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Fobo

Fobo

Fobo (Marso I) estas la pli granda kaj pli proksima el la du lunoj de Marso. La luno estas tiel proksima al la planedo, ke ĝi dufoje tage leviĝas en la okcidento kaj subiras en la oriento. Oni kredas, ke Fobo estas kaptita asteroido. La orbito de Fobo, nun 9378 kilometrojn for de la centro de Marso, sinkas je 1,8 m dum ĉiu jarcento. Post 50 milionoj da jaroj Fobo aŭ kolizios kun Marso aŭ fariĝos planeda ringo. Fobo kredeble konsistas el ŝtonoj kaj glacioj. Ĝi pezas 1,08 . 1016 kilogramojn. La plej elstara aspekto sur la luno estas pli granda kratero nomata Stiknio (Stickney). Asaph HALL trovis Fobon la 18-an de aŭgusto 1877. La luno estas nomata laŭ la filo de la dioj Marso kaj Venuso. Kategorio:Sunsistemo ja:フォボス (衛星)

Luno

vidu natura satelito pri aliaj lunoj La Luno, la sola natura satelito de la Tero, la sola luno kiun ni povas vidi per la nuda okulo kaj la sola konata ĝis la laboro de Galileo GALILEI, mondo de maroj de antikva lafo ŝtoniĝinta; pro astronomia hazardo, ĝia ŝajna grandeco, vidita el la Tero, estas simila al tiu de la Suno. Suno maldekstra duono, de fundesupren: Maro de l'pluvoj, Oceano de l'Ventegoj (plej maldekstre) kaj Maro de la Nuboj, inter ili la fama cirko Copernic (Esperanto: kratero Koperniko).
Dekstra duono, de fundesupren: Maro de l'Nektaro, Maro de l'Trankvil, Maro de Sereneco, pli dekstre: Maro de Fekundeco, plej dekstre izole kiel lago: Maro de la krizoj.
Malsupre, kun plej da "radioj", la fama cirko (kratero) Tycho.
  • Nomo: Luno (Terra I)
  • Diametro: 3476 km
  • Maso: 0,07349 . 1024 kg (0,0123 da tero)
  • Meza distanco de la Tero: 384.400 km; ĝia sola luno
  • Sidera tago (= turniĝo ĉirkaŭ la interna akso): 2360,6 ks (27,32166 tertagoj)
  • Sidera monato (= rivoluo ĉirkaŭ la planedo, nome la Tero): 2,3606 Ms (27,32166 tertagoj), egala al la tago
  • Sinoda tago aŭ monato (= periodo inter du samaj lunofazoj): 29,531 tertagoj
  • Gravito: 1,6 m/s2 (0,163 da tergravito)
  • Temperaturo: 380 K (tage), 120 K (nokte)
  • Atmosfero: vakuo
  • Naskiĝtago: antaŭ 4,6 miliardoj da jaroj.
La Luno estas luno granda: Relative al la grandeco de ĝia planedo, nur la luno de Plutono estas pli granda. Absolute, nur kvar lunoj estas pli grandaj laŭ maso (Ioo, Ganimedo, Kalistoo kaj Titano), kaj unu planedo, Plutono, estas eĉ pli malgranda!

Origino

Ni ne scias la devenon de la Luno. Ĝi ne nur estas tero malgranda, sed mondo tre malsama. La Tero estas roko kun supraĵo de likva akvo kaj koro de likva fero (kiu faras la Teron magneta), sed la Luno estas roko, fino al fino. Mankas al ĝi akvo (???), aero, vivo, magnetosfero kaj kontinentoj. Ĝi estas mondo tute morta kaj senŝanĝa, escepte de meteoroidaj influoj. Ĉar ĝi estas tiel malsama, la Luno klare ne naskiĝis same kiel la Tero. La nuna plej populara teorio diras, ke la Tero, kiam ĝi estas juna, estis fendita de granda asteroido kaj granda bulo de ĝia roko fariĝis la Luno. La Luno ja estas kiel la roka parto de la Tero kaj eĉ nun la Luno tre malrapide malproksimiĝas for de la Tero. Laŭ alia teorio la Luno estas astro kaptita de la Tero. Sed la fiziko de tia kapto ne estas klara.

Historio

Pri la maroj... Pri la krateroj... Pri esploro de homoj... 20-a de julio 1969: Usonaj astronaŭtoj Neil ARMSTRONG kaj Buzz ALDRIN surluniĝis kaj fariĝis la unuaj homoj, kiuj vizitis alian mondon. Sume 12 homoj surluniĝis dum ĉi tiu kaj kvin sekvaj vojaĝoj ĝis 1972.

Kuriozaĵoj

De la Tero, ni vidas la Lunon pasi tra kvar fazoj ĉiumonate. La lunfazoj nomiĝas: la malluma novluno, la kreskanta duonluno (unua kvarono), la plenluno, kaj la malkreskanta duonluno (tria kvarono). La Luno kaŭzas la tajdojn sur la Tero. tajdojn Ĉar la daŭro de la luna tago egalas tiun de la luna jaro, Luno ĉiam direkas la saman flankon al Tero. Pro kelkaj geometriaj kaj orbitaj fenomenoj tiu flanko ne estas tute konstanta, eblas vidi de Tero ĉ. 55 procentojn de la luna surfaco. La cetero estis absolute nekonata ĝis la 7-a de oktobro 1959, kiam la sovetia sondilo Luna 3 transsendis unuajn fotojn de la dorsa flanko. Je la 10-a de novembro 1966 la usona sondilo Lunar Orbiter 1 sendis la unuajn bildojn, pli bonkvalitajn, el ĉirkaŭluna orbito.

Vivo?

