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KVLY

KVLY

KVLY channel 11 (44 digital) is the NBC television affiliate based in Fargo, North Dakota that serves much of eastern North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota. The station is most notable for using the tallest above-ground structure in the world for broadcasting its signal. The KVLY-TV mast rises 2,063 feet (628.8 m) high, and set the standard for current height limitations in the United States. KXJB channel 4 operates the second-tallest tower in the world. KXJB and KVLY are housed in the same building. The station's call sign was changed from KTHI (for "The HIgh tower") to KVLY in 1995. The current call sign represents the station's slogan, "The Valley's Choice for Local News," as it serves the communities along the Red River of the North and its tributaries. Longtime personalities at the station include Charley Johnson, who is now General Manager in addition to being an evening news anchor, and Tom Szymanski, KVLY's 6' 10" (208 cm) meteorologist. KVLY is owned by NBC North Dakota, a division of NDTV, LLC, a holding company of Wicks Media Group.

External link

- [http://www.kvlytv11.com/ KVLY]
- Category:NBC network affiliates

Digital television

Digital television (DTV) uses digital modulation and compression to broadcast video, audio and data signals to television sets.

Introduction

A major use of DTV can be to carry more channels in the same amount of bandwidth. Another can be high-definition programming. The digital signal eliminates common analog broadcasting artifacts such as "ghosting", "snow", and static noises in audio. It can replace them with new MPEG compression artifacts, such as "blocking", when transmitted at too low a data rate, and may fail to work entirely in situations where analog television would have produced an impaired but watchable picture. Depending on the sophistication and level of the error correction defined by the standard and chosen by the broadcaster, DTV may either work perfectly or not work at all. The switch-over to DTV systems often coincides with a change in picture format from an aspect ratio of 4:3 to one of 16:9. This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of movies and human vision. On traditional screens this leads to "letterbox" black bars above and below the picture due to placing the 16:9 picture in a 4:3 frame. The previous aspect ratio of 4:3 was chosen to match the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences standard ratio of the day.

Market

Terrestrial

Digital terrestrial television (DTT) is in the process of deployment in a number of countries.
- Governments see DTT as a "futuristic" technology that will push their country to the forefront of the "digital revolution" and free up existing TV frequencies for resale, for example to communications operators.
- Broadcasters see DTT as a way to fight competition from satellite and cable DTV and other digital program distribution technologies, such as personal digital video recorders (PVR) and video on demand (VoD).
- Hardware manufacturers see DTT as a way to sell set-top boxes first and new all-in-one TV sets later.
- Consumers see DTT as a way to obtain more programs from their existing TV antenna at the cost of a set-top box or new television. In some countries, DTT is seen as a technology that is being pushed on a public that does not exhibit much demand for it. This is particularly so in countries where high-definition programs are broadcast terrestrially, since HDTV sets are at the moment prohibitively expensive, and very little HDTV content exists apart from movies.

Satellite

DTV has been shown to be commercially viable in the satellite television market, where it is used to multiplex large numbers of channels onto the available bandwidth. The business model for satellite DTV in the U.S. and the UK is similar to that for cable TV. Satellite DTV operators tend to act as packagers for large numbers of channels, including pay-TV. The greater RF bandwidth available to satellite operators allows them to out-compete terrestrial DTV operators on both number of channels and picture quality.

Cable

Where an original analog cable set-top box is already required this has to be replaced to receive digital cable. From a user's point of view the main advantage appears to be simply better picture quality and more channel availability, however (depending on the choices operators make regarding set-top box hardware and middleware software) many other features become possible with the transfer away from analog. Often a TV guide (seven-day schedules) with extended information can be viewed, reminders to watch programs can be set and advanced parental censorship on channel content can be exercised. Operators also enjoy better CA (conditional access) on digitally transmitted streams as they can be sent "encrypted" with schemes such as DES encryption to help prevent unauthorized access and protect revenues. Operators wishing to increase the carrying capacity of their original networks have to replace all analog set-top boxes with digital replacements before turning off the analog feeds; this is not a trivial or low-cost solution as literally millions of set-top boxes require replacement. Some of the more advanced cable networks even have the use of a return path (a two-way data communications path to allow DTV set-top boxes to return information back to the operators head-end). This allows them to extend services offered to include interactive web style content viewing, gaming, voting and other "on-demand" services such as control of video on-demand films.

IPTV

Main article: IPTV Internet technologies are finally starting to be adapted for use with DTV deployments, meaning a single broadband Internet connection will eventually service one's home providing one with Triple Play (voice over IP, Internet access, and digital television). IPTV is a big step forward when combined with the latest advancements in picture quality such as high-definition (HDTV) and new AVC (Advanced Video Compression) standards such as MPEG4 H.264 or WM9 (very efficient emerging picture compression standards). Not only are set-top boxes becoming smarter (they are essentially cut down PC's in their own right) they will interact with other devices such as PDA's, mobile phones, and the Internet to provide a truly flexible solution allowing local information to be tailored to specific regions (e.g. weather and news from your local area).

Analog switch-off

In general, viewers who are happy with their existing analog TV systems tend not to adopt terrestrial DTV systems (so-called "digital refuseniks"). There is also a significant number of DVB or free-to-air satellite viewers who retain analogue terrestrial capability solely for news, sport, or other purely local broadcasts. The cost of a second digital set-top box for each TV just for a few local channels may be difficult to justify if these households already watch digital signals on most channels and have capital tied up in DVB-S or proprietary dish hardware. In the subscription-TV market, many who want cable-TV-like services buy either cable TV (where available) or satellite DTV. As such, those most able to afford terrestrial DTV equipment are the ones abandoning OTA reception for satellite or other signal sources which provide a wider selection of programming. Governments are responding to this with an attempt to force the issue by enforcing planned "switch-off" dates for analog television, but are encountering resistance from the public, as they fear that this will mean that they will need to replace every television they own, including portable TVs and bedroom TVs, or buy additional digital receivers (a set-top box). In the United States, many broadcasters have requested repeated extensions of the original 2002 deadline for ATSC availability or transmit ATSC only at significantly lower power than their main signal. The capital cost to build even an underpowered digital transmitter becomes particularly onerous for small-market stations (see KXGN). Legislation is currently pending that will mandate the analog switch-off for 2009, three years after the date originally suggested by the FCC. See List of digital television deployments by country.

Technical

Formats

All digital TV variants can carry both standard-definition television (SDTV) and high-definition television (HDTV). All early SDTV television standards were analog in nature, and SDTV digital television systems derive much of their structure from the need to be compatible with analog television. In particular, the interlaced scan is a legacy of analog television. Attempts were made during the development of digital television to prevent a repeat of the fragmentation of the global market into different standards (that is, PAL, SÉCAM, NTSC). However, once again the world could not agree on a single standard, and hence there are two major standards in existence: the European DVB system and the U.S. ATSC system, plus the Japanese system ISDB. Note: For cable, in addition to ATSC standards, the SCTE standard is used to describe Cable out-of-band metadata. Most countries in the world have adopted DVB, but several have followed the U.S. in adopting ATSC instead (Canada, Mexico, South Korea). Korea has adopted S-DMB for satellite mobile broadcasting. There could be other specialized high-resolution digital video formats in the future for markets other than home entertainment. Ultra High Definition Video (UHDV) is a format proposed by NHK of Japan that provides a resolution 16 times greater than HDTV.

