Surveyor 5 was the fifth lunar lander of the Surveyor program that explored the Moon.
- Launched September 3, 1967; landed September 11, 1967
- Weight on landing: 625 lb (283 kg)
Surveyor 5 landed on Mare Tranquillitatis. A total of 19,049 images were transmitted to Earth.
The mission experienced a helium leak that could have resulted in failure. An improvised landing sequence was successful and data was received for 2 weeks after the landing. A miniature chemical analysis lab using an alpha particle backscatter device was used to determine the lunar surface soil consisted of basaltic rock.
Surveyor 5 was the third spacecraft in the Surveyor series to achieve a successful lunar soft landing. The spacecraft had a basic triangular structure of aluminum tubing that provided mounting surfaces for engineering and scientific equipment. The objectives were to obtain postlanding television pictures of the lunar surface, conduct a Vernier engine erosion experiment, determine the relative abundance of the chemical elements in the lunar soil, obtain touchdown dynamics data, and obtain thermal and radar reflectivity data. Instrumentation for this spacecraft was similar to that of the previous Surveyors and included landing legs, a Vernier propulsion system, and numerous engineering sensors. An alpha-scattering instrument was installed in place of the surface sampler, and a small bar magnet attached to one footpad was included to detect the presence of magnetic material in the lunar soil. The spacecraft landed at 00:46:44 UT on September 11, 1967 (7:46 p.m. EST September 10) in Mare Tranquillitatis, at 1.41 deg N latitude and 23.18 deg E longitude (selenographic coordinates), within the rimless edge of a small crater on a slope of about 20 deg. The spacecraft transmitted excellent data for all experiments from shortly after touchdown until October 18, 1967, with an interval of no transmission from September 24 to October 15, 1967, during the first lunar night. Transmissions were received until November 1, 1967, when shutdown for the second lunar night occurred. Transmissions were resumed on the third and fourth lunar days, with the final transmission occurring on December 17, 1967. Pictures were transmitted during the first, second, and fourth lunar days.
Science instruments
Television
The TV camera consisted of a vidicon tube, 25 and 100 mm focal length lenses, shutters, color filters, and iris mounted along an axis inclined approximately 16 deg to the central axis of the spacecraft. The camera was mounted under a mirror that could be moved in azimuth and elevation. Camera operation was totally dependent upon receipt of the proper command structure from earth. Frame by frame coverage of the lunar surface was obtained over 360 deg in azimuth and from +40 deg above the plane normal to the camera z axis to 65 deg below this plane. Both 600 line and 200 line modes of operation were used. The 200 line mode transmitted over an omnidirectional antenna and scanned one frame each 61.8 seconds. A complete video transmission of each 200 line picture required 20 seconds and utilized a bandwidth of 1.2 kHz. Most transmissions consisted of the 600 line pictures, which were telemetered by a directional antenna. These frames were scanned each 3.6 seconds. Each 600 line picture required nominally 1 second to be read from the vidicon and utilized a 220 kHz bandwidth for transmission. The television images were displayed on a slow scan monitor coated with a long persistency phosphor. The persistency was selected to optimally match the nominal maximum frame rate. One frame of TV identification was received for each incoming TV frame and was displayed in real time at a rate compatible with that of the incoming image. These data were recorded on a video magnetic tape recorder and on 70 mm film. During the first lunar day, which ended on September 24, 1967, 18,006 high quality television pictures were transmitted. After being shut down during the lunar night, more than 20 days, the camera responded to commands and transmitted an additional 1048 pictures between October 15 and October 23, 1967. Another 64 pictures were transmitted on the fourth lunar day, but the quality of pictures taken after the first lunar day was poor due to camera degradation resulting from the lunar night temperatures.
