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Kalo

Kalo

:This article is about the plant. See Taro (disambiguation) for other uses. Taro (disambiguation) Taro (from Tahitian), more rarely kalo (from Hawaiian), is a tropical plant grown primarily as a vegetable food for its edible corm, and secondarily as a leaf vegetable. Its flowers are more rarely eaten. Taro is closely related to Xanthosoma and Caladium, plants commonly grown as ornamental plants, and like them it is sometimes loosely called elephant ear. Taro and domesticated Xanthosoma species share substantially the same uses, and several names, including callaloo and coco or cocoyam. Taro may be distinguished as "taro cocoyam" or "old cocoyam". Its scientific name is Colocasia esculenta (synonym C. antiquorum). Taro is a traditional staple in many tropical areas of the world, and is the base for making poi in Hawai‘i. The plant is actually inedible if ingested raw because of raphides in the plant cells. Severe gastrointestinal distress can occur unless the plant is properly processed first. Typical of leaf vegetables, taro leaves are rich in vitamins and minerals. They are a good source of thiamin, riboflavin, iron, phosphorus, and zinc, and a very good source of vitamin B6, vitamin C, niacin, potassium, copper, and manganese. Taro corms are very high in starch, and are a good source of dietary fiber, vitamin B6, and manganese. Oxalic acid may be present in the corm and especially in the leaf, and these foods should be avoided or eaten in moderation by people with kidney disorders, gout, or rheumatoid arthritis. Taro is typically boiled, stewed, or sliced and fried as tempura. The small round variety is peeled and boiled, sold either frozen, bagged in its own liquids, or canned. In China, taro is often used as an ingredient in niangao, a kind of dense cake made from glutinous rice flour eaten during Chinese New Year. Taro can be grown in paddy fields or in upland situations where watering is supplied by rainfall or by supplemental irrigation. Some varieties of taro can also be grown away from the tropics, in places such as Korea and Japan. In Korea, taro is called toran (土卵) meaning "egg from earth", and the corm is stewed and the leaf stem is stir-fried. The taro corm is called sato-imo (里芋) in Japanese and supermarket varieties range from about the size and shape of a brussel sprout to longer, larger varieties the size of an adult male's fist.

Taro production in Hawai‘i

Taro is usually grown in pondfields called lo‘i (in Hawaiian). Typical upland varieties presently grown in Hawai‘i are Lehua maoli and Bun long, the latter widely known as Chinese taro. Bun long is used for making taro chips. Dasheen (also called "eddo") is another "dryland" variety of C. esculenta grown for its edible corms or sometimes just as an ornamental plant. The picture below shows several small lo‘i in Maunawili Valley on O‘ahu. The ditch on the left in the picture is called an ‘auwai and supplies diverted stream water to the lo‘i or pondfields. Cool flowing water yields the best crop. Some of the taro plants in the foreground have been harvested and the caretakers are preparing to replant the huli stacked at their feet. These are the top portion of the corm with a short piece of bladeless leafstem. O‘ahu The Hawai'i Agricultural Statistics Service puts the 10-year median production of taro in the Hawaiian Islands at about 6.1 million pounds (2,800 t). However, 2003 taro production in Hawai'i was only 5 million pounds (2,300 t) an all-time low. The previous low, reached in 1997, was 5.5 million pounds (2,500 t). Urbanization has driven down harvests from a high of 14.1 million pounds (6,400 t) in 1948. But more recently the decline has resulted from pests and diseases. A non-native apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) is a major culprit in the current crop decline. Also, a plant rot disease, traced to a newly identified species of the fungal genus Phytophthora, now plagues crops throughout the state. Although pesticides could control both pests to some extent, pesticide use in the pondfields is barred because of the clear opportunity for chemicals to quickly migrate into streams and then the ocean (Viotti, 2004).

References

Phytophthora]]
- Stephens, James M. 1994. Dasheen –– Colocasia exculenta (L.) Schott. Fact Sheet HS-592 from a series of the Horticultural Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. May 1994. [http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_MV059 edis]
- [http://www.green-seeds.com/taro.html Taro climate] at Green-Seeds.com (taro growiing methods)
- Viotti, V. 2004. Honolulu Advertiser, March 16, 2004.
- Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Revised edition. Vol. 2. Univ. of Hawei‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press. p. 1357. See also:
- Aquatic plants Category:Araceae Category:Root vegetables Category:Leaf vegetables ja:サトイモ zh-min-nan:Ō·-á

Taro (disambiguation)

Taro can refer to:
- Taro, a tropical plant known as a root vegetable.
- Tarō (太郎), a stand-alone Japanese given name or a common name suffix for males (literally “eldest son”). People named Tarō include:
- Akebono Taro (曙太郎), sumo wrestler
- Taro Chiezo (千恵藏太郎), artist
- Taro Gomi (五味太郎), children's book writer and illustrator
- Taro Hakase(葉加瀬太郎), musician, violinist
- Taro Ishida (石田太郎), voice actor
- Katsura Taro (桂太郎), soldier, politician, former Prime Minister of Japan
- Nakano Taro, alleged yakuza member
- Ukiyoe Taro (浮世絵太郎), author
- Urashima Taro (浦島太郎), Japanese fairy tale
- Taro may refer to the following fictional characters:
- Taro Tanaka of Taro the Space Alien (Uchūjin Tanaka Tarō)
- Pantyhose Taro of Ranma 1/2
- People or fictional characters with ~tarō (～太郎) as a name suffix include:
- Shintaro Ishihara (石原慎太郎), Tokyo, Japan's current governor
- Kintaro (金太郎), "Golden Boy", a Japanese fairy tale
- Momotaro (桃太郎), "Peach Boy", a Japanese fairy tale
- Taro may refer to the following places:
- Taro River in northern Italy
- Taro (département) a former département of the First French Empire in present Italy, named after the Taro River
- Tarō-chō (田老町), former town in Shimohei District, Iwate Prefecture, Japan (now part of Miyako) Category:Japanese given names

Tahitian language

Tahitian, a Tahitic language, is the official language of French Polynesia and is spoken throughout Oceania. It is an Eastern Malayo-Polynesian language which shares much with Hawaiian and Rarotongan. It is primarily spoken in the Îles de la Société (Society Islands), which includes, notably, the island of Tahiti (which is where the capital of French Polynesia, Papeete, is situated). It is also spoken on some islands in the northwestern part of l'Archipel des Tuamotu (Tuamotu Archipelago). In general, the peoples of French Polynesia who do not speak Tahitian as a local language are either completely or partially bilingual in it. Furthermore, there is a diverse diaspora of Tahitian speakers throughout Oceania, including pockets as far south as New Zealand. Typologically, Tahitian word order is VSO (Verb-Subject-Object), which is typical of Polynesian languages. It also features a very small number of phonemes, as further evidence of its linguistic heritage; its alphabet has only fourteen letters, being: A, E, I, O, and U for the vowels, and ' (glottal stop), F, H, N, M, P, R, T, and V for the consonants. Note the use of the apostrophe to denote a glottal stop—this is typical of Polynesian languages, and when copying Tahitian words, one should take care to faithfully reproduce apostrophes as they are in actuality consonants, not punctuation, and are as important as any other letter. Tahitian makes a phonemic distinction between long and short vowels; when written, long vowels are either marked with a diacritic (typically, a macron) or reduplicated. For example, paato, meaning "to pick, to pluck" and pato, "to break out", are distinguished solely by their vowel length. Further, Tahitian syllables are entirely open, and the language therefore prohibits consonant grouping. This is somewhat like Japanese, although Japanese is not as restrictive, allowing palatization of consonants and in some cases final nasals. Tahitian is morphologically weak, meaning that it relies on the use of "helper words" (such as prepositions, articles, and particles) to encode grammatical relationships, rather than on inflection, as would be typical of European languages. It is practically an isolating language, except when it comes to the personal pronouns, which have separate forms for singular, plural and dual numbers. With respect to cognate languages, some oft-quoted figures include 76% lexical similarity with Hawaiian and 85% with Rarotongan. Considering the incredible distance between, say, Hawaii and Tahiti, this degree of intelligibility is astounding. Both the Hawaiians and the Tahitians have lived in their respective archipelagos for centuries; no contact between the two cultures had, to anyone's knowledge, been made since their separation in ancient times. On the other hand, languages spoken on islands tend to be conservative due to small populations and lack of communication with speakers of other languages; consider the similarities between modern-day Icelandic and Old Norse.