Bandwidth

In current practice, HDTV uses 1280 × 720 pixels in progressive scan mode (abbreviated 720p) or 1920 × 1080 pixels in interlace mode (1080i). SDTV has less resolution (640 x 480 or 704 × 480 pixels with NTSC, 768 × 576 or 1024 × 576 with PAL in 4:3 and 16:9 aspect ratios respectively), but allows the bandwidth of a DTV channel (or "multiplex") to be subdivided into multiple sub-channels. The TV stations can use subchannels to carry multiple broadcasts of video, audio, or any other data, and can distribute their so-called "bit budget" as necessary, such as dropping one sub-channel down to a lower resolution in order to make another one available to show a wide-screen movie. Often, this is done automatically, using a statistical multiplexer (or "stat-mux"). Multiplexes can even reduce their overall bit budget and digital bandwidth, in order to reduce the transmission bitrate and make reception easier for more distant or mobile viewers.

Reception

Today most viewers receive digital television via a set-top box, which decodes the digital signals into signals that analog televisions can understand, but a slowly growing number of TV sets with integrated receivers are already available. Access to channels can be controlled by a removable smart card, for example via the Common Interface (DVB-CI) standard for Europe and via Point Of Deployment (POD) for IS or named differently CableCard. Some signals carry encryption and specify use conditions (such as "may not be recorded" or "may not be viewed on displays larger than 1m in diagonal measure") backed up with the force of law under the WIPO Copyright Treaty and national legislation implementing it, such as the U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act.

Protection parameters for terrestrial DTV broadcasting

Digital Millennium Copyright Act

Interaction

Digital teletext is an enhanced teletext service based on XHTML and CSS. Many countries, including Finland, use Multimedia Home Platform DVB-MHP for digital teletext. An alternative is the MHEG-5 platform used terrestrially in the UK. Digital teletext is supposed to provide interactive services, but for this a separate "return path", such as a telephone line or Internet connection, is required. In U.S. only, closed captioning is a subtitle service for hearing impaired people. Several languages are broadcasted. ISDB has adopted ARIB STD-B24 for interactive services. ISDB has labeled interactive services as data broadcasting. ARIB STD-B24 system is based on BML. BML is modified XML language for data broadcasting. ISDB has been providing EPG, news, weather forecast, traffic information, stock market conditions, educational program, interactive game program, TV shopping via the Internet, etc.

Deployment

List of digital television deployments by country

NBC

The National Broadcasting Company or NBC is an American television broadcasting company based in New York City's Rockefeller Center. It is now part of the media conglomerate NBC Universal, and supplies programming to more than 200 affiliated U.S. stations. NBC Universal is a unit of General Electric. The last U.S. network holding company to legally abandon the name behind its acronym, in 2003 the corporate name was shrunk from "National Broadcasting Company, Inc.", as it had been from 1926, to NBC Universal, Inc. following a merger with Vivendi Universal's Entertainment division in 2004. (ABC still occasionally uses American Broadcasting Company or Companies for some copyrights and on-air branding.) Control of the network passed to GE in 1986 following the purchase of NBC's original parent, RCA. Since this acquisition, the President and CEO of NBC has been Bob Wright.

History

Bob Wright]

Radio

The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) radio network went on the air with twenty-four affiliated stations on November 15, 1926. It was owned by Radio Corporation of America (RCA), itself set up in 1919 to control Guglielmo Marconi's American patents; RCA in turn was owned by General Electric Company (GE), the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, the United Fruit Company and American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T). In a time of consolidation in the radio business, RCA had bought New York station WEAF from AT&T. RCA shareholder Westinghouse had a competing facility in Newark, pioneer station WJZ, which also served as originating station for a loosely-structured network. As NBC took over responsibility for these stations, WEAF and its affiliates became the NBC Red network; the WJZ group was dubbed the NBC Blue network. WEAF had been a laboratory for AT&T's Western Electric, which manufactured transmitters and antennas. AT&T's long-distance and local Bell operating divisions were developing technologies for transmitting voice- and music-grade audio over short and long distances, via both wireless and wired methods. So AT&T's creation of station WEAF in 1922 offered a research-and-development center for these activities. WEAF put together a regular schedule of programs of all types, and created some of the first broadcasts to incorporate commercial endorsements or sponsorships. An immediate success, and created links with other stations to offer coverage of sports or political events. WEAF's first efforts in what would become known first as "chain broadcasting" and later as "networking" tied together Outlet Company's WJAR in Providence, Rhode Island with AT&T's WCAP in Washington, D.C. (named for the Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company division of AT&T). RCA also saw an advantage in sharing programming, and after getting a license for station WRC in Washington, D.C. in 1923, attempted to transmit audio between cities via low-quality telegraph lines (since AT&T refused outside companies access to their high-quality phone lines.) The effort was poor at best, with the uninsulated telegraph lines incapable of good audio transmission quality and very susceptible to both atmospheric and man-made electrical interference. In 1925 the management of AT&T decided that WEAF and its network was not compatible with AT&T's goal of providing phone service, and offered to sell the station to RCA, whose business was set manufacturing. When RCA bought WEAF, it gained rights to rent AT&T's phone lines for network transmission. For $1 million, RCA got WEAF and a Washington sister-station, WCAP. It closed WCAP, and created a wholly-owned division called the National Broadcasting Company (it was actually owned 50% by RCA, 30% by General Electric, and 20% by Westinghouse). WEAF and Westinghouse's WJZ and the two networks were operated side-by-side for about a year, but in 1927 NBC formally split the two networks: the NBC Red Network offered entertainment and music programming; the NBC Blue Network carried many of the "sustaining" or non-sponsored programs, especially news and cultural in nature. Legend has it that the color designations originated from the color of the push-pins early engineers used to designate affiliates of WEAF (red pins) and WJZ (blue pins). At various times in the 1930s there were other color designations, with the NBC White, Gold, and Orange networks operating in various configurations in the south, the midwest and on the west coast. The famous three-note NBC chimes came about after several years of trying different musical note combinations. The three note combination (G-E-C; not related at all to RCA's original stockholder General Electric-and as such NBC was basically controlled by GE, since GE held a 30% share combined with RCA's 50%) came from WSB in Atlanta which used it for its own purposes until one day someone at NBC in New York heard the WSB version of the notes during a networked broadcast of a Georgia Tech football game and asked permission to use it on the national network. NBC started to use the three notes in 1931, and it was the first ever audio trademark to be accepted by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. An alternate jingle was also used that went E-G-C-C, known as "the fourth chime" and used during wartime (especially in the wake of the Pearl Harbor bombing) and other disasters. The NBC chimes were mechanized in 1932 by Richard H. Ranger of the Rangertone company; their purpose was to send a low level signal of constant amplitude that would be heard by the various switching stations manned by NBC and AT&T engineers, and thus used as a system cue for switching different stations between the Red and Blue network feeds. Because of fears of offending commercial sponsors by cutting their programs off in mid-sentence, the mechanized chimes were always rung by an announcer pushing a button; they were never set to an automatic timer, although heavy discussions on the subject were held between the Engineering and Programming departments throughout the 1930s and 1940s. NBC became the primary tenant in the brand new Rockefeller Center project in 1936. It would serve as the home of radio operations, some RCA corporate operations, and RCA-owned RKO Pictures. From its creation in 1934, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) had studied the monopolistic effects of network broadcasting on the industry, and found that NBC's two networks and their owned-and-operated stations dominated audiences, affiliates and advertising dollars in American radio. In 1939 the FCC ordered RCA to divest itself of one of the two networks; RCA fought the divestiture order, but divided NBC into two companies in 1940 in case an appeal was lost. The Blue network became the "NBC Blue Network, Inc." and the NBC Red became "NBC Red Network, Inc." 1940 With the loss of the final appeal before the United States Supreme Court, RCA sold the NBC Blue Network, Inc. for $8 million to Lifesavers magnate Edward J. Noble in 1943. For his money Noble got the network name, leases on land-lines and the New York studios, two-and-a half stations (WJZ in Newark/New York, KGO in San Francisco, and WENR in Chicago which shared a frequency with "Prairie Farmer" station WLS), and about 60 affiliates. Noble renamed the company "The Blue Network, Inc." but wanted something more memorable. In 1944 he acquired rights to the name "American Broadcasting Company" from George Storer and the Blue Network became ABC. "NBC Red" reverted to being simply "NBC" when Blue was sold. In the golden days of network broadcasting, 1930 to 1950, NBC was the pinnacle of American radio. Home to many of the most popular stars and programs, NBC stations were often the most powerful, or occupied clear-channel frequencies so that they were heard nation-wide. Such well-known stars as Bob Hope, Jack Benny, Edgar Bergen and Fred Allen called NBC home, as did Arturo Toscanini's NBC Symphony. As television became more popular in the 1950s, many NBC radio stars gravitated there, and by 1960 the radio network's schedule was much reduced. By the late 1960s, there was little more to NBC Radio than news bulletins and news-related features. Since the 1986 acquisition of RCA, NBC has been GE's most consistently profitable division. In compliance with FCC rules, NBC Radio was sold following the sale to GE, to Westwood One. While the chimes and an hourly newscast still appear on radio at certain times on weekdays, the NBC Radio Network as a programming service ceased to exist in 1989, and became a brand-name on material produced by Westwood One.