Laŭ moderna scio, nenia vivo ekzistas sur la Luno. Sen aero, sen likva akvo, ĝi estas akre malvivema medio. Lunar OrbiterLa plejparto de antikvaj socioj diigis la Lunon (Selene en greka mitologio, Luna en romia mitologio), kaj aktualaj novpaganoj kultas ĝin kiel aspekton de la Ŝanĝanta Diino. Ĉar ĝi estas la dua plej videbla astro en la ĉielo, kaj pro siaj fazoj, la Luno estas la bazo de pluraj kalendaroj, kiel tiuj de la judoj kaj islamanoj. La tago lundo nomiĝas laŭ Luno. En alkemio kaj blazono, la Luno asociiĝas al la metalo arĝento.
Dosiero:moon-galileo-color-thumb.jpg
[http://meta.wikipedia.com/upload/moon-galileo-color.jpg Pligrandigu bildon]
La kaŝita flanko

Kartografio de la Luno

Unuaj mapoj:
- 1647: Selenographia fare de Johannes HEVELIUS
- Giovan Battista RICCIOLI "Geografia" terminologio de la Luno

Vidu ankaŭ


- eklipso Kategorio:Sunsistemo ja:月 ko:달 ms:Bulan (satelit) simple:Moon th:ดวงจันทร์ zh-min-nan:Go̍eh-niû

Marso

Vidu ankaŭ dio Marso. Ne konfuzu ĝin kun mardo aŭ marto. ----
  • Nomo: Marso (Sol IV)
  • Diametro: 6794 km
  • Maso: 0,64219 . 1024 kg (0,107 da tero)
  • Loko: la 4-a planedo, 227,94 milionoj km for de la Suno (1,52 AU).
  • Tago: 88 642,6 s (24h 37m 22,6s)
  • Jaro: 59,355 Ms (686,98 tertagoj)
  • Gravito: 3,7 m/s2 (0,38 da tergravito)
  • Temperaturo: 190 K – 240 K
  • Atmosfero: 95% karbona dioksido, 3% nitrogeno, 1,6% argono (premo: 7 mb)
  • Koloro: ruĝa (hejmo de giganta, ruĝa porko, laŭ melanezianoj)
  • Lunoj: 2: Fobo, Dejmo
  • Eltrovinto: antikvulo
  • Naskiĝtago: antaŭ 4,6 miliardoj da jaroj.
  • Nuna loko en la Zodiako: Virgo (decembro 2002)
Marso, frato de Tero kaj Venuso, estas malgranda, malvarma, dezerta mondo. Simile al Tero, ĝia tago daŭras 24,6 horoj, ĝi havas sezonojn, polusan glacion kaj eble iam havis riverojn kaj grandan maron. Aliflanke, Marso estas multe pli malgranda ol Tero, tial ĝi ne povas teni sufiĉan aeron, sub sia roza ĉielo, por varmigi sin kaj allasi grandan floradon de vivo : la nuna aero estas tiel maldensa kaj malvarma, ke akvo ne povas esti fluida, kaj eĉ akva glacio ne fandas sed bolas (kiel glacio de karbona dioksido sur Tero). Se vi starus sur Marso sen premovesto, al vi estus tre malvarma sed via sango bolus!
Dosiero:vikinglander1-1-thumb.jpg
La surfaco de Marso fotografita per la spacprobo Viking.
[http://www.wikipedia.com/upload/vikinglander1-1.jpg Pligrandigu bildon]

Geografio

Kvankam Marso estas pli malgranda ol Tero, la areo de tero seka estas la sama. La nordo atestas pri antikva akvofluado – pri riveroj kaj eĉ granda maro – sed la sudo estas tre kraterita, kiel la Luno aŭ Merkuro. La suda tero estas multe pli alta ol la nordo. Marso, kiel la Tero, havas polusan glacion, glacio akva ĉe la norda poluso kaj glacio karbon-dioksida ĉe la sudo. Marso havas la plej altan monton konatan al homo, Olympus Mons ("monto Olimpo"), kiu estas 24 km alta de bazo al pinto! Eĉ ĉe la bazo (500 km en diametro), la klifo estas 6 km en alteco. Marso ankaŭ havas grandegan kanjonon, Valles Marineris, kiu estas 4000 km en longeco kaj 2–7 km en profundeco. En la sudo estas kratero mezuranta 2000 km en diametro kaj 6 km en profundo: Hellas Planitia ("Helenio ebenaĵo"). Por komparo, la pinto de Monto Everesto sur Tero estas 8,850 km super la maro. (Laŭ internacia konsento, la nomoj de marsaj lokoj estas en la latina).

Vivo?

Klare, la granda demando estas: Ĉu Marso ebligas – nun aŭ iam – vivon? Tra 20-a jarcento, la penso kaj kredo pri la ekzisto de marsa vivo alternadis: Dum la 1930-aj jaroj, inteligenta vivo sur Marso ŝajnis tiel probabla, ke usona radioprezento reĝisorita de Orson WELLES pri La Milito de Mondoj laŭ romano de H. G. WELLS pri invado de marsanoj sur Tero, estis kredita kiel prava novaĵo! H. G. WELLS Tia kredo en anglalingvaj landoj estis instigita de mistraduko de verko de la kolorblinda, itala astronomo, Schiaparelli. En 1877 li diris, ke li eltrovis kanalojn sur Marso. Sed la angla lingvo havas du vortojn por "kanalo": canal por kanalo artefarita kaj channel por kanalo natura. Schiaparelli pensis pri kanalo natura, sed lia vorto estis tradukita en la anglan kiel canal – kanalo artefarita, implicinte vivon inteligentan sur Marso. La usona astronomo Lowell, ekscitite de la "eltrovo", konstruis observatorion en la dezerto de Arizono en 1894 por mapi Marson. Lowell eltrovis (probable preter la povo de sia teleskopo!) pli ol 500 tiajn kanalojn artefaritajn, produkton de civilizo mortanta. Tia Marso estis priverkita de la sciencfikciaj aŭtoroj H. G. WELLS en 1898 en Milito de la Mondoj kaj Edgar Rice BURROUGHS en la 1930-aj jaroj en sia serio pri Barsoom (la indiĝena nomo por Marso, laŭ Burroughs. Burroughs ankaŭ verkis la serion pri Tarzano, homo de la ĝangalo). Ankaŭ en Rusio romano kaj filmo "Aelita" traktis la "marsan imperion". Sed dum la 1960-aj jaroj kaj 1970-aj jaroj, robotoj senditaj al Marso eltrovis planedon dezertan kaj kruelan. En 1976, Viking 1 & 2 vojaĝis al Marso por eltrovi proprainstrumente, ĉu vivo ja ekzistas sur Marso. Kvankam iuj el ĝiaj eksperimentoj sukcesis, aliaj malsukcesis. Ne havante sufiĉan pruvon, sciencistoj konkludis, ke vivo ne ekzistas sur Marso. La espero (kaj eĉ timo) pri marsa vivo disfalis. Sed dum la 1990-aj jaroj, la bildo ŝanĝiĝis ankoraŭ denove. En 1996 roko de Marso, kiu falis al Tero, estis eltrovita, kiu ŝajne atestis pri vivo antikva sur Marso. En la roko kemiaĵoj estas trovitaj, kiuj ordinare estas formitaj de vivo, ne de iu ajn alia procezo konata.