External links

- [http://www.biroz.net/otherpages/tahiti/ E Parau Tatou i te Reo Tahiti!] - A complete beginners course in Tahitian with lessons, songs and wordlists.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Tahitian-english/ Tahitian - English Dictionary]
- [http://www.farevanaa.pf/ Académie Tahitienne - Fare Vana'a] Category:Languages of Oceania Category:Polynesian languages Category:French Polynesia Category:Society Islands Category:Austronesian languages Category:Tahitic languages

Hawaiian language

Hawaiian is the ancestral language of the indigenous people of the Hawaiian Islands, the Hawaiians, a Polynesian people. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the State of Hawaii. The ISO language code for Hawaiian is haw. Hawaiian is a member of the Austronesian language family, most closely related to Polynesian languages like Marquesan, Tahitian, Sāmoan, Māori, and Rapanui (i.e., the language of Easter Island), as well as to other languages in the Pacific, like Fijian, and more distantly to Indonesian, Malagasy, and the indigenous languages of Taiwan and the Philippines.

Use of the language

Hawaiian is an endangered language. On six of the seven inhabited islands, Hawaiian was long ago displaced by English and no longer used as the daily language of communication. The one exception is Niihau, where Hawaiian has never been displaced, has never been endangered, and is still used almost exclusively. This is because: #Niihau has been privately owned for over 100 years; #visitation by outsiders has been only rarely allowed; #the Caucasian owners/managers of the island have favored the Niihauans' continuation of their language; #and, most of all, because the Niihau speakers themselves have naturally maintained their own native language, even though they sometimes use English as a second language for school. Native speakers of Niihau Hawaiian are able to use a manner of speaking among themselves which is significantly different from the Hawaiian of the other islands, so different that it is unintelligible to non-Niihau speakers of Hawaiian. For a variety of reasons starting around 1900, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian diminished from 37,000 to 1,000; half of these remaining are now in their seventies or eighties (see Ethnologue report below for citations). The most important cause for the decline of the Hawaiian language was its voluntary abandonment by the majority of its native speakers. They wanted their own children to speak English, as a way to promote their success in a rapidly changing modern environment, so they refrained from using Hawaiian with their own children. Even as early as 1885, before the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, and before the Bayonet Constitution of 1887, while King Kalākaua was still on the throne, the Prospectus of the Kamehameha Schools announced that "instruction will be given only in English language" (see published opinion of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, Doe v. Kamehameha Schools, case no. 04-15044, page 8928, filed August 2nd 2005). Efforts to revive the language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian language "immersion" schools are now open to children whose families want to retain (or introduce) Hawaiian language into the next generation. The local NPR station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day." Additionally, the Sunday editions of the Honolulu Star-Bulletin, one of Honolulu's two major newspapers, feature a brief article called [http://www.starbulletin.com/kauakukalahale.php/ Kauakukalahale] written entirely in Hawaiian by a student. Those learning Hawaiian as a second language, without native speakers as models, have a tendency to pronounce Hawaiian words as spelled, with English values for the letters, and to use English word order in sentences. Even students of the immersion schools, where there are older native speakers to imitate, sometimes deviate from these older native speakers where Hawaiian words are substituted directly into English syntactic patterns. Sam Warner, a major proponent of the immersion schools, has described some of the students' expressions as "bizarre" in his dissertation on the immersion program. There is also a certain tension between those who would revive a purist Hawaiian, as spoken in the early 19th century, and those who grew up speaking a colloquial Hawaiian shaped by more than one hundred years of contact with English and pidgin. Hawaiian Pidgin (more properly known as Hawaiian Creole English) is a local language, based on English but with its own unique syntax and phonology. Its vocabulary comes from English, Hawaiian, and Asian languages, predominantly Japanese and Cantonese introduced by immigrants hired to work at sugar and pineapple plantations, but Philippine languages have made contributions as well. Often overlooked but also important are the contributions of European languages, especially Portuguese.

Phonology

Hawaiian is notable for having a small phoneme inventory (see Hawaiian alphabet, below), like many of its Polynesian cousins. Especially notable is the fact that it originally did not distinguish between /t/ and /k/; few languages do not make that distinction. A /t/ pronunciation of this phoneme was common at the Kauai (Tauai) end of the island chain, and a /k/ pronunciation at the Big Island (island of Hawaii) end. The /k/ pronunciation won out over the /t/ pronunciation after Kamehameha the Great, who was from the island of Hawaii, conquered all the islands. However, the /t/ realization remains on Niihau.

Consonants

The consonant phonemes of Hawaiian are shown in the following table: The phoneme has two main allophones, and (a labiodental approximant). Their distribution is as follows (Elbert and Pukui 1979, 12–13; Pukui and Elbert 1986, xvii):
- After and usually
- After and usually
- After and initially, free variation between the two

Vowels

The vowel phonemes are shown in the following tables:

Syllable structure

Hawaiian syllables may contain zero or one consonants in the onset; unlike many languages, Hawaiian syllables with no onset contrast with syllables beginning with the glottal stop: "front, face" contrasts with "to dodge, evade". Codas and consonant clusters are prohibited.

Orthography

Hawaiian is written in a variety of the Latin alphabet, called ka pīāpā Hawaii in Hawaiian. All the letters have their IPA value, except for , called okina, which is the glottal stop. Vowel length is marked by a macron above the vowel, i.e. Āā Ēē Īī Ōō Ūū. The macron does not represent stress, although under the rules for assigning stress in Hawaiian, a long vowel will always receive stress.

The okina

:Main article: okina The okina is officially written as with the Unicode value ʻ (decimal &#699), which although always having the correct appearance is not supported in some fonts/browsers, or alternatively written as an opening single quote ‘ with the Unicode value ‘ (decimal ‘), which appears either as a left-leaning quote or a quote with greater thickness at the bottom than at the top. For examples of use of the okina consider the word "Hawaii", or "Oahu" (often simply "Hawaii" and "Oahu" outside Hawaiian English). The words are actually pronounced (using IPA): and , with a glottal stop where the okina is written.

References

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External links

- [http://ulukau.org/english.php Ulukau - the Hawaiian electronic library]
- [http://wehewehe.org/cgi-bin/hdict?e=q-0hdict--00-0-0--010---4----den--0-000l--1haw-Zz-1---Zz-1-home---00031-0000escapewin-00&d=&l=en Hawaiian Dictionary]
- [http://ask.yahoo.com/ask/20011204.html/ Ask Yahoo!: How Many People Speak Hawaiian?]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=haw Ethnologue report for Hawaiian]
- [http://www.geocities.com/~olelo/ The Hawaiian Language Website]
- [http://home.attbi.com/~pgdt/Phonology/austro.html Information and a resource link on Hawaiian.]
- [http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/dual/orgs/keelikolani/ Ka Haka Ula O Keelikōlani, College of Hawaiian Language]
- [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hawaiian.htm Omniglot Hawaiian article]
- [http://ksdl.ksbe.edu/kulaiwi/ Kulaiwi] — learn Hawaiian through distance learning courses
- [http://www.ahapunanaleo.org/ Aha Punana Leo]
- [http://www.starbulletin.com/kauakukalahale.php/ Kauakukalahale] Category:Languages of the United States Category:Languages of Oceania Category:Polynesian languages Category:Marquesic languages ja:ハワイ語

Corm

market]] A corm is a short, vertical, swollen underground stem of a plant (usually one of the monocots) that serves as a storage organ to enable the plant to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat (estivation). A corm is typically surrounded by protective skins or tunics. Inside, a corm is mostly starch-containing parenchyma cells. Corms can be dug up and used to propagate or redistribute the plant (see, for example, taro). Externally, they are often similar in appearance to bulbs, and erroneously called by that name, but internally their solid tissue easily distinguishes them from bulbs, which are visibly layered. Cultivated plants that form corms include;
- Many plants of the family Iridaceae grown for their flowers, including Crocus, Gladiolus, Iris, and Montbretia
- Many plants of several families grown as root vegetables; see that article for a list.