Television

For many years NBC was closely identified with David Sarnoff, who used it as a vehicle to sell consumer electronics. It was Sarnoff who ruthlessly stole innovative ideas from competitors, using RCA's muscle to prevail in the courts. RCA and Sarnoff had dictated the broadcasting standards put in place by the FCC in 1938, and stole the spotlight by introducing television to the public at the 1939-40 New York World's Fair. While rivals CBS and DuMont also offered color broadcasting plans, RCA convinced a waffling FCC that its color system should prevail, and in 1953 the FCC agreed; the NBC network was to begin offering color programming within days of the FCC's decision. The first NBC show to air all episodes in color, Bonanza, began in the fall of 1959. By 1963, most of NBC's schedule was in color; without television sets to sell, rival networks followed more slowly, CBS in 1965 and ABC in 1966. In 1983, NBC began its new fall season with nine new series. All nine of them were eventually cancelled before completing a year. This is the only time that a network's entire line of new series has failed to be renewed. It was estimated in 2003 that NBC is viewable by 97.17% of all households, reaching 103,624,370 houses in the United States. NBC has 207 VHF and UHF affiliated stations in the U.S. and U.S. possessions. It is also seen throughout Latin America and the Caribbean via cable and satellite using the WNBC feed.

Evolution of the NBC logo

NBC has used a number of logos throughout its history, early logos were similar to the logo of its then parent company, RCA, but later logos included stylized peacock images.

NBC News

While CBS has received more attention from historians discussing broadcast journalism history, NBC's news operation was equal to it. From 1956 through 1970, the television broadcast team of Chet Huntley and David Brinkley consistently exceeded the viewership levels attained by CBS News and its main anchor Walter Cronkite. The pair, together with fellow correspondent Frank McGee, distinguished itself in the coverage of American manned space missions in the Project Mercury, Project Gemini and Project Apollo programs, during an era when space missions rated continuous coverage. (An entire studio, Studio 8H, was configured for this coverage, complete with models and mockups of rockets and spacecraft, maps of the earth and moon to show orbital trackage, and stages on which animated figures created by puppeteer Bil Baird were used to depict movements of astronauts before on-board spacecraft television cameras were feasible. Studio 8H is now the home of the NBC entertainment program Saturday Night Live.) The dominance ended when Huntley retired, to only die from cancer in 1974. The loss of Huntley, along with a reluctance of RCA to fund NBC News at the level CBS was funding CBS News, left NBC News in the doldrums. NBC News did not recover viewership levels until after GE acquired RCA. NBC News got the first interview from two Russian presidents (Putin, Gorbachev) and was the only American eye-witness of the Fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. In the second Iraq war, NBC News and main anchor Tom Brokaw covered the war like no other television company, in part owing to the willingness of GE to fund it. NBC News correspondent David Bloom pushed through the GE and U.S. Department of Defense bureaucracies permission to construct a mobile news vehicle that could transmit live video broadcasts from the battlefield. The "Bloommobile" brought satellite images and videos (clear, detailed) into homes of America and Europe, live and one-on-one. Bloom did not live to accept the accolades after the armed conflict; he died of natural causes unrelated to combat during the final phase of the fighting. NBC News also benefits from the GE corporate structure by having the ability to take reports from its cable counterpart MSNBC.

External links

- [http://www.nbc.com/ NBC Television official site]
- [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/N/htmlN/nationalbroa/nationalbroa.htm Museum of Broadcast Communications - NBC History]
- [http://www.tv-ark.org.uk/international/us_nbc.html Screen captures of NBC logos past and present, as well as footage of vintage promos]
- [http://www.nbcumv.com/broadcast/ NBC press releases and photos on NBC Universal Media Village]
- Category:Companies based in New York City Category:General Electric subsidiaries NBC television network Category:United States television networks ja:National Broadcasting Company nb:National Broadcasting Company

Fargo, North Dakota

Fargo is a United States city located in the state of North Dakota. It is the county seat of Cass County. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 90,599 which makes it the largest city in North Dakota. It has a twin city, Moorhead, Minnesota. The larger Fargo-Moorhead area also encompasses the communities of West Fargo, North Dakota and Dilworth, Minnesota. The city of Fargo is the crossroads and economic center of a large portion of eastern North Dakota and western Minnesota. Fargo is a retail, manufacturing, healthcare, and educational hub for the region. Fargo is home to North Dakota State University (NDSU). The local newspaper is The Forum of Fargo-Moorhead.