La Nova Flugaro

La nova flugaro de robotoj, kiu estas sendata al Marso inter 1996-2005, eble plue klarigos la demandon pri vivo. La unuaj robotoj alvenis al Marso je la somero de 1997 por mapi Marson en detalo kaj esplori la supraĵon. La misio de Pathfinder ankaŭ alvenis en la sama somero, en Ares Vallis ("valo de Ares, helena samvalorulo de romia Marso"), kie antaŭ 1-3 miliardoj jaroj estis grandega inundo. Pathfinder sendas robotan veturilon, Sojourner, por esplori la terenon. En 1999 alia misio al Marso estis senditaj de Usono por esplori la sudan poluson, sed ĝi fiaskis. Kiel rezulto, en 2000, Usono malambiciigis sian programon por Marso, kaj ĝia espero venigi marsajn rokojn al la Tero estis detruita. La sekvonta roboto sendita al Marso estis Beagle 2 el Eŭropo (Beagle 1 estis la ŝipo de Darvino). Ĝi estis lanĉita de orbitulo Mars Express (lanĉita de Tero la ) kaj surmarsiĝis la . Ĉar poste neniam establiĝis radia kontakto, ĝi supozeble estis detruita. Mars Express funkcias kaj faris multajn fotojn de la marsa surfaco. Komence de 2004 sukcese almarsiĝis la usonaj sondiloj Spirit (MER-A) kaj Opportunity (MER-B). En aŭgusto 2005 estis lanĉita la usona mars-sondilo Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. En 2003, Marso estis 56 milionojn da km proksime de Tero -- la plej proksima distanco ĝis 2287. La planedo Marso nomiĝas laŭ la romia Dio Marso, verŝajne pro sia sangruĝa koloro.
- John Hickman The Political Economy of Very Large Space Projects Journal of Evolution and Technology. Vol. 4, November 1999. [http://www.transhumanist.com/volume4/space.htm Terraforming] ---- Kategorio:Sunsistemo als:Mars (Planet) ja:火星 ko:화성 ms:Marikh simple:Mars (planet) th:ดาวอังคาร

Asteroido

Asteroido estas malgranda ĉiela objekto, kiel etigita planedo, kiu moviĝas en nia sunsistemo. Oni supozas, ke la asteroidoj estas restaĵoj el interstelaj nuboj, kiuj ne kungluiĝis al planedoj dum ties estiĝado.

Kelkaj plej konataj asteroidoj:


- Cerero, Vesto, Palado, Junono, Ĥirono, Sedno ---- Lingvaspekte: ekzistas kelkaj amuzaj ĵargonaj esprimoj uzitaj en Esperantujo kun la vorto "asteroido" :
:"He! ĉu vi loĝas sur asteroido" (pri iu, kiu estas for kun siaj pensoj, ne atentas)
:ankaŭ pri homoj havante ideojn malmulte rilatantajn al la realeco, aŭ estante for de la mondo. Tiuj esprimoj devenas de la rolulo la Eta Princo. ja:小惑星 ko:소행성 ms:Asteroid simple:Asteroid th:ดาวเคราะห์น้อย

1877

Historio > Jarcentoj > 19-a jarcento > 1877 ---- Ĉi tiu jaro estas normala jaro komenciĝanta lunde (ligilo montras kalendaron). En la jaro 1877 post Kristo okazis, interalie:

Eventoj


- Clarence BICKNELL alvenis Italion.
- La italo Schiaparelli proklamas sin trovinta kanalojn (canali) sur Marso.
- 12-a de aŭgusto: Asaph HALL malkovras Fobon
- Kreita Monoglotiko

Naskiĝoj


- Fran KOLAR
- Regina FELS
- 25-a de januaro : Peter ZOFFMANN
- 7-a de februaro : Godfrey Harold Hardy
- 11-a de aprilo: Ivan ŜIRJAEV
- 10-a de majo: Rumanio proklamas sian sendependon de Otomana Imperio
- 12-a de marto : Julius GLÜCK
- 11-a de junio: Pierre DEJEAN
- 30-a de junio: Julio MANGADA ROSENÖRN
- 2-a de julio : Germanio : Hermann HESSE
- 16-a de julio : Francio : Henri FAVREL
- 12-a de novembro: Frederic PUJOLÀ I VALLÉS
- 7-a de decembro : Ĉeĥio : Ludwig KRYSTA
- 25-a de decembro: Alfred Wheeler LYNDRIDGE
- 25-a de decembro : Katalunio : Josep ALBAGÉS VENTURA

Mortoj


- 6-a de majo : Johan Ludvig RUNEBERG ----
1872 | 1873 | 1874 | 1875 | 1876 | 1877 | 1878 | 1879 | 1880 | 1881 | 1882
18-a jarcento - 19-a jarcento - 20-a jarcento
ko:1877년

Kategorio:Sunsistemo

Kategorio:Astronomio Kategorio:Kosmo ja:Category:太陽系 ko:분류:태양계 th:Category:ระบบสุริยะ

New Orlians

:For information on the events of Hurricane Katrina, see effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans. New Orleans (local pronunciations: , , or ) (French: La Nouvelle-Orléans, pronounced Image:ltspkr.png in standard French accent) is a major U.S. port city and historically the largest city in the U.S. state of Louisiana. It is located in southeastern Louisiana along the Mississippi River, just south of Lake Pontchartrain, and is coextensive with Orleans Parish.