Leaf vegetable

Leaf vegetables, also called greens or leafy greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. Although they come from a very wide variety of plants, most share a great deal with other leaf vegetables in nutrition and cooking methods. Leaf vegetables most often come from short-lived herbaceous plants such as lettuce and spinach. Woody plants whose leaves can be eaten as leaf vegetables include Adansonia, Aralia, Moringa, Morus, and Toona species. The leaves of many fodder crops are also edible by humans, but usually only eaten under famine conditions. Examples include alfalfa, clover, and most grasses, including wheat and barley. These plants are often much more prolific than more traditional leaf vegetables, but exploitation of their rich nutrition is difficult, primarily because of their high fiber content. This obstacle can be overcome by further processing such as drying and grinding into powder or pulping and pressing for juice.

Nutrition

Leaf vegetables are typically low in calories, low in fat, high in protein per calorie, high in dietary fiber, high in iron and calcium, and very high in phytochemicals such as vitamin C, vitamin A, lutein and folic acid.

Preparation

Most leaf vegetables can be eaten raw, for example in salads. They may also be stir-fried, stewed or steamed. Leaf vegetables stewed with pork are a traditional dish in soul food, and southern U.S. cuisine.

External links

- [http://www.leafforlife.org/PAGES/TOPCROPS.HTM Leaf for Life — lists of and information about many leaf vegetables]

Flower

:This article is about the plants; for other uses see Flower (disambiguation). Flower (disambiguation) Flower (Latin flos, floris; French fleur), a term popularly used for the bloom or blossom of a plant, is the reproductive structure of those plants classified as angiosperms (flowering plants; Division Magnoliophyta). The flower structure incorporates the reproductive organs, and its function is to produce seeds through sexual reproduction. For the higher plants, seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary means by which individuals of a species are dispersed across the landscape. After fertilization, portions of the flower develop into a fruit containing the seed(s).

Flower anatomy

Flowering plants are heterosporangiate (producing two types of reproductive spores) and the pollen (male spores) and ovules (female spores) are produced in different organs, but these are together in a bisporangiate strobilus that is the typical flower. A flower is regarded as a modified stem (Eames, 1961) with shortened internodes and bearing, at its nodes, structures that may be highly modified leaves. In essence, a flower structure forms on a modified shoot or axis with an apical meristem that does not grow continuously (growth is determinate). The stem is called a pedicel, the end of which is the torus or receptacle. The parts of a flower are arranged in whorls on the torus. The four main parts or whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are as follows: flower
- calyx – the outer whorl of sepals; typically these are green, but are petal-like in some species.
- corolla – the whorl of petals, which are usually thin, soft and colored to attract insects that help the process of pollination.
- androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house) – one or two whorls of stamens, each a filament topped by an anther where pollen is produced. Pollen contains the male gametes.
- gynoecium (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's house) – one or more pistils. The female reproductive organ is the carpel: this contains an ovary with ovules (female gametes). A pistil may consist of a number of carpels merged together, in which case there is only one pistil to each flower, or of a single individual carpel (the flower is then called apocarpous). The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the ovules, carrying the reproductive material. carpel Although the floral structure described above is considered the "typical" structural plan, plant species show a wide variety of modifications from this plan. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species. For example, the two subclasses of flowering plants may be distinguished by the number of floral organs in each whorl: dicotyledons typically having 4 or 5 organs (or a multiple of 4 or 5) in each whorl and monocotyledons having three or some multiple of three. The number of carpels in a compound pistil may be only two, or otherwise not related to the above generalization for monocots and dicots. In the majority of species, individual flowers have both pistils and stamens as described above. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or hermaphrodite. However, in some species of plants the flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts. In the latter case, if an individual plant is either male or female the species is regarded as dioecious. However, where unisexual male and female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is considered monoecious. Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as the common dandelion. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible. (See also: Plant sexuality) Plant sexuality Additional discussions on floral modifications from the basic plan are presented in the articles on each of the basic parts of the flower. In those species that have more than one flower on an axis, the collection of flowers is termed an inflorescence. In this sense, care must be exercised in considering what is a flower. In botanical terminology, a single daisy or sunflower for example, is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence comprised of numerous small flowers (sometimes called florets). Each small flower may be anatomically as described above.

Floral formula

A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular species. The following representations are used: Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca⁵ = 5 sepals)
Co = corolla (petal whorl; e.g., Co^3(x) = petals some multiple of three )
Z = add if zygomorphic (e.g., CoZ⁶ = zygomorphic with 6 petals)
A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e.g., A^∞ = many stamens)
G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e.g., G¹ = monocarpous)
x - to represent a "variable number"
∞ - to represent "many"
A floral formula would appear something like this: Ca⁵Co⁵A^{10 - ∞}G¹ Several other symbols are used that will have to await drawings to illustrate here (see [http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/courses/systematics/key.html]).

Flower function

family] The function of a flower is to mediate the union of male and female gametes. The process is termed pollination. Many flowers are dependent upon the wind to move pollen between flowers of the same species. Others rely on animals (especially insects) to accomplish this feat. The period of time during which this process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis. Many flowers in nature have evolved to attract animals to pollinate the flower, the movements of the pollinating agent contributing to the opportunity for genetic recombinations within a dispersed plant population. Flowers that are insect pollinated are called entomophilous (literally "insect loving"). Flowers commonly have nectaries on their various parts that attract these animals. Bees and birds are common pollinators: both have color vision, thus selecting for "colorful" flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that are evident in the ultraviolet range, visible to bees but not to humans. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent. In any case, pollinators are attracted to the plant, perhaps in search of nectar, which they eat. The arrangement of the stamens ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator. In gathering nectar from many flowers of the same species, the pollinators transfer pollen between all of the flowers it visits. Flower scent is not always pleasant to our sense of smell. Some plants, such as Rafflesia, the titan arum, and the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba) are pollinated by flies, so produce a scent imitating rotting meat. Other flowers are pollinated by the wind, and the flowers of these species (for example, grasses) have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy". Wind pollinated flowers are referred to as anemophilous. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large grained, sticky, and contain significant protein (another "reward" for pollinators), Anemophilous flower pollen is usually small grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects, though it may still be gathered, in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little value to them. There is much confusion about the role of flowers in allergies. For example the showy and entomophilous goldenrod (Solidago) is frequently blamed for respiratory allergies, of which it is innocent, since its pollen cannot be airborne. Instead the allergen is usually the pollen of the contemporary bloom of anemophilous ragweed (Ambrosia) which can drift for many kilometers.

Flowers in gardening and horticulture

Main and related articles at: Gardening, Horticulture, List of flowers, and Flower album Flower album

Flowers in the arts

The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of many poets, especially from the Romantic era. Famous examples include William Blake's Ah! Sun-Flower and William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud. Ah, Sun-flower weary of time,
Who countest the steps of the Sun,
Seeking after that sweet golden clime
Where the traveller's journey is done:

Where the Youth pined away with desire,
And the pale Virgin shrouded in snow
Arise from their graves, and aspire
Where my Sun-flower wishes to go. :– William Blake, Ah! Sun-Flower The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris.