Geography

The Forum of Fargo-Moorhead Fargo is located at 46°52'17" North, 96°48'31" West (46.871414, -96.808658). Fargo sits on the western bank of the Red River of the North in a very flat region known as the Red River Valley. The Red River Valley was once a part of glacial Lake Agassiz, which drained away about 9,300 years ago. The lake sediments deposited from Lake Agassiz made the land around Fargo some of the richest in the world for agricultural uses. Early settlers sometimes called the Red River Valley a new "Garden of Eden" According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 98.3 km² (37.9 mi²). 98.3 km² (37.9 mi²) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

History

The area that is present day Fargo was an early stopping point for steamboats floating down the Red River during the 1870s and 1880s. The city of Fargo was originally named "Centralia." The city was then renamed to "Fargo". This was in honor of Northern Pacific Railway director and Wells Fargo Express Company founder William Fargo. The area started to flourish after the arrival of the railroad and the city became known as the "Gateway to the West". During the 1880s, Fargo became the "divorce capital" of the Midwest due to very lenient divorce laws. A major fire struck the city on June 7, 1893. The proprietor of a grocery store accidentally started the blaze as she emptied ashes behind her store on a windy day. The fire destroyed hundreds of homes and businesses. However, Fargo was quickly rebuilt with new buildings made of brick, new streets, and a water system. North Dakota State University was founded in 1890 as North Dakota's land-grant university. It was first called the "North Dakota State College of Agriculture." Fargo-Moorhead boomed after World War II and the city grew rapidly. The coming of the two Interstates (I-29 and I-94) revolutionized travel in the region and pushed growth of Fargo to the south and west of the city limits. In 1972, the West Acres Shopping Center was constructed near the intersection of the two Interstates. This mall would become the catalyst for retail growth in the area. It would also spell the beginning of a time of decline for the downtown area of Fargo. In recent years, Fargo has seen dramatic growth both in population and economic activity. Several businesses now have major operations in the community including Microsoft. The city's major retail districts on the outskirts are booming, but so is the downtown area due, at least in part, to investments made by the city and private developers. From the late 1990s onward, Fargo has consistently had one of the lowest unemployment rates of any Metropolitan Statistical Area in the United States. This, coupled with Fargo's low crime rate and the plentiful supply of affordable housing in the community, has prompted Money magazine to rank the city near the top of its annual list of America's most livable cities throughout the late 1990s and early 2000s.

Law and government

Fargo uses the city commission style of local government. Four commissioners and a mayor are elected at large. The current mayor of Fargo is Bruce Furness, a Republican. The Fargo City Commission meets every two weeks in its chambers above the Fargo Civic Center. The meetings are broadcast on a local cable channel.

Economy

The economy of the Fargo area has historically been dependant on agriculture. That dominance has decreased substantially in recent decades. Now, the city of Fargo has a growing economy based on food processing, manufacturing, technology, retail trade, higher education, and healthcare. The largest non-governmental employers in the city include MeritCare Health System, Blue Cross/Blue Shield, US Bank, and Microsoft. North Dakota State University is the largest governmental employer in the city.

Education

The Fargo Public Schools system operates fifteen elementary schools, three middle schools, and two high schools. The system also offers an alternative high school. Fargo has two parochial schools: Oak Grove Lutheran High School and Shanley Catholic High School.

Higher education

Fargo is home to North Dakota State University (NDSU). NDSU has over 12,000 students and is the second largest school in the North Dakota University System (only the University of North Dakota (UND) in Grand Forks is larger). NDSU was founded in 1890 primarily as an agricultural school, but has since branched out to cover many other fields of study. NDSU is also a major research institute. Together, NDSU and UND make up the Red River Valley Research Corridor. The athletic teams at NDSU are known as The Bison. The athletic teams at NDSU have recently gone a transition from NCAA Division II to NCAA Division I. The transition sparked much controversy and debate when proposed, in part because NDSU's historic rival, UND, has not made such a similar move. This has, at least temporarily, ended the athletic rivalry between the two schools.

Recreation

The Fargo Park District operates many neighborhood parks throughout the city. The Park District also has several golf courses including Edgewood (18-hole), Rose Creek (18-hole), El Zagal (9-hole), Prairiewood (9-hole), and the new Osgood course (9-hole).

Culture

Contrary to popular belief, Fargo offers a rather extensive lineup of cultural offerings. This is due, in part, to the presence of three universities in the metropolitan area. The Plains Art Museum is the largest museum of art in the state. It is located in downtown Fargo and features regional and national exhibits. It also houses a large permanent collection of art. The Fargo Theatre is a restored 1937 Art Deco movie house that features first-run movies, film festivals, and other community events. The Fargodome routinely plays host to traveling companies of Broadway musicals.

Media

Print

The Forum of Fargo-Moorhead is the city's major newspaper. The High Plains Reader, an independent weekly publication, also operates in the community. The Spectrum is a publication made by students of North Dakota State University.

Television

Fargo is served by local affiliates for the four major networks: ABC (WDAY), CBS (KXJB), NBC (KVLY), and Fox (KVRR). Prairie Public Television is also based in Fargo where it can be seen locally on KFME.

Transportation

Fargo is a major transportation hub for the surrounding region. It sits at the crossroads of two major highways and is the home of the busiest airport in the state.

Airport

Fargo is served by Hector International Airport. Though its name says so, the airport does not offer international service, even to neighboring Canada. Hector has the longest public runway in the state and has scheduled passenger flights to Minneapolis, Chicago, Denver, and Las Vegas. The "Happy Hooligans", an F-16 Air National Guard unit, is also located at Hector.

Highways

The city sits at the intersection of Interstate 29 and Interstate 94. U.S. Highway 81 and U.S. Highway 10 also run through the community.

Railroads

Several railways run through the metropolitan area and Amtrak service is provided via the Empire Builder passenger train.

Public transit

Inside the metropolitan area, a public bus service named Metro Area Transit (MAT) operates several routes. Greyhound Lines, Jefferson Lines and Rimrock Stages Trailways bus services also link Fargo to other communities.

Street system

The street system of Fargo is structured in the class grid pattern. Routes that run from north to south are called streets, and routes that run from east to west are called avenues.

Major routes

East-West routes (listed from north to south):
- 19th Avenue North
- 12th Avenue North
- NP Avenue
- Main Avenue
- 13th Avenue South
- Interstate 94
- 32nd Avenue South
- 52nd Avenue South North-South routes (listed from east to west):
- Elm Street
- Broadway
- 10th Street
- University Drive
- 25th Street
- Interstate 29
- 42nd Street
- 45th Street

Sites of interest

Arenas and auditoriums

- Fargodome - (1800 North University Drive) An indoor arena located on the NDSU campus. It plays host to all NDSU home football games and is also used for concerts and trade shows.
- Reineke Fine Arts Center - (12th Avenue North and Bolley Drive) Located on the NDSU campus. The University uses the center for concerts, theatrical presentations, and other events.
- Fargo Civic Center - (207 4th Street North) An indoor arena used to host trade shows, sporting events, meetings, community events, concerts, and disaster relief.
- Coliseum - (807 17th Avenue North) A multi-purpose ice facility used for the Fargo high schools in addition to figure skating and hockey play.

Museums

- Bonanzaville, USA - (1351 Main Avenue, West Fargo) A "village" made up of many historic buildings from the region. Includes a church, school building, and log cabins. It is named after the historic bonanza farms of the area. Open May-October.
- The Children's Museum at Yunker Farm - (1201 28th Avenue North) Provides many exhibits and "hands-on" participation for children. Open year-round.
- Fargo Air Museum - (1609 19th Avenue North) Features aircraft from World War II and beyond. Also hosts traveling exhibits.
- Plains Art Museum - (704 1st Avenue North) A large art museum located in a historic downtown building. Features regional and national exhibits.
- Roger Maris Museum - (West Acres Shopping Center) A small museum located in a wing of the mall. Features memorabilia and a video presentation about the New York Yankees player.

