required a colourant or dye. It typically has a specific gravity of 0.8, is negligibly soluble in water, and is made of between 65 and 77 percent volatiles—usually naphtha. The high amount of volatile substances means that the shoe polish will dry out and harden after application, while retaining its shine.
Lanolin, a hydrophilicgrease from wool-bearing animals such as sheep or goats, acts as both a waterproofing wax and a bonding agent, giving the shoe polish its greasy feel and texture. It also prevents the naphtha from evaporating until the polish has been spread and buffed into a thin film on the leather surface. An essential ingredient in shoe polish is a thickener; without this, the polish would be too runny, making it difficult to use. Gum arabic, a substance from two sub-Saharan species of the acacia tree, is commonly used to increase the viscosity of the product.
Many shoe polishes contain toxic chemicals. These can be absorbed through the skin, or inhaled. Although some shoe polish manufacturers claim their products to be non-toxic, many do not list their ingredients. When handling shoe polish, one should ideally wear gloves, refrain from drinking alcohol, as it can increase the effects of certain chemicals, and stay in a well-ventilated area. Shoe polish should also be kept out of reach of children and animals. It is extremely toxic to birds, particularly budgerigars.
While disposing of shoe polish, it should be handled as a hazardous substance. Rags that came into contact with the polish should also be discarded. If disposed of correctly, shoe polish can be safely incinerated.
Manufacture
incinerated
Shoe polish can be manufactured using large vats, reasonably powerful heaters and air conditioners. There is no set method of manufacture, although most methods use pressures of two atmospheres to ensure the naphtha does not boil off, and temperatures of up to 85 °C.
The first step in the manufacture of a typical shoe polish is the melting of the wax with the highest melting point in an electric heater. Following this, all other waxes are added, usually by descending order of melting point. Whilst this wax is held at a constant temperature, the emulsion — a mixture of the various oils and, if being used, fats, is then heated separately, at around 85 °C. The heated emulsion is then added to the waxes, along with distilled water. When the mixture reaches around 80 °C, turpentine oil is added. This mixture is then mixed and continually stirred for half an hour. Dyes are added and mixed in turpentine oil if it is not a neutral polish. The mixed mass is reduced slowly to 50 °C, and as its viscosity increases, it is poured through a closed funnel into a cooling chamber. The poured mass is allowed to settle slowly, providing uniform distribution. The process is considered straightforward and the required equipment is relatively easy to acquire. The cost of establishing shoe polish manufacturing facilities has been estimated at around $600,000 (as of 2005).
Shoe polish traditionally packaged in flat, round, 60-gram (2.125-ounce) tins, usually with an easy-open facility. Because the amount of shoe polish that needs to be applied is small, and the shoe polish will desiccate due to volatile ingredients, such as naphtha, a large container would dry out before being fully used. The traditional flat, round tins have since become synonymous with shoe polishes.
References
# [http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1992/326saralee.htm Competition Commission] - Introduction to a report on Sara Lee (owners of Kiwi shoe polish) and the shoe polish market in general.
# [http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1992/fulltext/326c6.pdf Competition Commission] - Conclusions of a report on Sara Lee (owners of Kiwi shoe polish) and the shoe polish market in general.
# Ibid.
# Ibid.
# [http://www.dubbin.co.uk Dubbin] - a site belonging to a British manufacturer of dubbin
# Ibid.
# [http://www.chicagohs.org/history/stockyard/stock2.html Chicago Stockyards]
# [http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/centenary/pdf/Chapter_3.pdf Australian Government article on Kiwi shoe polish] - PDF file, taken from Imagination - 100 Years of Bright Ideas in Australia[http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/centenary/page1.shtml] Available in print form - (ISBN 1740661060).
# [http://web.archive.org/web/20040222212058/http://www.whitehat.com.au/Cemetery/Graves/Ramsay.html Information on the burial place of William Ramsay (Web Archive)]
# [http://www.kiwiphile.org/sep2000.html KiwiPhile - how Kiwi shoe polish helped choose a national symbol]
# [http://takeourword.com/TOW173/page4.html Take Our Word For It]
# [http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/centenary/pdf/Chapter_3.pdf Australian Government article on Kiwi shoe polish] - PDF file, taken from Imagination - 100 Years of Bright Ideas in Australia[http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/centenary/page1.shtml] Available in print form - (ISBN 1740661060).
# Ibid.
# Ibid.
# [http://www.kiwiphile.org/sep2000.html KiwiPhile - how Kiwi shoe polish helped choose a national symbol]
# [http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1992/326saralee.htm Competition Commission] - Introduction to a report on Sara Lee (owners of Kiwi shoe polish) and the shoe polish market in general.
# [http://www.ftc.gov/opa/predawn/F95/saralee-kiwi.htm Federal Trade Commission on Sara Lee's potential monopoly]
# [http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1992/326saralee.htm Competition Commission] - Introduction to a report on Sara Lee (owners of Kiwi shoe polish) and the shoe polish market in general.
# Ibid.
# [http://www.diydoctor.org.uk/projects/diy_waxes.htm DIY Waxes, Stain Removal and Polishes]
# [http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1992/fulltext/326c6.pdf Competition Commission] - Conclusions of a report on Sara Lee (owners of Kiwi shoe polish) and the shoe polish market in general.
# [http://www.herc.org/library/msds/shoepolish.htm Chemical make-up of shoe polish]
# [http://nerdatabank.nic.in/techshoe.htm Manufacture of Shoe Polish]
# [http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1992/fulltext/326c6.pdf Competition Commission] - Conclusions of a report on Sara Lee (owners of Kiwi shoe polish) and the shoe polish market in general.
# [http://www.diydoctor.org.uk/projects/diy_waxes.htm DIY Waxes, Stain Removal and Polishes]
# [http://www.herc.org/library/msds/shoepolish.htm Chemical make-up of shoe polish]
# [http://www.baseball-almanac.com/ws/yr1957ws.shtml 1957 World Series by Baseball Almanac]
External links
- [http://en.wikibooks.org/Shoe_polish Wikibooks - How to make homemade shoe polish]
- [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Shoe_polish Translations of 'Shoe Polish' in the Wiktionary]
- [http://www.saralee.com Sara Lee - owners of Kiwi]
- [http://www.shoe-polish.com Cherry Blossom]
- [http://chiswickpolish.homestead.com/cbarticles.html A history of shoe polish]
- [http://angelusshoepolish.com/history.html Angelus Shoe Polish] - the history of a small family shoe polish company in the US, first registered in 1917.
- [http://www.tinshop.co.uk A British site specialising in antique tins and cans]
- [http://www.detnews.com/2004/metro/0405/01/d10w-138213.htm An article on shoe polish fraud]
- [http://pages.tias.com/140/InventoryPage/1272436/1.html Shoe polish memorabilia and images]
Category:Footwear