Flowers in everyday life

In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or just be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable smell. Around the world, florists sell flowers for a wide range of events and functions that, cumulatively, encompass one's lifetime:
- For new births or Christenings
- As a corsage or boutonniere to be worn at social functions or for holidays
- For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and decorations for the hall
- As brightening decorations within the home
- As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts
- For funeral flowers and flowers for the grieving Florists depend on an entire network of commercial growers and shippers to support this trade. To get flowers that are out of season in their country, florists contact wholesalers who have direct connections with growers in other countries to provide those flowers.

Flowers as symbols

Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as floriography. Some of the more common examples include:
- Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion.
- Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the UK, Australia and Canada, red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war.
- Irises are a symbol of death.
- Daisies are a symbol of innocence. Flowers within art are also representative of the female genitalia, as seen in the works of artists such as Georgia O'Keefe, Imogene Cunningham, and Judy Chicago.

References

- Eames, A. J. 1961. Morphology of the Angiosperms. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

External links

- [http://la.essortment.com/floweranatomy_raxw.htm Flower Anatomy]
- [http://www.flowercouncil.org Flower Council of Holland].
- [http://www.lovetoknow.com/Flowers/flowers.htm Flower Encyclopedia]
- [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/F/Flowering.html Flowering] in [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/ Kimball's Biology Pages]
- [http://www.mystiqueflowers.org Flowers] Flower Types & Meanings
- [http://landscaping.about.com/od/galleryoflandscapephotos/a/flower_pictures.htm Flower Pictures]
- [http://www.flower-arrangement.org Flower Arrangement]
- [http://house-flowers.com House Flowers Council].
- [http://eir.library.utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem160.html William Blake: Ah Sun-Flower]
- [http://develop.consumerium.org/wiki/index.php/Flowers Flowers] at the Development Wiki of Consumerium Project
- [http://www.lib.ksu.edu/wildflower/drawing/simpleflower.jpg flower schematic]
- [http://www.flowerism.com Flowerism]An artist's devotion to painting of flowers
- [http://800florals.com/care/glossary.asp Glossary of Flowers] - Pictures and Names ---- A flower in a cryptic crossword could be pronounced flo-er and refer to a stream or river.
- Category:Plant anatomy Category: plant morphology Category:Reproductive system zh-min-nan:Hoe ko:꽃 ja:花 simple:Flower th:ดอกไม้

Xanthosoma

About 50; see text Xanthosoma is a genus of about 50 species of tropical and sub-tropical arums in the flowering plant family, Araceae, all native to tropical America. Several species are grown for their starchy corms, an important food staple of tropical regions, known variously as malanga, new cocoyam, tannia, tannier, yautia, macabo, and ‘ape. Many other species (including especially X. roseum) are utilized as ornamental plants, and in popular horticultural literature are known as ‘ape or elephant ear (from the purported resemblance of the leaf to an elephant's ear), although the latter name is sometimes also applied to members with similar appearance and uses in the closely related genera of Caladium, Colocasia (i.e., taro), and Alocasia. The leaves of most Xanthosoma species are 40-200 cm long, saggitate (arrowhead-shaped) or subdivided into 3 or as many as 18 segments. Unlike the leaves of Colocasia, those of Xanthosoma are usually not peltate—the upper v-notch extends in to the point of attachment of the leaf petiole to the blade.

Crop uses

leaves Domestication of Xanthosoma species (especially X. saggitifolium but also X. atrovirens, X. violaceum, X. maffaffa, and others) is thought to have originated in northern lowland South America then spread to the Antilles and Mesoamerica. Today Xanthosoma is still grown in all those regions but is especially popular in Cuba and Puerto Rico. It is also grown in West Africa, now a major producer, where it can be used as a replacement for yams in a popular regional dish called fufu. Xanthosoma is also grown as a crop in the Philippines. Traditionally Xanthosoma has been a subsistence crop with excess sold at local markets, but in the United States, large numbers of Latin American immigrants have created a market for commercial production. In general, production has yet to meet demand in some areas. In Polynesia, Xanthosoma (‘ape) was considered a famine food, utilized only in the event of failure of the much preferred taro (kalo) crop. The typical Xanthosoma plant has a growing cycle of 9 to 11 months, during which time it produces a large stem called a corm, this surrounded by smaller edible cormels about the size of potatoes. These cormels (like the corm) are rich in starch. Their taste has been described as earthy and nutty and they are a common ingredient in soups and stews. They may also be eaten grilled, fried, or puréed. The young, unfurled leaves of some varieties can be eaten as boiled leafy vegetables or used in soups and stews, such as the Caribbean callaloo. Xanthosoma starch is highly hypoallergenic due to the small size of the starch grains. hypoallergenic

External links

- [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Xanthosoma_nex.html Xanthosoma spp. at Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plants Products]
- [http://www.kallus.com/aroids/ediblescientific.htm Distribution and names of edible aroids] Category:Araceae Category:Root vegetables Category:Leaf vegetables

Caladium

See text Caladium is a genus of plants of the family Araceae. They are often known by the common name elephant ear, which they share with the closely related genera Alocasia, Colocasia, and Xanthosoma. The genus Caladium includes seven species, which are indigenous to Brazil and to neighboring areas of South America and Central America. They grow in open areas of the forest and on the banks of creeks and go dormant during the dry season. The wild plants grow to 40-90 cm tall, with leaves mostly 15-45 cm long and broad. ;Selected species
- Caladium bicolor (syn. C. marmoratum, C. picturatum, C. hortulanum)
- Caladium humboldtii
- Caladium lindenii
- Caladium schomburgkii

Cultivation and uses

Several species are grown as ornamental plants for their large, arrowhead-shaped leaves marked in varying patterns in white, pink, and red and have been in cultivation in Europe since the late 1700s. The two forms most widely cultivated are called "fancy-leaved" and "lance-leaved". The former is the more commonly seen and is the traditional caladium of cultivation; the leaves are more heart-shaped. The latter has more lance-head-shaped leaves. Most Caladiums in cultivation grow to about 60 cm high and 60 cm wide, although dwarf varieties are now in cultivation. Numerous cultivars have been selected, most of them (over 120) derived from C. bicolor. The lance-leaved varieties are also derived from C. schomburgkii. Caladiums grow from corms and can be propagated by dividing the tubers. They are hardy only to USDA plant hardiness zone 10; in colder areas, they are typically grown as tender bulbs or as houseplants. During their growing season, they need a great deal of water and should not be allowed to dry out. Most varieties prefer partial to full shade, although sun-resistant varieties are now in cultivation. In temperate areas, they should be lifted before the first frost. The corms are dried and stored for the winter when temperatures fall to 18º C, and stored moderately dry (not bone-dry) over the winter at temperatures between 13 °C and 16 °C. All parts of the plant are poisonous. They should not be ingested and may irritate sensitive skin.