Theaters

- Fargo-Moorhead Community Theatre - (333 4th Street South) FMCT presents comedies, dramas, youth shows, and musicals in a theatre located in Island Park south of downtown.
- Fargo Theatre - (314 Broadway) A 1937 Art Deco movie theatre. Presents films (classic and current), live productions, and other events.
- Main Avenue Theatre - (716 Main Avenue) Hosts live productions by local independant theater companies Theatre B and the Tin Roof Theatre Company and other events.

Misc. attractions

- Newman Outdoor Field - (1515 15th Avenue North) Home of the Fargo-Moorhead RedHawks (an independent professional baseball team that is part of the Northern League).
- North Dakota Horse Park - (5100 19th Avenue North) Features live racing and betting.
- Red River Zoo - (4220 21st Avenue Southwest) A 30-acre zoo that features 80 species of animals. Also includes a restored 1928 carousel.
- Fargo Outdoor Skate Park - (4th Street) Outdoor skate park located at the Dike West.

Notable natives and associated people

carousel
- Shannon Curfman - blues guitarist and singer
- Charlie Korsmo - film actor
- Jonny Lang - blues guitarist and singer
- Roger Maris - former New York Yankees baseball player
- Aloisius Joseph Muench - Bishop of Fargo
- Collin Peterson - United States Representative from Minnesota
- Ed Schultz - host of The Ed Schultz Show on the Air America Radio network
- Bobby Vee - pop music singer from 1960s

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 90,599 people, 39,268 households, and 20,733 families residing in the city. The population density is 922.0/km² (2,388.2/mi²). There are 41,200 housing units at an average density of 419.3/km² (1,086.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 94.17% White, 1.02% African American, 1.24% Native American, 1.64% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.44% from other races, and 1.45% from two or more races. 1.29% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. The top 6 ancestry groups in the city are German (40.6%), Norwegian (35.9%), Irish (8.6%), Swedish (6.5%), English (5.2%), French (4.7%). There are 39,268 households out of which 26.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.8% are married couples living together, 7.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 47.2% are non-families. 34.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 8.0% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.20 and the average family size is 2.91. In the city the population is spread out with 21.1% under the age of 18, 19.2% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 18.5% from 45 to 64, and 10.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 30 years. For every 100 females there are 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 99.3 males. The median income for a household in the city is $35,510, and the median income for a family is $50,486. Males have a median income of $31,968 versus $22,264 for females. The per capita income for the city is $21,101. 11.8% of the population and 6.6% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 10.8% of those under the age of 18 and 7.5% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

External links

- [http://ci.fargo.nd.us/ City of Fargo official website]
- [http://www.fargo-history.com/ History of Fargo] - website detailing history of Fargo
- [http://trishymouse.net/fargo/index.htm Downtown Fargo History] - website devoted to the history of downtown Fargo
- [http://www.lileks.com/fargo/indexx.html James Lilek's Fargo] - website with many pictures of historic Fargo
- [http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/fargo_geology/ Fargo, North Dakota Geology] - website about the geology of the Fargo area Category:Major cities in North Dakota Category:Cities in North Dakota Category:Cass County, North Dakota Category:Fargo-Moorhead

North Dakota

North Dakota is a U.S. state, the northernmost of the Great Plains states in the Midwestern United States. To the north across the U.S.-Canada border are the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and to the south is South Dakota. In the west is Montana and to the east across the Red River of the North and the Bois de Sioux River is Minnesota. The Missouri River flows through the western part of the state, forming Lake Sakakawea behind the Garrison Dam. Formerly part of Dakota Territory (named after the Dakota tribe of Native Americans), North Dakota became a state in 1889. North Dakota's postal abbreviation is ND. The entire state is covered by area code 701. The United States Navy vessels USS North Dakota and Flickertail State were named in honor of North Dakota.

History

Prior to European contact, Native Americans inhabited North Dakota for thousands of years. The first European to reach the area was the French-Canadian trader La Vérendrye, who led an exploration party to Mandan villages about 1738. The trading arrangement between tribes was such that North Dakota tribes rarely dealt directly with Europeans. However, the native tribes were in sufficient contact that by the time of Lewis and Clark, they were at least somewhat aware of the French, then Spanish claims to their territory. The state was settled sparsely until the late 1800s, when the railroads pushed through the state, and aggressively marketed the land. On 2 November 1889, North Dakota was admitted to the Union with South Dakota (see Trivia below). The territorial and early state governments were largely corrupt. Early in the 20th century, a wave of populism led by the Non Partisan League brought social reforms. The Great Depression was rough on the state and came several years early with the 1920s farm crisis. The original state capitol burned to the ground in the 1930s and was replaced by a concrete art deco skyscraper that still stands today. The 1950s brought a round of federal construction projects, including the Garrison Dam and the Minot and Grand Forks Air Force bases. The 1980s saw an oil boom in the Williston basin, as skyrocketing petroleum prices made development profitable, driving state population to a peak near 800,000. Since then the state has been experiencing a period of economic and demographic decline. Today, the population stands at around 640,000 (roughly the same population as in the 1920s).

Law and government

The capital of North Dakota is Bismarck and its current governor is John Hoeven (Republican). Its two current U.S. senators are Kent Conrad (Dem-NPL) and Byron Dorgan (Dem-NPL). Its congressman is Earl Pomeroy (Dem-NPL). North Dakota has a bicameral legislature. The state elects two House Representatives and one Senator from each of 47 districts apportioned by population. The legislature meets in an 80-day regular session in odd-numbered years, and in special session if summoned by the governor. See also: North Dakota Legislative Assembly, North Dakota Senate, North Dakota House of Representatives The major political parties in North Dakota are the Republican Party and the Democratic-NPL Party. However, North Dakota does have some active third parties. The Republican Party holds large majorities in the state legislature and generally wins the state's 3-member electoral college delegation. Since 1964, no Democratic presidential candidate has carried North Dakota. In 2004, George W. Bush won with 62.9% of the vote. On the other hand, Dem-NPL candidates for North Dakota's federal Senate and Congressional seats have won every election since 1986. The structure of North Dakota's judiciary is not terribly complex. Each of the 53 counties has a court, from which appeals are sent directly to the North Dakota Supreme Court. Because of the expense of having each county hire a judge, and the fairly low workload, the state is divided into seven judicial districts which collectively elect judges to travel to the various courthouses and hear cases. District Judges are elected to six-year terms. Supreme Court Judges are elected to ten-year terms. The Supreme Court Justice is selected every 5 years by vote of the District and Supreme Court Judges. See: List of North Dakota Governors, List of United States Senators from North Dakota, List_of_political_parties_in_North_Dakota.