Overview

The city was devastated by Hurricane Katrina and the subsequent civil engineering failure which resulted in massive flooding in August 2005. As of mid December 2005, efforts continue to aid survivors, clean up debris, and restore infrastructure. While most of the city has reopened to residents and areas which suffered moderate damage have substantially resumed functioning, other parts of town most severely damaged such as some neighborhoods of the 9th Ward are open only during daylight hours for residents to salvage items from their formerly flooded homes. New Orleans is a Southern city known for its multicultural heritage (especially French, Spanish and African American influences) and its music and cuisine. It is a world-famous tourist destination thanks to its many festivals and celebrations; the most notable annual events are Mardi Gras ("Fat Tuesday"), Jazz Fest,Voodoo Fest, Southern Decadence, and college football's Sugar Bowl. The most recent U.S. census put New Orleans's population at 484,674 and the population of Greater New Orleans at 1,337,726. Due to the evacuation of the city before and in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, the population as of late 2005 is significantly less; a Time Magazine article with a publication date of 28 November 2005 (written weeks before) estimated the city's population at about 100,000. But now that the city's population is trickling back in to see if they will be able to repair their homes or move someplace else. The population, as of December 12th, is estimated at about 140,000 New Orleans was founded by the French in 1718 and has played an important role in the history of the United States. The city was named in honor of Philip II, Duke of Orléans, who was regent and ruler of France when the city was founded. This is comparable to the naming of New York City in honor of James, Duke of York, heir to the throne of England. It is a major port city due to its location near the Gulf of Mexico and along the Mississippi River, making it a hub for goods which travel to and from Latin America. The petroleum industry is also of great importance to the New Orleans economy; many oil rigs are located in the Gulf. The Port of South Louisiana (which includes the port of N.O.) is based in the New Orleans metropolitan area and is the fourth largest port in the world in terms of raw tonnage, and among the largest U.S. ports for several major commodities, including cement and coffee. The city's several nicknames describe various characteristics of the city, including the "Crescent City" (describing its shape around the Mississippi River), "The Big Easy" (a reference by musicians to the relative ease of finding work in the city), and "The City that Care Forgot" (associated with the easy going, carefree nature of many of the local residents). The city's unofficial motto, "Laissez les bons temps rouler" ("Let the good times roll") describes the party-like attitude of many residents. The city's name is often abbreviated NOLA. Residents of the city are referred to as New Orleanians.

History

Main article: History of New Orleans

Colonial era

History of New Orleans The place was first discovered by Spanish conqueror Alonso Alvarez de Pineda in 1518 along with the Mississippi River, which was named "Espiritu Santo" river. New Orleans was founded in 1718 by the French as La Nouvelle-Orléans, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. The site was selected because it was a rare bit of natural high ground along the flood-prone banks of the lower Mississippi, and was adjacent to a Native American trading route and portage between the Mississippi and Lake Pontchartrain via Bayou St. John (known to natives as Bayou Choupique). A community of French fur trappers and traders had existed along the bayou (in what is now the middle of New Orleans) for at least a decade before the official founding of the city. Nouvelle-Orléans became the capital of French Louisiana in 1722, replacing Biloxi. In 1763, the colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire and remained under Spanish control for 40 years. The Great Fire of 1788 destroyed many of the existing structures in the city (800 houses were destroyed), which were made of wood. As a result of this, and a subsequent fire in 1795 (another 200 houses destroyed), much of 18th century architecture still present in the French Quarter was built under Spanish rule and demonstrates Spanish colonial characteristics, wood was replaced with bricks. The three most impressive buildings of New Orleans come from the Spanish times: St. Louis Cathedral, the Cabildo and the Presbytere. In 1795, Spain granted the United States "Right of Deposit" in New Orleans, allowing Americans to use the city's port facilities. Louisiana reverted to French control in 1801 after Napoleon re-acquired the territory from Spain by treaty. But in 1803, Napoleon sold Louisiana (which then included portions of more than a dozen present-day states) to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase. At this time the city of New Orleans had a population of about 10,000.

19th century

In its early days it was noted for its cosmopolitan polyglot population and mixture of cultures. The city grew rapidly, with influxes of Americans, French and Creole French, many of the latter fleeing from the revolution in Haiti. During the War of 1812 the British sent a force to try to conquer the city, but they were defeated by forces led by Andrew Jackson some miles down river from the city at Chalmette, Louisiana on January 8, 1815 (commonly known as the Battle of New Orleans). Battle of New Orleans The population of the city doubled in the 1830s, and by 1840 the city's population was around 102,000, fourth-largest in the U.S, the largest city away from the Atlantic seaboard, as well as the largest in the South after Baltimore. However, population growth was at times plagued by yellow fever epidemics, such as the great scourge of 1853 that killed nearly 10,000 people in New Orleans. New Orleans was the capital of the state of Louisiana until 1849, then again from 1865 to 1880. As a principal port it had a leading role in the slave trade, while at the same time having North America's largest community of free persons of color. Early in the American Civil War it was captured by the Union (by David Farragut -son of Spanish emigrants- later named the first US Navy Vice-Admiral) without a battle, and hence was spared the destruction suffered by many other cities of the American South. It was the first captured city in the American South. It retains a historical flavor with a wealth of 19th century structures far beyond the early colonial city boundaries of the French Quarter. The city hosted the 1884 World's Fair, called the World Cotton Centennial. An important attraction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was the famous red light district called Storyville.