External links

- [http://facultystaff.vwc.edu/~presslar/greenhouse/caladium/xhortulanum/ufces-1060.pdf Brochure on cultivation from the University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service] (PDF file) Category:Araceae Category:Garden plants

Poi (food)

Poi is a Hawaiian word for the primary Polynesian food staple made from the corm of the kalo plant (known widely as taro). Poi is produced by mashing the cooked corm (baked or steamed) to a highly viscous fluid. Water is added during mashing and again just before eating, to achieve a desired consistency. The bowl of poi was considered so important and sacred a part of daily Hawaiian life that whenever a bowl of poi was uncovered at the family dinner table, it was believed that the spirit of Hāloa, the ancestor of the Hawaiian people, was present. This is because Hawaiians believed that the taro plant, or kalo, was the original descendant of the Hawaiian people. Because of that, all conflict among family members had to come to an immediate halt. Most first-time tasters describe poi as resembling library paste—more an allusion to the texture than the flavor, which is delicate. Poi is an acquired taste, but quickly makes converts of those who persist. The flavor changes distinctly once the poi has been made. Fresh poi is sweet and excellent all by itself. Each day thereafter the poi loses sweetness and turns slightly sour. Because of this, some people find poi more palatable when it is mixed with milk and/or sugar, although purists frown on this. The speed of this fermentation process depends upon the bacteria level in the poi. The bacteria is harmless, and some would even say beneficial. To slow the souring process, poi should be stored in a cool, dark location (such as a kitchen cupboard). Poi stored in the refrigerator should be squeezed out of the bag into a bowl, and a thin layer of water drizzled over the top to keep a crust from forming. Sour poi is still quite edible with salted fish or lomi salmon on the side. Some would reasonably argue that poi is inedible beyond five days. Sourness is prevented by freezing or dehydrating, although the resulting poi tends to be bland in comparison with the fresh product. For best thawing results place in a microwave with a layer of tap water over the surface of the frozen poi. Sour poi is also an excellent cooking ingredient, particularly in breads and rolls. It has a smooth, creamy "mouth feel," but no fat. Shortages in taro production in recent years due to pests and labor shortages have also resulted in shortages and higher prices for poi in Hawai‘i. At the same time, innovations in poi production have resulted in poi that stays fresh longer and tastes sweeter, but such products generally sell at a premium price and require refrigeration. Poi has been used as a milk substitute for babies born with an allergy to dairy products, because of its nutritional value. It is also used as a baby food for babies with severe food allergies. Poi should not be confused with Tahitian po'e, which is a sweet, pudding-like dish made with bananas, papaya, or mangoes cooked with manioc and coconut cream.

External link

- [http://www.poico.com Hawaiian Poi Information] Poi facts, nutritional information, and recipes. Category:Hawaiian cuisine Category:Milk substitutes Category:Fermented foods

Hawaii

Hawaii (Hawaiian/Hawaiian English: Hawaii, with the okina; also, historically, the Sandwich Islands) is the archipelago of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Admitted on August 21, 1959, Hawaii constitutes the 50th state of the United States and is situated 2500 miles from the mainland. It is the southernmost part of that country. As of the 2000 U.S. Census it had a population of 1,211,537 people. Honolulu is the largest city and the state capital. Hawaiis the most recently admitted state of the United States. In addition to possessing the southernmost point in the United States, it is the only state that lies completely in the tropics. As one of two states outside the contiguous United States (the other being Alaska), it is the only state without territory on the mainland of any continent and it is the only state that continues to grow due to active lava flows, most notably from Kīlauea. Ethnically, Hawaii is the only state that has a majority group that is non-white (and one of only four in which non-Hispanic whites do not form a majority) and has the largest percentage of Asian Americans. For various reasons, Hawaii is considered the endangered species capital of the United States.

Symbols

The state constitution and various other measures of the Hawaii State Legislature established official symbols meant to embody the distinctive culture and heritage of Hawaii. These include a state bird, state fish, state flower, state gem, state mammal, state tree and the state muffin, though only a few other states share this symbol, like Washington. Included are the two statues representing Hawaii in the United States Capitol. The primary symbol is the state flag, Ka Hae Hawaii, influenced by the British Union Flag and features eight horizontal stripes representing the eight major Hawaiian Islands. The constitution declares the state motto to be Ua Mau ke Ea o ka Āina i ka Pono, a pronouncement of King Kamehameha III meaning, "The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness." It was also the motto of the kingdom, republic and territory. The official languages are Hawaiian and Hawaiian English. Hawaiian Pidgin is an unofficial language. The state song is Hawaii ponoi, written by King Kalākaua and composed by Henri Berger. Hawaii Aloha is the unofficial state song, often sung in official state event. Image:Nene.neck.arp.600pix.jpg|Hawaiian Goose
Nēnē
State Bird Image:Humuhumunukunukuapuaa.jpg|Reef Triggerfish
Humuhumunukunukuāpua'a
State Fish Image:Maohauhele.jpg|Hawaiian Hibiscus
Mao hau hele
State Flower Image:Aleuritesmoluccana1web.jpg|Candlenut
Kukui
State Tree Image:Humpback Whale underwater shot.jpg|Humpback Whale
Koholā kuapio
State Mammal Image:Fatherdamienstatue2.jpg|Father Damien Statue
State Capitol Image:Kamehamehastatue.jpg|Kamehameha Statue
Aliiolani Hale - State Supreme Court

Geography

Main article: Hawaiian Islands Nineteen islands and atolls extending across a distance of 2,400 km (1,500 mi) comprise the Hawaiian Archipelago. The main islands are the eight high islands at the southeastern end of the island chain. These islands are, in order from the northwest to southeast, Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lānai, Kahoolawe, Maui and the Island of Hawaii. All of the Hawaiian Islands were formed by volcanoes arising from the sea floor through a vent described in geological theory as a hotspot. The theory maintains that as the tectonic plate beneath much the Pacific Ocean moves in a northwesterly direction, the hot spot remains stationary, slowly creating new volcanoes. This explains why only volcanoes on the southern half of the Island of Hawaii are presently active. The last volcanic eruption outside the Island of Hawaii happened at Haleakalā on Maui in the late 18th century. The newest volcano to form is Lōihi, deep below the waters off the south coast of the Island of Hawaii. The isolation of the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and the wide range of environments to be found on high islands located in and near the tropics, has resulted in a vast array of endemic flora and fauna. The volcanic activity and subsequent erosion created impressive geological features. Those conditions make Mount Waialeale the wettest place on earth; it averages 11.7 m (460 in) of rain annually. The movement of the Hawaiian royal family from the Island of Hawaii to Maui and subsequently to Oahu explains why certain population centers exist where they do today. The largest city, Honolulu, was the one chosen by King Kamehameha III as the capital of his kingdom due to the natural harbor there, the present-day Honolulu Harbor. Other large cities and towns include Hilo, Kahului and Līhue. Image:Niihausatellite.jpg|Niihau Image:Kauai from space oriented.jpg|Kauai Image:Oahu.jpg|Oahu Image:Maui.jpg|Maui Image:Molokaifromsatellite.jpg|Molokai Image:Lanaisatellite.jpg|Lānai Image:Kahoolawesatellite.jpg|Kahoolawe Image:STS61A-50-57.jpg|Hawaii

Climate

The Climate of Hawaii is typical of tropical areas. It is famous for being warm throughout the whole year; during the summer, the temperature may reach to around 90 degrees Farenheit. Though people who live in Hawaii often complain about the heat, tourists generally enjoy the warm weather, as many of them come from locations of colder climates. Thus, Hawaii has become a popular tourist destination in the wintertime, when the Hawaiian weather would be above 70 degrees Farenheit. Hawaii is also popular with tourists in the summer because it does not suffer from the same heat waves that occur in the continental North America -- Hawaii has tradewinds which keep excess heat away. The main portions of Oahu can be divided into Windward and Leeward sections, divided by a mountain range. The Windward side enjoys more rain. However the Leeward side's drier climate has benefitted toward the plantation industries.

History

Hawaiian antiquity

Main article: Ancient Hawaii, Hawaiian mythology, Polynesian mythology Anthropologists believe that Polynesians from the Marquesas and Society Islands first populated the Hawaiian Islands in approximately 300AD, followed by Tahitian settlers in approximately 1300AD who conquered and eliminated the original inhabitants of the islands. These Tahitian conquerors preserved memories of their migrations orally through genealogies and folk tales, like the stories of Hawaiiloa and Paao. Relations with other Polynesian groups were sporadic during the early migratory periods, and Hawaii grew from small settlements to a complex society in near isolation. Voyaging between Hawai'i and the South Pacific apparently ceased with no explanation several centuries before European arrival. Local chiefs called alii ruled their settlements and fought to extend their sway and defend their communities from predatory rivals. Warfare was endemic. The general trend was towards chiefdoms of increasing size, even encompassing whole islands. Vague reports by various European explorers suggest that Hawaii was visited by foreigners well before the 1778 arrival of British explorer Captain James Cook. Historians credited Cook with the discovery after he was the first to plot and publish the geographical coordinates of the Hawaiian Islands. Cook named his discovery the Sandwich Islands in honor of one of his sponsors, John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich.