Geography and Climate

List_of_political_parties_in_North_Dakota See: List of North Dakota counties North Dakota is bordered on the north by the Canadian Provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba, on the west by Montana, on the south by South Dakota, and on the east, across the Red River of the North and the Bois de Sioux River, by Minnesota. The Missouri River flows through the western part of the state, forming Lake Sakakawea behind the Garrison Dam. Farms and ranches stretch across the rolling plains from the Red River Valley in the east to the rugged Badlands in the west. The geographic center of the North American continent is located near Rugby. North Dakota is a prime example of a continental climate; distant from major bodies of water to moderate the weather, conditions range from sweltering heat and humidity to bitter cold. Competing warm airmasses from the Gulf of Mexico and cold airmasses from the Arctic regions invaribly produce strong winds as they move in and out of the region. In summer, the clash of arctic and tropic systems often leads to strong thunderstorms, sometimes including damaging hail and tornadoes. In winter, the weather tends to be more stable — cold and dry, with occasional flurries—though the constant wind tends to create blowing snow at any time of the season. Severe snowstorms tend to manifest late in the fall or early in the spring, as was the case in 1997. North Dakota's reputation for severe weather has been cited by many as a motivating factor behind outmigration and the failure of outside industry to locate in the state, though some have found this to be a secondary factor to the overall economic situation in the state.

Economy

The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that North Dakota's total state product in 2003 was $21 billion. Per capita personal income in 2003 was $28,922, 32^nd in the nation. Agricultural activity is largely dependent on rainfall. Wheat (particularly the durum variety used for pasta), barley, canola, soybeans, sunflowers, and flax are present throughout the state. The wetter Red River Valley is dominated by farms, with the chief crops being Sugar beets and maize. Cattle ranches are more common in the dry southwest, though dairy ranches are more common toward the east. Honey is produced in the central part of the state. Small quantities of juneberries and grapes support a modest domestic winery industry. The state's relatively small industrial output includes electric power, food processing, machinery (including Bobcat heavy equipment), lignite mining, and tourism. North Dakota has the only state-owned bank in the United States, the Bank of North Dakota. The bank, by law, holds all funds of all state and local government agencies in North Dakota. Its deposits are not guaranteed by the FDIC, but by the State of North Dakota itself.

Demographics

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2004, North Dakota's population was 634,366. The state's population had declined nearly 8,000 since 2000, a 1.2% drop. North Dakota ranks 47th of the 50 states in population, with fewer people only in Alaska, Vermont, and Wyoming.

Race and Ancestry

The racial makeup of the state:
- 91.7% White
- 4.9% Native American
- 1.2% Hispanic
- 0.6% Asian
- 0.6% Black
- 1.2% Mixed race The five largest ancestry groups in North Dakota are: German (43.9%), Norwegian (30.1%), Irish (7.7%), Native American (5%), Swedish (5%). Most North Dakotans are of Northern European descent, especially Scandinavian and German. People of German ancestry are present throughout the state, especially the southern and central counties, and Scandinavians are also present throughout. A few counties have large Native American populations (principally on reservations). Individual counties in western North Dakota have the largest white, Russian, Ukrainian, and Hungarian percentages of any county. 6.1% of North Dakota's population were reported as under 5, 25% under 18, and 14.7% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 50.1% of the population.

Outmigration

North Dakota has experienced a decline in population over the last 20 years, primarily among skilled college graduates for whom there are few jobs in the state. State leaders have been at a loss to address the issue. Student loan forgiveness programs for health and education professionals have been initiated with some degree of success, but a larger program to forgive the loans of all college graduates residing in the state for a given period of time failed to pass a referendum. Some federal politicians, including Byron Dorgan, have proposed [http://dorgan.senate.gov/issues/northdakota/homestead/ "The New Homestead Act of 2005"] (compare to the original U.S. Homestead Act in 1862) to encourage living in areas losing population through incentives such as tax breaks, but these have also made little headway. Many North Dakota politicians believe that better economic development programs will eventually resolve the issue, but opinions are mixed as to what exactly that would entail.

Religion

A very large majority of North Dakotans self-identify as Christian. It has the lowest percentage of non-religious people of any state, and it also has the most churches per capita of any state. An estimate of the religious affiliations of the people of North Dakota (source: [http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris/key_findings.htm] CUNY, 2001):
- Lutheran: 35%
- Catholic: 30%
- Methodist: 7%
- Baptist: 6%
- Assemblies of God: 3%
- None: 3%
- Christian: 2%
- Muslim: 2%
- Protestant: 1%
- Mormon/LDS: 1%
- Jehovah's Witnesses: 1%
- Buddhist: 1%
- Other: 1%
- Refused: 6%

Important cities and towns

See also: List of cities in North Dakota By population, the ten largest urban centers in the state are: :1. Fargo/West Fargo :2. Bismarck/Mandan :3. Grand Forks :4. Minot :5. Dickinson :6. Jamestown :7. Williston :8. Wahpeton :9. Devils Lake :10. Valley City The population trends in the state are noting a distinct shift from the rural areas to the larger cities. Most of North Dakota's largest communities grew between 1990 and 2000. Between 1990 and 2000, the USA as a whole grew by 13.1%, yet North Dakota grew a mere 0.5%. It is the only state (along with Washington DC) whose population declined (by 1.3%) between April 1, 2000 and July 1, 2003; this decline has become a major political issue.

Education

North Dakota's leaders frequently boast that the educational scene in the state is excellent. However, because the economic situation is no match for it, many skilled graduates leave the state.

Colleges and universities

The state has 11 public colleges and universities, five tribal community colleges, and four private schools. The largest and oldest among them is the University of North Dakota in Grand Forks. The higher education system consists of the following institutions: :North Dakota University System (Public schools) ::Bismarck State College in Bismarck ::Dickinson State University in Dickinson ::Lake Region State College in Devils Lake ::Mayville State University in Mayville ::Minot State University in Minot ::Minot State University-Bottineau in Bottineau ::North Dakota State University in Fargo ::North Dakota State College of Science in Wahpeton ::University of North Dakota in Grand Forks ::Valley City State University in Valley City ::Williston State College in Williston :Tribal colleges ::Cankdeska Cikana Community College in Fort Totten ::Fort Berthold Community College in New Town ::Sitting Bull College in Fort Yates ::Turtle Mountain Community College in Belcourt ::United Tribes Technical College in Bismarck :Private schools ::Aakers College in Fargo and Bismarck ::Jamestown College in Jamestown ::University of Mary in Bismarck ::Trinity Bible College in Ellendale

Miscellaneous information

:Language: English :Counties: 53 :State bird: Western Meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta :State fish: Northern pike, Esox lucius :State horse: Nokota Horse :State flower: Wild Prairie Rose, Rosa arkansana :State tree: American Elm, Ulmus americana :State fossil: Teredo Petrified wood :State grass: Western Wheatgrass, Pascopyrum smithii (Rydb.) A. Löve :State nicknames: Roughrider State, Flickertail State, Peace Garden State :State mottos: ::(Seal of North Dakota) Liberty and Union, Now and Forever, One and Inseparable ::(Coat of Arms of North Dakota) Strength from the Soil :State song: North Dakota Hymn :State dance: Square Dance :State march: Flickertail March :State beverage: Milk :State license plate: See the different types over time [http://www.worldlicenceplates.com/usa/US_NDXX.html]

Trivia

A bill for statehood for North and South Dakota (and Montana, and Washington) was passed on February 22 1889 during the Administration of Grover Cleveland. It was left to his successor Benjamin Harrison to sign proclamations formally admitting North and South Dakota to the Union on November 2 1889. However, the rivalry between the northern and southern territories presented a dilemma: only one, upon the President's signature on the proclamation, could gain the distinction of being admitted before the other. So Harrison directed his Secretary of State James Blaine to shuffle the papers and obscure from him which he was signing first, and the priority went unrecorded. The Flickertail State is one of North Dakota's nicknames. The nickname is derived from Richardson's Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii), a very common animal in the region. The squirrel constantly flicks its tail in a distinctive manner. In 1953, legislation to make the squirrel the state animal was voted down in the state legislature.