20th century

Storyville Storyville Storyville Much of the city is located below sea level between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain, so the city is surrounded by levees. Until the early 20th century, construction was largely limited to the slightly higher ground along old natural river levees and bayous, since much of the rest of the land was swampy and subject to frequent flooding. This gave the 19th century city the shape of a crescent along a bend of the Mississippi, the origin of the nickname The Crescent City. In the 1910s engineer and inventor A. Baldwin Wood enacted his ambitious plan to drain the city, including large pumps of his own design which are still used. All rain water must be pumped up to the canals which drain into Lake Pontchartrain. Wood's pumps and drainage allowed the city to expand greatly in area. However, pumping of groundwater from underneath the city has resulted in subsidence. The subsidence greatly increased the flood risk, should the levees be breached or precipitation be in excess of pumping capacity (as was the case in 2005 in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina). There were many warnings in the late 20th century that a major hurricane or a Mississippi flood could create a lake in the central city as much as 9 m (30 ft) deep, which could take months to pump dry.This warning was augmented by vestigial fears from Hurricane Betsy, and the lasting stories of the Army Corps of Engineers blasting the flooding levees, drowning the poorer neighborhoods of the lower ninth Ward. The Holy Cross Neighborhood Association, (HCNA) respresenting a substantial group of the aforementioned lower ninth ward, created a lobby against the Army Corps of Engineers furthering work on the levees which might endanger the neighborhoods. The HCNA sent Jamal Morelli, activist and New Orleans artist, to respresent them in Washington, D.C. Jamal Morelli's struggle for the neighborhood was successful in protecting the lower ninth ward. (2000-2004) In 1905 Yellow Fever was reported in the city, which had suffered under repeated epidemics of the disease in the previous century. As the role of mosquitos in spreading the disease was newly understood, the city embarked on a massive campain to drain, screen, or oil all cisterns and standing water (breeding ground for mosquitos) in the city and educate the public on their vital role in preventing mosquitos. The effort was a success and the disease was stopped before reaching epidemic proportions. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the city to demonstrate the safety of New Orleans. The city has had no cases of Yellow Fever since. New Orleans was hit by major storms in the 1909 Atlantic hurricane season and the 1915 Atlantic hurricane season. In the 1920s an effort to "modernize" the look of the city removed the old cast-iron balconies from Canal Street, the city's commercial hub. In the 1960s another "modernization" effort replaced the Canal Streetcar Line with buses. Both of these moves came to be regarded as mistakes long after the fact, and the streetcars returned to a portion of Canal Street at the end of the 1990s, and construction to restore the entire line was completed in April 2004. The suburbs saw great growth in the second half of the 20th century; the largest suburb today is Metairie, which borders New Orleans to the west. Metairie is not incorporated and is a part of Jefferson Parish. Much of the city flooded in September of 1947 due to the 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane. In 1965 the city was damaged by Hurricane Betsy, with catastrophic flooding of the city's Lower 9th Ward. While long one of the USA's most-visited cities, tourism boomed in the last quarter of the 20th century, becoming a major force in the local economy. Areas of the French Quarter and Central Business District which were long oriented towards local residential and business uses switched to largely catering to the domestic and international tourist industry. A century after the Cotton Centennial Exhibition, New Orleans hosted another World's Fair, the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition. The city experienced severe flooding in the May 8th 1995 Louisiana Flood when heavy rains suddenly dumped over a foot of water on parts of town faster than the pumps could remove the water.

21st Century (Hurricane Katrina)

May 8th 1995 Louisiana Flood :Main article: Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans The city suffered from the effects of Hurricane Katrina, which made landfall on August 29, 2005 on the gulf coast near the city. Mayor Nagin issued a mandatory evacuation of the entire city, the first such order ever issued in New Orleans. Many residents chose to stay or were stranded in the city by a lack of available transportation. The eye of the storm passed within 10 to 15 miles of New Orleans, bringing strong winds that downed trees, shattered windows, and hurled debris around the area. Heavy rains and flooding immediately affected the eastern areas of the city. The situation worsened on August 30 when levees along three canals which drain into were breached. These canals were the 17th Street Canal, the Industrial Canal, and the London Avenue Canal. As much as 80% of the city, much of which is below sea level, flooded, with water reaching a depth of 25 feet (7.6 meters) in some areas. As of November 2005, The Times Picayune article states that there are in addition to those 1,050 confirmed deaths 5,000 missing residents of the city. Early estimates of the cost of physical damage from the storm have exceeded 100 billion USD. Subsequent investigations showed that the levee failures which flooded the majority of the city were the result of what has been called "the largest civil engineering disaster in the history of the United States" [http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?/base/news-4/1133336859287360.xml] The city government declared the city off-limits to residents while clean-up efforts began and warned that those remaining could be removed by force, for their health and safety. On September 15, several of the suburban towns started allowing residents to return. The mayor announced a "phased repopulation" plan to start bringing residents of the city back in the next two weeks. Concern about the fragility of the city's flood defences and transportation caused repopulation efforts to be postponed due to Hurricane Rita. [http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/09/15/katrina.impact/index.html]. New Orleans' Lower Ninth Ward was reflooded when a storm surge from Rita overcame one of the repaired levees on the Industrial Canal [http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-5300327,00.html]. By October 1, parts of the city accounting for about one-third of the population of New Orleans had been reopened, including the French Quarter.[http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/10/01/katrina.recovery.ap/index.html] As of October 1, only 5% of the city remained underwater.

Geography and climate

October 1 New Orleans is located at (29.964722, -90.070556) on the banks of the Mississippi River, approximately 100 miles upriver from the Gulf of Mexico at 30.07°N, 89.93°W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 907.0 km² (350.2 mi²). 467.6 km² (180.6 mi²) of it is land and 439.4 km² (169.7 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 48.45% water. The city is located in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain, between the Mississippi River in the south and Lake Pontchartrain in the north. The area along the river is characterized by ridges and hollows. Fields atop the ridges along the river are referred to as the "frontlands." The land contour slopes away from the frontlands to the "backlands", comprised of clay and silt. The Mississippi Delta, at the mouth of the Mississippi River, covers about 13,000 square miles (about 1/4 of Louisiana) and consists of silt deposited by the river, and is the most fertile area of Louisiana. The city of New Orleans actually contains the lowest point in the state of Louisiana, and one of the lowest points in the United States, after Death Valley and the Salton Sea. Much of the city is actually located between 1 and 10 feet (0.3 to 3 m) below sea level, and as such, is very prone to flooding. Some 45% of the city is above sea level; these higher areas were developed before 1900; the lowest areas only being developed more recently. Rainwater is continually pumped out of the city and into Lake Pontchartrain across a series of canals lined by levees and dikes. Before the 20th century pumping system, if it rains more than 1 inch, or more recently if there is a major storm surge, such as that caused by a hurricane, greater flooding can occur. Because of the city's high water table most of the cemeteries in the city use above ground crypts as opposed to underground burial. The New Orleans Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), the 39th largest in the United States, includes the Louisiana parishes of Orleans (contiguous with the city of New Orleans), Jefferson, Plaquemines, St. Bernard, St. Charles, St. John the Baptist, and St. Tammany.