Alpha-Scattering Surface Analyzer
The alpha-scattering surface analyzer was designed to measure directly the abundances of the major elements of the lunar surface. The instrumentation consisted of six alpha sources (curium 242) collimated to irradiate a 100 mm diameter opening in the bottom of the instrument where the sample was located and two parallel but independent charged particle detector systems. One system, containing two sensors, detected the energy spectra of the alpha particles scattered from the lunar surface, and the other, containing four sensors, detected energy spectra of the protons produced via reactions (alpha and proton) in the surface material. Each detector assembly was connected to a pulse height analyzer. A digital electronics package, located in a compartment on the spacecraft, continuously telemetered signals to earth whenever the experiment was operating. The spectra contained quantitative information on all major elements in the samples except for hydrogen, helium, and lithiu,. The experiment provided 83 hours of high quality data during the first lunar day. During the second lunar day, 22 hours of data were accumulated. However, detector noise posed a problem in the reduction of data from this second day.
External links
- [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690027073_1969027073.pdf Surveyor Program Results (PDF) 1969]
5
Surveyor program
The Surveyor Program comprised unmanned spaceflights to the Moon, with soft landings, without returning (although Surveyor 6 became the first spacecraft to lift off the moon).
It was initiated and carried out to demonstrate the feasibility of soft landing on the Moon. This was done in preparation for the Apollo Program. The program was implemented by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and performed several other services beyond its primary goal. The ability for a spacecraft to make midcourse corrections was demonstrated, and the landers carried instruments to assist with evaluation of the suitability of their landing sites for manned Apollo landings.
The Surveyor Shovel was a project to determine the composition of the Moon's surface. The robotic shovel was designed to dig at the surface and determine the composition of the materials. Before this project, it was unknown how deep the dust on the moon was. If the dust were to be too deep, then no Astronaut could land. Today, of course, we now know that the Astronauts could walk the face of the Moon, as evidenced by the photographs of their footprints.
There were seven Surveyor missions, five were successful. Surveyor 2 and 4 failed. Each consisted of a single unmanned spacecraft designed and built by Hughes Aircraft Company.
- [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690027073_1969027073.pdf Surveyor Program Results (PDF) 1969]
- [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19720019081_1972019081.pdf Analysis of Surveyor 3 material and photographs returned by Apollo 12 (PDF) 1972]
: M. Gålfalk, G. Olofsson, and H.-G. Florén.]]
Mare Tranquillitatis ("sea of tranquillity") is a lunar mare that sits within the Tranquillitatis basin on Earth's moon. The mare material within the basin consists of basalt in the intermediate to young age group of the Upper Imbrian epoch. The surrounding mountains are thought to be of the Lower Imbrian epoch, but the actual basin is probably Pre-Nectarian. The basin has irregular margins and lacks a defined multiple-ringed structure. The irregular topography in and near this basin results from the intersection of the Tranquillitatis, Nectaris, Crisium, Fecunditatis, and Serenitatis basins with two throughgoing rings of the Procellarum basin. Palus Somni, on the northeastern rim of the mare, is filled with the basalt that spilled over from Tranquillitatis.
Palus Somni, Apollo 16, and Surveyor 5. To the southeast is Mare Fecunditatis, to the northeast is Mare Crisium, to the northwest is Mare Serenitatis, and to the south is Mare Nectaris.]]
In 1965, the Ranger 8spacecraft crashed in Mare Tranquillitatis, after successfully transmitting 7,137 photographs of the moon in the final 23 minutes of its mission. This mare also served as the landing site for the Apollo 11 lunar module, the first manned landing on the Moon. The landing area at 0.8° N, 23.5° E has been designated Statio Tranquillitatis, and three small craters to the north of the base have been named Aldrin, Collins and Armstrong in honor of the Apollo 11 astronauts.
Bays
Along the periphery of the mare are several bay-shaped features that have been given names.
Sinus Amoris
The "Bay of Love" extends northward from the northeast end of the Mare Tranquillitatis. It is located at selenographic coordinates 18.1° N, 39.1° E, and lies within a diameter of 130 km. To the north of the bay are the jumbled Montes Taurus peaks.