External links

- [http://www.nd.gov State of North Dakota official website]
- [http://www.nd.gov North Dakota tourism website]
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/38000.html U.S. Census Bureau facts of North Dakota]
- [http://www.dannyburk.com/badlands%20national%20park.htm Pictures of the Dakotas: Badlands and Theodore Roosevelt National Parks] Category:States of the American West
- Category:States of the United States ko:노스다코타 주 ja:ノースダコタ州 simple:North Dakota

KVLY-TV mast

The KVLY-TV mast (formerly the KTHI-TV mast) is a television transmitting tower in North Dakota, USA, used by Fargo station KVLY channel 11. At 2,063 ft (628.8 m), it is currently the tallest man-made structure in the world.

Overview

The tower is located three miles west of Blanchard, North Dakota (at ), which is roughly halfway between Fargo and Grand Forks. It became the tallest artificial structure upon the completion of its construction on August 13, 1963. The mast was surpassed in height by 18 m (57 ft) in 1974 by the Warszawa radio mast near Konstantynow, Poland, but that collapsed on August 8 1991, making the KVLY mast again the tallest. When built, the UAE's Burj Dubai, presently slated for completion in 2008, might surpass the mast as the tallest land structure. The tower was built by Hamilton Directors and Kline Iron and Steel, and took thirty days to complete, at a cost of a US$500,000 ($3.2 million in 2005 dollars). Owned by the Meyer Broadcasting Company (now North Dakota Television, LLC) of Bismarck, the tower broadcasts at 316 kW for television station KVLY (channel 11, an NBC affiliate) which is based in Fargo. The tower provides a broadcast area of roughly 30,000 square miles (78,000 km²). Its overall height above mean sea level is 926 m (3,038 ft). Some time after its completion, the Federal Aviation Administration imposed a limit of 2,063 ft, based on this tower's height, on future construction; consequently, no taller structures may legally be built in the U.S. at present. The call letters of the television station for which it was built were originally KTHI, the "HI" referring to the height of the mast. The top is reachable by service elevator or ladder.

Images

Image:KVLYDistance.jpg|KVLY mast from a distance of about one mile Image:KVLYBase.jpeg|Base of the tower Image:KVLYPylon.jpeg|A supporting pylon

Structures of similar height

- KXJB Tower (2060 ft - 627.8 m)
- KXTV/KOVR Tower (2049 ft - 624.5 m)

External links

- http://www.structurae.net/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0000675
- [http://www.kvlytv11.com/info_tower.html Tower web page at KVLY-TV]
- [http://wireless2.fcc.gov/UlsApp/AsrSearch/asrRegistration.jsp?regKey=608746 FCC listing]
- [http://www.skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=471 Listing on the Skyscraper Page]
- http://www.skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?b471
- http://www.pbase.com/talshiarr/kvly
- [http://www.terraserver-usa.com/GetImageArea.ashx?t=1&s=10&lon=-97.288889&lat=47.342222&w=600&h=400&b=2&bc=ff000000&g=2&gc=80ff0000&f=&fs=12&fc=ffffffff&logo=1&lp=--- Satellite image of the KVLY-TV tower] Category:Guyed masts Category:North Dakota landmarks Category:Buildings and structures in North Dakota Category:North Dakota media

United States

:For alternative meanings, see the disambiguation page for US, USA, United States, or American. The United States of America is a federal democratic republic situated primarily in central North America. It comprises 50 states and one federal district, and has several territories. It is also referred to, with varying formality, as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the States, or simply and most commonly, America. The official founding date of the United States is July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British colonies—adopted the Declaration of Independence. However, the structure of the government was profoundly changed in 1788, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the United States Constitution. The date on which each of the fifty states adopted the Constitution is typically regarded as the date that state "entered the Union" (became part of the United States). Since the mid-20th century, following World War II, the United States has emerged as a dominant global influence in economic, political, military, scientific, technological, and cultural affairs.

Geography and climate

The United States shares land borders with Canada (to the north) and Mexico (to the south), and territorial water boundaries with Canada, Russia, the Bahamas, and numerous smaller nations. It is otherwise bounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea, in the west; the Arctic Ocean, in the northernmost areas; and the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, in the eastern and southeastern areas. Forty-eight of the states are in the single region between Canada and Mexico; this group is referred to, with varying precision and formality, as the continental or contiguous United States, sometimes abbreviated CONUS, and as the Lower 48. Alaska, which is not included in the term contiguous United States, is at the northwestern end of North America, separated from the Lower 48 by Canada. The archipelago of Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean. The capital city, Washington, District of Columbia is a federal district located on land donated by the state of Maryland. (Virginia also donated land, but it was returned in 1847.) The United States also has overseas territories with varying levels of independence and organization. When inland water is included in the total area, only Russia and Canada are larger than the United States; if inland water is excluded, China ranks third and the U.S. ranks fourth. The United States' total area is 3,718,711 square miles (9,631,418 km²), of which land makes up 3,537,438 square miles (9,161,923 km²) and water makes up 181,273 square miles (469,495 km²). The United States' landscape is one of the most varied among those of the world's nations: among its many features are temperate forestland and rolling hills, on the east coast; mangrove, in Florida; the Great Plains, in the center of the country; the Mississippi–Missouri river system; the Great Lakes, four of the five of which are shared with Canada; the Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains; deserts and temperate coastal zones, west of the Rocky Mountains; and temperate rain forests, in the Pacific northwest. Alaska's tundra, and the volcanic, tropical islands of Hawaii add to the geographic diversity. Hawaii The climate varies along with the landscape, from tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida to tundra in Alaska and atop some of the highest mountains. Most of the North and East experience a temperate continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Most of the South experiences a subtropical humid climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. Rainfall decreases markedly from the humid forests of the Eastern Great Plains to the semi-arid shortgrass prairies on the high plains abutting the Rocky Mountains. Arid deserts, including the Mojave, extend through the lowlands and valleys of the southwest, from westernmost Texas to California and northward throughout much of Nevada. Some parts of California have a Mediterranean climate. Rainforests line the windward mountains of the Pacific Northwest from Oregon to Alaska.