Hawaiian kingdom

Main article: Kingdom of Hawaii After a series of battles that ended in 1795 and peaceful cession of the island of Kauai in 1810, the Hawaiian Islands were united for the first time under a single ruler who would become known as King Kamehameha the Great. He established the House of Kamehameha, a dynasty that ruled over the kingdom until 1872. One of the most important events during those years was the suppression of the Hawaii Catholic Church. That led to the Edict of Toleration that established religious freedom in the Hawaiian Islands. The death of the bachelor King Kamehameha V who did not name an heir resulted in the election of King Lunalilo. After him, governance was passed on to the House of Kalākaua. However, local businessmen effectively rendered the monarchy powerless by enacting the Bayonet Constitution. Among other things, it stripped the king of his administrative authorities, eliminated voting rights for all Asians, and required specific income and property requirements for all other European and native Hawaiian voters, essentially limiting the electorate to elite native Hawaiians and Europeans. King Kalākaua reigned until his death in 1891. His sister, Liliuokalani, succeeded him to the throne and ruled until her dethronement in 1893, a coup d'état orchestrated by local businessmen and government officials with the help of an armed militia The Honolulu Rifles, instigated by the Queen's threat to abrogate the constitution. Governance was again passed, this time into the hands of a provisional government and then to an independent Republic of Hawaii. During the kingdom era and subsequent republican regime, Iolani Palace — the only official royal residence in the United States today — served as the capitol buildings. Image:Kamehamehaportrait.jpg|Kamehameha Image:Kamehamehaii.jpg|Kamehameha II Image:Kamehamehaiii.jpg|Kamehameha III Image:Alexanderliholiho.jpg|Kamehameha IV Image:Kamehamehav.jpg|Kamehameha V Image:Williamcharleslunalilo.jpg|Lunalilo Image:Kalakauapainting.jpg|Kalākaua Image:Liliuokalani2.jpg|Liliuokalani

Hawaiian territory

Main article: Territory of Hawaii The Newlands Resolution was passed on July 7, 1898, formally annexing Hawaii as a United States territory. In 1900, it was granted self-governance and retained Iolani Palace as the territorial capitol building. Though several attempts were made to achieve statehood, Hawaii remained a territory for sixty years. Plantation owners, like those that comprised the so-called Big Five, found territorial status convenient, enabling them to continue importing cheap foreign labor; such immigration was prohibited in various other states of the Union. The power of the plantation owners was finally broken by activist descendants of original immigrant laborers. Because they were born in a United States territory, they were legal U.S. citizens. Expecting to gain full voting rights, they actively campaigned for statehood for the Hawaiian Islands. In March 1959, both houses of Congress passed the Admission Act and U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed it into law. (The act excluded Palmyra Atoll, part of the Kingdom and Territory of Hawaii, from the new state.) On June 27 of that year, a plebiscite was held asking Hawaiians to vote on accepting the statehood bill. Hawaii voted 17 to 1 to accept. On August 21, church bells throughout Honolulu were rung upon the proclamation that Hawaii was finally the 50th state of the Union.

Hawaiian statehood

After statehood, Hawaii quickly became a modern state with a construction boom and rapidly growing economy. The Hawaii Republican Party, which was strongly supported by the plantation owners, was voted out of office. In its place, the Democratic Party of Hawaii dominated state politics for forty years. The state also worked toward restoring the native Hawaiian culture. The Hawaii State Constitutional Convention of 1978 heralded what some called a Hawaiian renaissance. Its delegates created programs that sought to revive the indigenous Hawaiian language and culture. In addition, they sought to promote native control over Hawaiian issues by creating the Office of Hawaiian Affairs.

Languages

Main articles: Hawaiian language, Hawaiian English The state of Hawaii has two official languages as prescribed by the Constitution of Hawaii adopted at the 1978 constitutional convention: Hawaiian and English. Article XV, Section 4 requires the use of Hawaiian in official state business such as public acts, documents, laws and transactions. Standard Hawaiian English, a subset of American English, is also commonly used for other formal business. Hawaiian is legally acceptable in all legal documents, from depositions to legislative bills. The third and fourth most spoken languages are Tagalog and Japanese, respectively.

Origins

Before the arrival of Captain James Cook, the Hawaiian language was purely a spoken language. The first written form of Hawaiian was developed by American Protestant missionaries in Hawaii during the early 19th century. The missionaries assigned letters from the English alphabet that roughly corresponded to the Hawaiian sounds. Later, additional characters were added to clarify pronunciation. The okina indicates a glottal stop while the macron called kahakō signifies a long vowel sound. When a Hawaiian word is spelled without any necessary okina and kahakō, it is impossible for someone who does not already know the word to guess at the proper pronunciation. Omission of the okina and kahakō in printed texts can even obscure the meaning of the word. For example, the word lanai means stiff-necked. However, when spelled as lānai it means veranda while Lānai refers to an island. This can be a problem in interpreting 19th century Hawaiian texts recorded in the older orthography. For these reasons, careful writers use the modern Hawaiian orthography.

Revival

As a result of the constitutional provision, interest in the Hawaiian language was revived in the late 20th century. Public and independent schools throughout the state began teaching Hawaiian language standards as part of the regular curricula, beginning with preschool. With the help of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, also created by the 1978 constitutional convention, specially designated Hawaiian language immersion schools were established where students would be taught in all subjects using Hawaiian. Also, the University of Hawaii System developed the only Hawaiian language graduate studies program in the world. Municipal codes were altered in favor of Hawaiian place and street names for new civic developments.

Pidgin

Over the course of Hawaiian history, a third language was developed that is in common use throughout the state today. Originally considered a mere dialect of Hawaiian English, cultural anthropologists have recently reached consensus that Hawaiian Pidgin is a distinct language on its own. Hawaiian Pidgin finds its origins in the sugarcane and pineapple plantations as laborers from different cultures were forced to find their own ways of communicating and understanding each other. Laborer emigrants from different countries — China, Japan, Korea, Philippines, Portugal — began composing their own words and phrases based on their own language traditions, which merged with Hawaiian and Hawaiian English.

Debates

A somewhat divisive political issue that has arisen since the Constitution of Hawaii adopted Hawaiian as an official state language is the exact spelling of the state's name. As prescribed in the Admission Act of 1959 that granted Hawaiian statehood, the federal government recognizes Hawaii to be the official state name. However, many state and municipal entities and officials have recognized Hawaii to be the correct state name. Official government publications, as well as department and office titles, use the traditional Hawaiian spelling. Private entities, including local mass media, also have shown a preference for the use of the okina. While in local Hawaiian society the spelling and pronunciation of Hawaii is preferred in nearly all cases, even by standard English speakers, the federal spelling is used for purposes of interpolitical relations between other states and foreign governments. The nuances in the Hawaiian language debate are often not obvious or well-appreciated outside Hawaii. The issue has often been a source of friction in situations where correct naming conventions are mandated, as people frequently disagree over which spelling is correct or incorrect, and where it is correctly or incorrectly applied.