Cityscape

St. Tammany The Central Business District of New Orleans is located immediately north and west of the Mississippi River, and is historically called the "American Quarter." Most streets in this area fan out from a central point in the city. Major streets of the area include Canal Street and Poydras St. The term "downtown" refers to those parts of town that are downriver from the central business district. "Uptown" refers to those parts of town that are upriver from the central business district. Parts of the city that are located downtown include the world famous French Quarter (most noted as the central tourist district, with its array of shops, bars, and nightclubs along Bourbon Street), Storyville (now defunct), Treme, Faubourg Marigny, Bywater, the 7th Ward, and the Lower 9th Ward. Parts of the city that are located uptown include the Garden District, the Irish Channel, the University District, Carrollton, Gert Town, Fontainebleau, and Broadmoor. Other major districts within the city include Bayou St. John, Mid City, Gentilly, Lakeview, Lakefront, New Orleans East, The upper 9th Ward and Algiers. Parishes located adjacent to the city of New Orleans include St. Tammany Parish to the northeast, St. Bernard Parish to the south, Plaquemines Parish to the southwest, and Jefferson Parish to the west. Jefferson Parish

Climate

The climate of New Orleans is subtropical, with mild winters and hot, humid summers. In January, morning lows average around 43 °F (6°C), and daily highs around 62°F (17°C). In July, lows average 74°F (23°C), and highs average 91°F (33°C). The lowest recorded temperature was 11.0°F (-11.6°C) on December 23, 1989. The highest recorded temperature was 102.0°F (38.9°C) on August 22, 1980. The average precipitation is 59.74 inches (1520 mm) annually. On rare occasions, snow will fall. Most recently, a trace of snow fell on Christmas in 2004, during the 2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm. On December 25, a combination of rain, sleet, and snow fell on the city, leaving some bridges icy. Before that, the last white Christmas was in 1954, and brought 4.5 inches (110 mm). The last significant snowfall in New Orleans fell on December 22, 1989, when most of the city received 1 or 2 inches of snow.

People and culture

Demographics

:Note: Though many of those evacuated from New Orleans from circumstances relating to Hurricane Katrina have yet to return, the evacuees remain residents of the city. While medium-to-long term changes in population may be drastic, there is no way, short of speculation, to account for these effects. The U. S. Census figures presented here are the most recent; and verifiable. As of the census of 2000, there were 484,674 people, 188,251 households, and 112,950 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,036.4/km² (2,684.3/mi²). There were 215,091 housing units at an average density of 459.9/km² (1,191.3/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 67.25% African American, 28.05% White, 0.20% Native American, 2.26% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.93% from other races, and 1.28% from two or more races. 3.06% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. The population of Greater New Orleans stood at 1,337,726 in 2000, placing it 35 amongst United States metropolitan areas. These population statistics are based on legal residents of the city. But due to the enourmous annual tourist flow, the amount of people inside the city at a given time, such as Mardi Gras season, tends to exceed these numbers sometimes by the hundreds of thousands. There were 188,251 households out of which 29.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.8% were married couples living together, 24.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.0% were non-families. 33.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.7% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.23. In the city the population was spread out with 26.7% under the age of 18, 11.4% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 11.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 88.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was $27,133, and the median income for a family was $32,338. Males had a median income of $30,862 versus $23,768 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,258. 27.9% of the population and 23.7% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 40.3% of those under the age of 18 and 19.3% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. New Orleans is well known for its Creole culture and the persistence of Voodoo practice by a few of its residents, as well as for its music, food, architecture, and spirit of celebration.

Pronunciation

New Orleans is usually pronounced by locals as "Noo Or-lins," or "Noo Aw-lins." The pronunciation "N'Awlins" is not generally used by locals but has been popularized by the tourist trade. The distinctive local accent, sometimes identified as Yat, is unlike either Cajun or the stereotypical Southern accent so often misportrayed by film and television actors. It does, like earlier Southern Englishes, feature frequent deletion of post-vocalic "r". It is similar to a New York "Brooklynese" accent to people unfamiliar with it. There are many theories to how the accent came to be, but it likely results from New Orleans' geographic isolation by water, and the fact that New Orleans was a major port of entry into the United States throughout the 19th century. Many of the immigrant groups who reside in Brooklyn also reside in New Orleans, with Irish, Italians, and Germans being among the largest groups. The prestige associated with being from New Orleans by many residents is likely a factor in the linguistic assimilation of the ethnically divergent population. This distinctive accent is dying out generation by generation in the city (but remains very strong in the surrounding Parishes). As with many sociolinguistic artifacts, it is usually attested much more strongly by older members of the population. Also notable are lexical items specific to the city, such as "lagniappe" (pronounced LAN-yap) meaning "a little something extra," "makin' groceries" for grocery shopping, or "neutral ground" for a street median.

Media

The major daily newspaper is the New Orleans Times-Picayune, publishing since 1837. Other alternative weekly publications include the [http://www.louisianaweekly.com/ Louisiana Weekly] and the [http://www.bestofneworleans.com/ Gambit Weekly]. Greater New Orleans is well served by television and radio. The market is the 43rd largest Designated Market Area (DMA) in the U.S., serving 672,150 homes and 0.610% of the U.S. Major television network affiliates serving the area include WWL 4 (CBS), WGNO 26 (ABC), WDSU 6 (NBC), WVUE 8 (FOX), WNOL 38 (WB), WUPL 54 (UPN), and WPXL 49 (PAX). PBS stations include WYES 12 and WLAE 32. WHNO 20 also operates as an independent station in the area.