History

American history started with the migration of people from Asia across the Bering land bridge approximately 12,000 years ago following large animals that they hunted into the Americas. These Native Americans left evidence of their presence in petroglyphs, burial mounds, and other artifacts. It is estimated that 2-9 million people lived in the territory now occupied by the U.S. before European contact, and the subsequent introduction of foreign diseases such as small pox that greatly diminished the native populations. Some advanced societies were the Anasazi of the southwest, who inhabited Chaco Canyon, and the Woodland Indians, who built Cahokia, located near present-day St Louis, a city with a population of 40,000 at its peak in AD 1200. Vikings first visited North America around 1000, but did not settle permanently. Following the discovery voyages of Christopher Columbus around 1492, other Europeans began to explore and settle there. During the 1500s and 1600s, the Spanish settled parts of the present-day Southwest and Florida, founding St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 and Santa Fe (in what is now New Mexico) in 1607. The first successful English settlement was at Jamestown, Virginia, also in 1607. Within the next two decades, several Dutch settlements, including New Amsterdam (the predecessor to New York City), were established in what are now the states of New York and New Jersey. In 1637, Sweden established a colony at Fort Christina (in what is now Delaware), but lost the settlement to the Dutch in 1655. This was followed by extensive British settlement of the east coast. The British colonists remained relatively undisturbed by their home country until after the French and Indian War, when France ceded Canada and the Great Lakes region to Britain. Britain then imposed taxes on the 13 colonies, widely regarded by the colonists as unfair because they were denied representation in the British Parliament. Tensions between Britain and the colonists increased, and the thirteen colonies eventually rebelled against British rule. British Parliament, George Washington (1789-1797).]] In 1776, the 13 colonies split from Great Britain and formed the United States, the world's first constitutional and democratic federal republic, after their Declaration of Independence of that year, and the Revolutionary War (1775 to 1783). The original political structure was a confederation in 1777, ratified in 1781 as the Articles of Confederation. After long debate, this was supplanted by the Constitution in 1789, forming a more centralized federal government. Prior to all these was the Albany Congress in 1754, in which a union was first seriously proposed. From early colonial times, there was a shortage of labor, which encouraged unfree labor, particularly indentured servitude and slavery. In the mid-19th century, a major division occurred in the United States over the issue of states' rights and the expansion of slavery. The northern states had become opposed to slavery, while the southern states saw it as necessary for the continued success of southern agriculture and wanted it expanded to the territories. Several federal laws were passed in an attempt to settle the dispute, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. The dispute reached a crisis in 1861, when seven southern states seceded¹ from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, leading to the Civil War. Soon after the war began, four more southern states seceded. During the war, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, mandating the freedom of all slaves in states in rebellion, though full emancipation did not take place until after the end of the war in 1865, the dissolution of the Confederacy, and the Thirteenth Amendment took effect. The Civil War effectively ended the question of a state's right to secede, and is widely accepted as a major turning point after which the federal government became more powerful than state governments. Thirteenth Amendment). The title of the painting, from a 1726 poem by Bishop Berkeley, was a phrase often quoted in the era of Manifest Destiny, expressing a widely held belief that civilization had steadily moved westward throughout history. [http://americanart.si.edu/t2go/1lw/1931.6.1.html (more)] ]] During the 19th century, many new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the continent. Manifest Destiny was a philosophy that encouraged westward expansion in the United States. As the population of the Eastern states grew and as a steady increase of immigrants entered the country, settlers moved steadily westward across North America. In the process, the U.S. displaced most American Indian nations. This displacement of American Indians continues to be a matter of contention in the U.S. with many tribes attempting to assert their original claims to various lands. In some areas American Indian populations were reduced by foreign diseases contracted through contact with European settlers, and US settlers acquired those emptied lands. In other instances American Indians were removed from their traditional lands by force. Though some would say the U.S. was not a colonial power until the Spanish-American War when it acquired Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, the dominion exercised over land in North America the United States claimed is essentially colonial. The Philippines became independent in 1946. During this period, the nation also became an industrial power. This continued into the 20th century, which has been termed "the American Century" because of the nation's overriding influence on the world. The US became a center for innovation and technological development; major technologies that America either developed or was greatly involved in improving include the telephone, television, computer, the Internet, nuclear weapons, nuclear power, aviation, and aeronautics. In addition to the Civil War, another major traumatic experience for the nation was the Great Depression (1929 to 1939). The nation has also taken part in several major foreign wars, including World War I and World War II (in both of which the US later joined the Allies). During the Cold War, the US was a major player in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and, along with the Soviet Union, was considered one of the world's two "superpowers". With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. Beginning in the 1990s, the United States became very involved in police actions and peacekeeping, including actions in Kosovo, Haiti, Somalia and Liberia, and the first Persian Gulf War driving Iraq out of Kuwait. After attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, the United States and other allied nations found themselves involved in what has come to be called the "War on Terrorism," which has primarily encompassed military actions in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Government

Iraq of the United States.]]

Republic and suffrage

The United States is an example of a constitutional republic, with a government composed of and operating through a set of limited powers imposed by its design and enumerated in the United States Constitution. Specifically, the nation operates as a presidential democracy. There are three levels of government: federal, state, and local. Officials of each of these levels are either elected by eligible voters via secret ballot or appointed by other elected officials. Americans enjoy almost universal suffrage from the age of 18 regardless of race, sex, or wealth. There are some limits, however: felons are disenfranchised and in some states former felons are likewise. Furthermore, the national representation of territories and the federal district of Washington, DC in Congress is limited: residents of the District of Columbia are subject to federal laws and federal taxes but their only Congressional representative is a non-voting delegate.

Federal government

The federal government is the national government, comprising the Legislative Branch (led by Congress), the Executive Branch (led by the President), and the Judicial Branch (led by the Supreme Court). These three branches were designed to apply checks and balances on each other. The Constitution limits the powers of the federal government to defense, foreign affairs, the issuing and management of currency, the management of trade and relations between the states, and the protection of human rights. In addition to these explicitly stated powers, the federal government—with the assistance of the Supreme Court—has gradually extended these powers into such areas as welfare and education, on the basis of the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution.

The Congress

necessary and proper The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members, each of whom represents a congressional district and serves for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population; in contrast, each state has two Senators, regardless of population. There are a total of 100 senators, who serve six-year terms. The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the necessary-and-proper clause, which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers."

The President

necessary-and-proper clause At the top level of the executive branch is the President of the United States. The President and Vice-President are elected as 'running mates' for four-year terms by the Electoral College, for which each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D. C.) in both houses of Congress (see U.S. Electoral College). The relationship between the President and the Congress reflects that between the English monarchy and parliament at the time of the framing of the United States Constitution. Congress can legislate to constrain the President's executive power, even with respect to his or her command of the armed forces; however, this power is used only very rarely—a notable example was the constraint placed on President Richard Nixon's strategy of bombing Cambodia during the Vietnam War. The President cannot directly propose legislation, and must rely on supporters in Congress to promote his or her legislative agenda. The President's signature is required to turn congressional bills into law; in this respect, the President has the power—only occasionally used—to veto congressional legislation. Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both houses. The ultimate power of Congress over the President is that of impeachment or removal of the elected President through a House vote, a Senate trial, and a Senate vote. The threat of using this power has had major political ramifications in the cases of Presidents Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon, and Bill Clinton. The President makes around 2,000 executive appointments, including members of the Cabinet and ambassadors, which must be approved by the Senate; the President can also issue executive orders and pardons, and has other Constitutional duties, among them the requirement to give a State of the Union address to Congress once a year. Although the President's constitutional role may appear to be constrained, in practice, the office carries enormous prestige that typically eclipses the power of Congress: the Presidency has justifiably been referred to as 'the most powerful office in the world'. The Vice President is first in the line of succession, and is the President of the Senate ex officio, with the ability to cast a tie-breaking vote. The members of the President's Cabinet are responsible for administering the various departments of state, including the Department of Defense, the Justice Department, and the State Department. These departments and department heads have considerable regulatory and polit