Government

The state government of Hawaii is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from the kingdom era of Hawaiian history. As codified in the Constitution of Hawaii, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch is led by the Governor of Hawaii and assisted by the Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii, both elected on the same ticket. The governor, in residence at Washington Place, is the only public official elected for the state government in a statewide race; all other administrators and judges are appointed by the governor. The lieutenant governor is concurrently the Secretary of State of Hawaii. Both the governor and lieutenant governor administer their duties from the Hawaii State Capitol. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee the major agencies and departments of the executive of which there are twenty. The legislative branch consists of the Hawaii State Legislature — the twenty-five members of the Hawaii State Senate led by the President of the Senate and the fifty-one members of the Hawaii State House of Representatives led by the Speaker of the House. They also govern from the Hawaii State Capitol. The judicial branch is led by the highest state court, the Hawaii State Supreme Court, which uses Aliiolani Hale as its chambers. Lower courts are organized as the Hawaii State Judiciary. The state is represented in the Congress of the United States by a delegation of four members. They are the senior and junior United States Senators, the representative of the First Congressional District of Hawaii and the representative of the Second Congressional District of Hawaii. Many Hawaii residents have been appointed to administer other agencies and departments of the federal government by the President of the United States. All federal officers of Hawaii administer their duties locally from the Prince Kuhio Federal Building near the Aloha Tower and Honolulu Harbor. Hawaii is primarily dominated by the Democratic Party and has supported Democrats in 10 of the 12 presidential elections in which it has participated. In 2004, John Kerry won the state's 4 electoral votes by a margin of 9 percentage points with 54% of the vote. Every county in the state supported the Democratic candidate. The Prince Kuhio Federal Building also houses agencies of the federal government such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Internal Revenue Service and the United States Secret Service. The building is the site of the federal courts and the offices of the United States Attorney for the District of Hawaii, principal law enforcement officer of the United States Department of Justice in the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii. Image:Lindalingle.jpg|Linda Lingle
Governor
(Republican) Image:Jamesaiona.jpg|James R. Aiona, Jr.
Lieutenant Governor
(Republican) Image:Bunda.jpg|Robert Bunda
Senate President
(Democrat) Image:Daniel Inouye.jpg|Daniel Inouye
U.S. Senator
(Democrat) Image:Daniel Akaka.jpg|Daniel Akaka
U.S. Senator
(Democrat) Image:Neilabercrombie.jpg|Neil Abercrombie
U.S. Representative
(Democrat) Image:Edcaseofficial.jpg|Edward Case
U.S. Representative
(Democrat) Image:Mayorharrykim.jpg|Harry Kim
Mayor of Hawaii
(Nonpartisan) Image:Mufihannemann.jpg|Mufi Hannemann
Mayor of Honolulu
(Nonpartisan) Image:Bryanjbaptiste.jpg|Bryan J. Baptiste
Mayor of Kauai
(Nonpartisan) Image:Mayoralanarakawa.jpg|Alan Arakawa
Mayor of Maui
(Nonpartisan) Unique to Hawaii is the way it has organized its municipal governments. There are no incorporated cities in Hawaii except the City & County of Honolulu. All other municipal governments are administered at the county level. The county executives are the Mayor of Hawaii, Mayor of Honolulu, Mayor of Kauai and Mayor of Maui. All mayors in the state are elected in nonpartisan races. The officers of the federal and state governments have been historically elected from the Democratic Party of Hawaii and the Hawaii Republican Party. Municipal charters in the state have declared all mayors to be elected in nonpartisan races.

Economy

The history of Hawaii can be traced through a succession of dominating industries: sandalwood, whaling, sugarcane, pineapple, military, tourism, and education. Since statehood was achieved in 1959, tourism continues to be the largest industry in Hawaii, contributing 24.3% of the Gross State Product (GSP) in 1997. Most recently, new efforts were created to diversify the economy. The total gross output for the state in 2003 was USD $47 billion. Per capita income for Hawaii residents was USD $30,441. Industrial exports from Hawaii include food processing and apparel. However, because of the considerable shipping distance to markets on the west coast of the United States and ports of Japan, these industries play a small role in the Hawaii economy. The main agricultural exports are nursery stock and flowers, coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, and sugar cane. Agricultural sales for 2002, according to the Hawaii Agricultural Statistics Service, were USD $370.9 million from diversified agriculture, USD $100.6 million from pineapple, and USD $64.3 million from sugarcane. Hawaii is known for its relatively high per capita state tax burden. In the years 2002 and 2003, Hawaii residents had the highest state tax per capita at USD $2,757 and USD $2,838 respectively. This rate can be explained partly by the fact that services such as education, health care and social services are all rendered at the state level — as opposed to the municipal level as all other states. Also, millions of tourists contribute to the collection figure by paying the general excise tax and hotel room tax. Therefore, not all the taxes collected come directly from residents. However, business leaders have often considered the state's tax burden as being too high, contributing to both higher prices and the perception of an unfriendly business climate [http://starbulletin.com/2004/05/21/news/story1.html]. For more information about commercial industries in Hawaii, see the list of businesses in Hawaii.

Education

Main article: Hawaii State Department of Education Hawaii is currently the only state in the union with a unified school system statewide. It is also the oldest public education system west of the Mississippi River. Policy decisions are made by the fourteen-member state Board of Education, with thirteen members elected for four-year terms and one non-voting student member. The Board of Education sets statewide educational policy and hires the state superintendent of schools, who oversees the operations of the state Department of Education. The Department of Education is also divided into seven districts, four on Oahu and one for each of the other counties. The structure of the state Department of Education has been a subject of discussion and controversy in recent years. The main rationale for the current centralized model is equity in school funding and distribution of resources: leveling out inequalities that would exist between highly populated Oahu and the more rural Neighbor Islands, and between lower-income and more affluent areas of the state. This system of school funding differs from many localities in the United States where schools are funded from local property taxes. However, policy initiatives have been made in recent years toward decentralization. Current Governor Linda Lingle is a proponent of replacing the current statewide board with seven elected district boards. The Democrat-controlled state legislature opposed her proposal, instead favoring expansion of decision-making power to the schools and giving schools more discretion over budgeting. Political debate of structural reform is likely to continue for the foreseeable future.

Schools and academies

Hawaii has the distinction of educating more students in independent institutions of secondary education than any other state in the United States. It also has four of the largest independent schools: Mid-Pacific Institute, Iolani School, Kamehameha Schools and Punahou School. Other popular independent schools include: Hawaii Baptist Academy, Hawaii Preparatory Academy, Maryknoll School, St. Andrew's Priory, and Saint Louis School. A highly rated public high school often cited as comparable to the state's independent schools is Moanalua High School. It should be noted that independent and charter schools can select their students, while the regular public schools must take all students in their district. For a comprehensive list of independent schools, see the list of independent schools in Hawaii. For a comprehensive list of public schools, see the list of public schools in Hawaii.

Colleges and universities

Graduates of institutions of secondary learning in Hawaii often either enter directly into the workforce or attend colleges and universities. While many choose to attend colleges and universities on the mainland or elsewhere, most choose to attend one of many institutions of higher learning in Hawaii. The largest of these institutions is the University of Hawaii System. Its main campuses are in Hilo, Manoa and West Oahu. Students choosing private education attend Brigham Young University Hawaii, Chaminade University of Honolulu, Hawaii Pacific University and University of the Nations. The Saint Stephen Diocesan Center is a seminary of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu. For a comprehensive list of colleges and universities, see the list of colleges and universities in Hawaii.