Museums and other attractions

WHNO Greater New Orleans has many major attractions, from the world-renowned Bourbon Street and the French Quarter's notorious nightlife, St. Charles Avenue (home of Tulane and Loyola Universities), and many stately 19th century mansions. Favorite tourist scenes in New Orleans include the French Quarter (known locally as "the Quarter"), which dates from the French and Spanish eras and is bounded by the Mississippi River and Rampart Street, Canal Street and Esplanade Ave. The French Quarter contains many popular hotels, bars, and nightclubs, most notably around Bourbon Street. Other notable tourist attractions in the quarter include Jackson Square, St. Louis Cathedral, the French Market (including the Café du Monde, famous for café au lait and beignets), and Preservation Hall. Also located near the French Quarter is the old New Orleans Mint, formerly a branch of the United States Mint, now operates as a museum. The National D-Day Museum is a relatively new museum (opened on June 6, 2000) dedicated to providing information and materials related to the allied invasion of Normandy, France. The Natchez is an authentic steamboat with a calliope tours the Mississippi twice daily. Art museums in the city include the New Orleans Museum of Art (NOMA) and the Ogden Museum of Southern Art. The Audubon Park and the Audubon Zoo are also located in the city of New Orleans. New Orleans is also noted for its many beautiful cemeteries. Some notable cemeteries in the city include Saint Louis Cemetery and Metairie Cemetery. The city is also world-famous for its food. Specialties include beignets, square-shaped fried pastries that are sometimes called French doughnuts (served with coffee and chicory "au lait"); Po'boy and Italian Muffaletta sandwiches; Gulf oysters on the half-shell and other seafoods; etouffee, jambalaya, gumbo, and other Creole dishes; and the Monday evening favorite of red beans and rice. (Louis Armstrong often signed his letters, "red beans and ricely yours.") Significant gardens include Longue Vue House and Gardens and the New Orleans Botanical Garden.

Annual cultural events and fairs

See also: New Orleans Mardi Gras New Orleans Mardi Gras Greater New Orleans is home to numerous year-around celebrations, including Mardi Gras, New Year's Eve celebrations, and the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival. New Orleans' most famous celebration is its Carnival Season. The Carnival season is often known (especially by out-of-towners) by the name of the last and biggest day, Mardi Gras (literally, "Fat Tuesday"), held just before the beginning of the Catholic liturgical season of Lent. Mardi Gras celebrations include parades and floats; participants toss strings of cheap colorful beads and doubloons to the crowds. The Mardi Gras season is kicked off with the only parade allowed through the French Quarter (Vieux Carré, translated Old Square), a walking parade aptly named Krewe du Vieux. The largest of the city's many musical festivals is the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival. Commonly referred to simply as, "Jazz Fest", it is one of the largest music festivals in the nation, and features crowds coming from all over the world to experience music, food, arts, and crafts. Despite the name, it features not only jazz but a large variety of music, including both native Louisiana music and nationally-known popular music artists.

Music

New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival.]] New Orleans has always been a significant center for music with its intertwined European, Latin American, and African-American cultures. The city engendered jazz with its brass bands. Decades later it was home to a distinctive brand of rhythm and blues that contributed greatly to the growth of rock and roll. Its general atmosphere of Dionysian art has also resulted in chaotic artists such as Crash Worship, Liquiddrone, and Jamal Morelli. In addition, the nearby countryside is the home of Cajun music, Zydeco music, and Delta blues. The city also created its own spin on the old tradition of military brass band funerals; traditional New Orleans funerals with music feature sad music (mostly dirges and hymns) on the way to the cemetery and happy music (hot jazz) on the way back. Such traditional musical funerals still take place when a local musician, a member of a club, krewe, or benevolent society, or a noted dignitary has passed. Until the 1990s most locals preferred to call these "funerals with music," but out of town visitors have long dubbed them "jazz funerals." Younger bands, especially those based in the Treme neighborhood, have embraced the term and now have funerals featuring only jazz music.

Sports

Treme The city is the home to several professional, major league sports teams, including the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League and the New Orleans Hornets of the National Basketball Association (moved from Charlotte, North Carolina at the start of the 2002–2003 season). The Saints play in the Louisiana Superdome, and the Hornets play in the adjacent New Orleans Arena. Due to the effects of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans, including damage both to the exterior and the interior of the Louisiana Superdome, the New Orleans Saints will have to play their "home" games in Baton Rouge and San Antonio, Texas. The football season began just a week after the storm hit, and the Saints played their first "home" game against the Giants at Giants Stadium. After that, they traveled to San Antonio to play in the Alamodome for their "home" game against Buffalo. Next the Saints will remain in San Antonio to play their opponent Atlanta. For the October 30 game the Saints will travel to Baton Rouge, where they will play in LSU's Tiger Stadium. The Saints will play the next three "home" games in Baton Rouge. The final game of the Saints' season will be played in San Antonio. All in all the Saints will play a total of three "home" games in San Antonio, and four "home" games in Baton Rouge. The Hornets will play 35 "home" games at the Ford Center in Oklahoma City,Oklahoma, with the remaining 6 to be played in Baton Rouge or, if possible, in New Orleans. The city also has an Arena Football League team, the New Orleans VooDoo, owned by the Saints' owner, Tom Benson. The New Orleans Zephyrs, AAA minor league baseball team plays in adjacent Metairie. They are currently affiliated with the Washington Nationals. The city also hosts two college football bowl games annually: the New Orleans Bowl and the Sugar Bowl. Historically, many teams have been formerly located in the city, including the New Orleans Pelicans baseball team (1887–1959), the New Orleans Breakers of the United States Football League, the New Orleans Night of the Arena Football League (1991–1992), and the New Orleans Brass ice hockey team (1997–2003). Former basketball teams were the New Orleans Buccaneers (c. 1967–1970), and the New Orleans Jazz (1974–1980) which became the Utah Jazz.

Economy

Utah Jazz New Orleans is an industrial and distribution center, and a major U.S. seaport. It is one of the busiest seaports in not only the United States, but also the world. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built the Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet Canal in the mid 20th century to accommodate New Orleans' barge traffic. Like Houston, New Orleans is located in proximity to the Gulf of Mexico and the many oil rigs lying just offshore. There are a substantial number of energy companies that have their regional headquarters in the city, including BP, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, and Shell Oil Company. The city is also home to one Fortune 500 company, Entergy Corporation, an electric power provider. The federal government has a significant presence in the area. The NASA Michoud Assembly Facility is located in the eastern portion of Orleans Parish. Lockheed-Martin also has a large manufacturing facility located in the Greater New Orleans area that produces external fuel tanks for space shuttles. Other companies with a significant presence or base in New Orleans include BellSouth, Hibernia Corp., IBM, Navtech, Harrah's (downtown casino), Popeye's Fried Chicken, and Zatarain's. The Port of New Orleans handles about 145 million short tons (132 million tonnes) of cargo a year and is the largest faction of the Port of South Louisiana, the latter being the largest and busiest shipping port in the western hemisphere and the 4th busiest in the world. About 5,000 ships from nearly 60 nations dock at the Port of New Orleans annually. The chief exports are grain and other foods from the Midwestern United States and petroleum products. The leading imports include chemicals, cocoa beans, coffee, and petroleum. The port handles more trade with Latin America than does any other U.S. gateway, including Miami. New Orleans is also a busy port for barges. The barges use the nation's two main inland waterways, the Mississippi River and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, which meet at New Orleans. The port of New Orleans handles about 50,000 barges yearly. There are also two ferries that cross the river near the Garden district and the French Quarter. These ferries are free of charge to pedestrians, but motorists pay a $1 fee to cross on them. New Orleans is also one of the most visited cities in the United States, and tourism is a major staple in the area's economy. The city's colorful Carnival celebrations during the pre-Lenten season, centered on the French Quarter, draw particularly large crowds. Other major tourist events and attractions in the city include Mardi Gras, the Sugar Bowl, the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival, and Southern Decadence (one of the largest annual Gay/Lesbian celebrations in the nation).

Infrastructure

Government

New Orleans has a mayor-council government. The city council consists of five councilmembers that are elected by district and two at large councilmembers. Mayor C. Ray Nagin, Jr. was elected in May 2002. The New Orleans Police Department provides professional police services to the public in order to maintain order and protect life and property. The Orleans Parish civil sheriff's employees serve (deliver) papers involving lawsuits. The Criminal Sheriff's department maintains the parish prison system. The city of New Orleans and the parish of Orleans operate as a merged city-county government. Before the city of New Orleans became co-extensive with Orleans Parish, Orleans Parish was home to numerous smaller communities. Some of these communities within Orleans Parish have historically had separate identities from the city of New Orleans, such as Irish Bayou and Carrollton. Algiers, Louisiana was a separate city through 1870. As soon as Algiers became a part of New Orleans, Orleans Parish ceased being separate from the city of New Orleans.

Schools

New Orleans Public Schools, the city's school district, is one of the area's largest school districts. NOPS contains approximately 100 individual schools. The Greater New Orleans area has approximately 200 parochial schools. Several institutions of higher education also exist within the city, including University of New Orleans, Tulane University, Loyola University New Orleans, Dillard University, Southern University at New Orleans, Xavier University of Louisiana, Louisiana State University Medical School, and Our Lady of Holy Cross College. Other schools include Delgado Community College, Nunez Community College, Culinary Institute of New Orleans, Herzing College, Commonwealth University, and New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary.

Transportation

The metropolitan area is served by Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport , located approximately nine miles west of the city in the city of Kenner. It serves millions of passengers on approximately 300 nonstop flights per day to or from destinations throughout the United States, Canada, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The airport also handles a significant amount of charter operations from Europe. The airport also serves as a nonstop gateway to Mexico for Federal Express. Within the city itself is Lakefront Airport, a small, general aviation airport, as well as the New Orleans Downtown Heliport, located on the roof of the Louisiana Superdome's parking garage. There are also several regional airports located throughout the metropolitan area. The city is also served by rail via Amtrak. The New Orleans Union Passenger Terminal is the central rail depot, and it is served by three trains: the Crescent to New York City, the City of New Orleans to Chicago, Illinois, and the Sunset Limited from Orlando to Los Angeles. In addition, the city is served by six Class I freight railroads. The Union Pacific and Burlington Northern Santa Fe railroads approach the city from the west, the Norfolk Southern and CSX from the east, and the Canadian National and Kansas City Southern from the north. Public transportation in the city is operated by New Orleans Regional Transit Authority ("RTA"). In addition to the many bus routes connecting the city and suburban areas, there are three active streetcar lines moved by electric motors powered by DC wires overhead. The St. Charles line (green cars, formerly connecting New Orleans with the then independent suburb of Carrollton) is the oldest continuously operating streetcar line in New Orleans and a historic landmark. The Riverfront line (also known as the Ladies in Red since the cars are painted red) runs parallel to the river from Canal Street through the French Quarter to the Convention Center above Julia Street in the Arts District. The Canal Street line uses the Riverfront line tracks from Esplanade Street to Canal Street, then branches off down Canal Street and ends at the cemeteries at City Park Avenue with a spur running from the intersection of Canal and Carrollton Avenue to the entrance of City Park at Esplanade near the entrance to the New Orleans Museum of Art. The city's streetcars were also featured in the Tennessee Williams play, A Streetcar Named Desire. The streetcar line to Desire Street became a bus line in 1948, but may be restored as a light rail streetcar line. The roads in the city are arranged in a radial grid pattern, emanating out to various parts of town from a central point in the Central Business District. I-10 travels east-west through the city, and goes very close to the Central Business District, taking traffic west towards Baton Rouge, Louisiana and east-northeast to Slidell, Louisiana. The "Highrise" carry I-10 across the Industrial Canal. Further east, the Interstate connects New Orleans East with Slidell across an arm of Lake Pontchartrain, known as the "Twin Spans"; these causeways were severely damaged by Hurricane Katrina; by October single lanes in each direction had been reopened on the eastbound span. The westbound span is scheduled to be repaired by January 2006. The bridges are to be replaced with a new six-lane bridge in 2006. As I-10 heads south from Metairie towards the Central Business District, it is called the Pontchartrain Expressway. I-610 connects I-10 and travels through the northern central part of the city. US 90 leaves the Central Business District and goes west through the city's Uptown neighborhood and crosses the Missisisppi River at the Huey P. Long Bridge near the suburb of Jefferson. I-10 is also connected to I-12, north of Lake Pontchartrain, via the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, consisting of two parallel bridges, which are also the longest in the world. The interstate highways serving New Orleans were laid out in the middle of the 20th century, a time when a larger proportion of Gulf of Mexico freight traffic passed through New Orleans. I-10 goes west to Houston and beyond and east to Mobile and Florida, with I-59 and I-55 heading northward to Birmingham and Jackson, respectively. Later, I-12 created a shortcut that avoided

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