Problems

Public schools in Hawaii have to deal with large populations of children of non-native English speaking immigrants and a culture that is different in many ways from mainland US, where most of the course materials come from and where most of the standards for schools are set. The public elementary, middle, and high school scores in Hawaii tend to be below average on national tests as mandated under the No Child Left Behind Act. Some of this can be attributed to the Hawaii State Board of Education requiring all eligible students to take these tests and reporting all student test scores unlike, for example, Texas and Michigan. Results reported in August 2005 indicate that two-thirds of Hawaii's schools failed to reach federal minimum performance standards in math and reading (of 282 schools across the state, 185 failed [http://www.thehawaiichannel.com/education/4870699/detail.html]). On the other hand, results of the ACT college placement tests show that Hawaii class of 2005 seniors scored slightly above the national average (21.9 compared with 20.9) (Honolulu Advertiser, Aug. 17, 2005, p. B1). It should be noted that fewer students take the ACT examination than take the more widely accepted SAT examination. On the SAT Hawaii's college bound seniors tend to score below the national average except in math. Hawaii, like all other states in the United States, is struggling to provide educational services in its public schools with shrinking budgets.

Media

Newspapers

Two major competing Honolulu-based newspapers serve all of Hawaii. The Honolulu Advertiser is owned by Gannett Pacific Corporation while the Honolulu Star-Bulletin is owned by Black Press of British Columbia in Canada. Both are two of the largest newspapers in the United States, in terms of circulation. Other locally published newspapers are available to residents of the various islands. The Hawaii business community is served by the Pacific Business News and Hawaii Business Magazine. The largest religious community in Hawaii is served by the Hawaii Catholic Herald. Honolulu Magazine is a popular magazine that offers local interest news and feature articles. Apart from the mainstream press, the state also enjoys a vibrant ethnic publication presence with newspapers for the Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean and Native Hawaiian communities. In addition, there is an alternative weekly, the Honolulu Weekly.

Television

All the major television networks are represented in Hawaii through KFVE (WB network affiliate), KGMB (CBS network affiliate), KHET (PBS network affiliate), KHNL (NBC network affiliate), KHON (Fox network affiliate), KIKU (UPN network affiliate) and KITV (ABC network affiliate), among others. From Honolulu, programming at these stations is rebroadcast to the various other islands via networks of satellite transmitters. Until the advent of satellite, most network programming was broadcast a week behind mainland scheduling. The various production companies that work with the major networks have produced television series and other projects in Hawaii. Most notable were police dramas like Magnum P.I. and Hawaii Five-O. Currently, the hit TV show Lost is filmed in the Hawaiian Islands. A comprehensive list of such projects can be seen at the list of Hawaii television series.

Film

Hawaii a growing film industry administered by the state through the Hawaii Film Office. Several television shows, movies and various other media projects were produced in the Hawaiian Islands taking advantage of the natural scenic landscapes as backdrops. Notable films produced in Hawaii or were inspired by Hawaii include Hawaii, Blue Hawaii, From Here to Eternity, South Pacific, Raiders Of The Lost Ark, Jurassic Park, Outbreak, Waterworld, Six Days Seven Nights, George of the Jungle, 50 First Dates, Pearl Harbor, Blue Crush and Lilo & Stitch. Hawaii is home to a prominent film festival known as the Hawaii International Film Festival.

Culture

:Main article: Culture of Hawaii The aboriginal culture of Hawaii is Polynesian. Hawaii represents the northernmost extension of the vast Polynesian triangle of the south and central Pacific Ocean. While traditional Hawaiian culture remains only as vestiges influencing modern Hawaiian society, there are reenactments of ancient ceremonies and traditions throughout the islands. Some of these cultural influences are strong enough to have impacted the culture of the United States at large, including the popularity (in greatly modified form) of luaus and hula.
- Customs and etiquette in Hawaii
- Folklore in Hawaii
- Hawaiian mythology
- List of Hawaii state parks
- List of Hawaii State Landmarks
- List of Hawaii-related topics
- Literature in Hawaii
- Music of Hawaii
- Polynesian mythology
- Tourism of Hawaii

Demographics

As of 2004, the population of Hawaii was 1,262,840. The population of Hawaii is approximately 1.2 million, while the de facto population is over 1.3 million due to military presence and tourists. Oahu is the most populous island, with a population of just under one million. Hawaii was the first majority-minority state in the United States since the early twentieth century. According to the 2000 Census, 6.6% of Hawaii's population identified themselves as Native Hawaiian, 24.3% were White or Caucasian, including Portuguese and 41.6% were Asian, including 0.1% Asian Indian, 4.7% Chinese, 14.1% Filipino, 16.7% Japanese, 1.9% Korean and 0.6% Vietnamese. 1.3% were other Pacific Islander which includes Samoan, Tongan, Tahitian, Maori and Micronesian, and 21.4% described themselves as mixed (two or more races/ethnic groups). 1.8% were Black or African American and 0.3% were Native American and Alaska Native. The second group of foreigners to arrive upon Hawaii's shores, after the Europeans, were the Chinese. Chinese employees serving on Western trading ships disembarked and settled starting in 1789. In 1820 the first American missionaries arrived in Hawaii to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians what the missionaries considered "civilized" ways. A large proportion of Hawaii's population has become a people of Asian ancestry (especially Chinese, Japanese and Filipino), many of whom are descendants from those waves of early foreign immigrants brought to the islands in the nineteenth century, beginning in the 1850's, to work on the sugar plantations. The first Japanese arrived in Hawaii on February 9, 1885. The largest city is the capital, Honolulu, located along the southeast coast of the island of Oahu. Other populous cities include Hilo, Kāneohe, Kailua, Pearl City, Kahului, and Kailua-Kona. As of 2000, 73.4% of Hawaii residents age 5 and older speak English at home and 7.9% speak Pacific Island languages. Tagalog is the third most spoken language at 5.4%, followed by Japanese at 5.0% and Chinese at 2.6%.
- Religion
- Christian = 68%
- Protestant = 42%
- Congregational/United Church of Christ= 3%
- Baptist = 2%
- Methodist = 2%
- Catholic = 24%
- Mormon = 2%
- Agnostic/non-religious = 18%
- Buddhist = 9%
- Other(e.g. Shinto, Tao, pagan) = 5%
- See also: Richest Places in Hawaii

Famous people from Hawaii

The list of famous people from Hawaii is a comprehensive, alphabetized list of persons who have achieved fame that presently or at one time claimed Hawaii as their home. Separate registers of members of the Hawaiian royal family and Hawaii politicians are also available. Image:Fatherdamien.jpg|Father Damien
Beatified towards sainthood by Pope John Paul II Image:Mothermariannecope.jpg|Mother Marianne Cope
Beatified towards sainthood by Pope Benedict XVI Image:Fong.jpg|Hiram Fong
First Chinese American and Asian American elected United States Senator Image:Dukesurfer.jpg|Duke Kahanamoku
Inventor of modern surfing and 1912, 1920 and 1924 Olympics champion Image:Georgeariyoshi.jpg|George R. Ariyoshi
First Japanese American and Asian American elected governor in the United States Image:Ericshinseki.jpg|Eric Shinseki
First Japanese American and Asian American member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Image:Ben cayetano adresses legislature.jpg|Ben Cayetano
First Filipino American and second Asian american elected governor in the United States

External links

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- [http://www.state.hi.us Official state homepage]
- [http://www.gohawaii.com Hawaii Visitors & Convention Bureau]
- [http://www.hawaiianswers.com HawaiiAnswers.com] - a FAQ repository for Hawaii
- [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15304 Satellite image of Hawaiian Islands] at NASA's Earth Observatory
- [http://www.google.com/maps?ll=20.731201,-157.675781&spn=5.218506,8.107910&t=k&hl=en Google maps]
- [http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/lacroix.hawaii.history Economic History of Hawaii]
Category:States of the United States zh-min-nan:Hawai‘i ja:ハワイ州 ko:하와이 주 simple:Hawaii th:มลรัฐฮาวาย

Ergastic substances

Ergastic substances are non-protoplasm materials found in cells. The living protoplasm of a cell is sometimes called the bioplasm and distinct from the ergastic substances of the cell. The latter are usually organic or inorganic substances that are products of metabolism, and include crystals, oil drops, gums, tannins, resins and other compounds that can aid the organism in defe