Near the southern end of the bay where it outlets into the Mare Tranquillitatis lies the Theophrastus crater. Along the western side is the flooded Maraldi crater and Mons Maraldi. Bordering the east side of the bay are the Carmichael and Hill craters. There are some low ridges in the central part of the bay, but otherwise it is relatively featureless.
Sinus Asperitatis
The "Bay of Roughness" is an area of lunar mare that extends southward from the Mare Tranquillitatis until it joins the Mare Nectaris to the southeast. It is bordered along the western and eastern sides by continental regions of irregular terrain. The selenographic coordinates of this feature are 3.8° S, 27.4° E, and it has a diameter of 206 km.
In the northern part of this mare is the small Toricelli crater. At the southern end is the prominent crater pair of Theophilus and Cyrillus. On the border between Sinus Asperitatis and the Mare Nectaris is the Mädler crater.
Sinus Concordiae
The narrow "Bay of Harmony" lies along the eastern edge of the Mare Tranquillitatis. Along its northern border is an area called the Palus Somni, while the southern border is an area of irregular terrain that contains the ruined Da Vinci crater. The selenographic coordinates of this bay are 10.8° N, 43.2° E, and it has an overall diameter of 142 km.
Sinus Honoris
The "Bay of Honour" is located along the western edge of the Mare Tranquillitatis. The selenographic coordinates of this feature are 11.7° N, 18.1° E, and it has a diameter of 109 km.
Sinus Honoris has a wide mouth and is bordered by uneven terrain to the north and southwest. Where the bay joins the mare, rilles systems extend to the north and south. The northern system is designated Rimae Maclear, after the Maclear crater just to the east of the bay. At the southern end of the bay entrance is the Rimae Sosignes, named for the Sosigenes crater to the south. At the west end of the bay is a finger of mare surface that extends to the northwest for almost 100 km.
In the arts
Mare tranquilitatis is also the name of a composition of music by composer Vangelis on his 1976 album, Albedo 0.39 and is in reference to the lunar geographical term.
Tranquillitatisja:静かの海
Basalt
]]
Basalt is a common gray to black volcanic rock. It is usually fine-grained due to rapid cooling of lava on the Earth's surface. It may be porphyritic containing larger crystals in a fine matrix. Basalt in the tops of subaerial lava flows and cinder cones will often be highly vesiculated, imparting a lightweight "frothy" texture to the rock. The term basalt is at times applied to shallow intrusive rocks with a composition typical of basalt, but rocks of this composition with a phaneritic (coarse) groundmass should generally be referred to as diabase or gabbro. The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are predominantly made of basalt.
Unweathered basalt is frequently black to greenish-black in color, characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclasefeldspars and pyroxene together with minor amounts of accessory minerals such as olivine. Basaltic cinders are often red. Glass may be present, particularly as rinds on rapidly chilled surfaces of lava flows, and is commonly (but not exclusively) associated with underwater eruptions. Amygdaloidal structure is common in relic vesicles and beautifully crystallized species of zeolites, quartz or calcite are frequently found.
The lava flows of the Deccan Traps in India, the Columbia River Plateau of Washington and Oregon states in the United States, as well as the Triassic lavas of eastern North America are basalts. Perhaps the most famous basalt flow in the world is the Giant's Causeway on the northern coast of Ireland, in which the vertical joints form hexagonal columns and give the impression of having been artificially constructed.
Pliny used the word basalt and it is said to have had an Ethiopian origin, meaning a black stone.
Pillow lava
Ethiopia
When basalt erupts underwater or flows into the sea, the cold water quenches the surface and the lava forms a distinctive pillow shape, then the hot lava breaks through to form another pillow. This pillow texture is very common in underwater basaltic flows and pillow basalts are diagnostic of an underwater eruption environment when found in ancient rocks. Pillows typically consist of a fine-grained core with a glassy crust and have radial jointing. Size of individual pillows vary from 10 cm up to 6 m.
Lunar basalt
The dark areas visible on Earth's moon, the lunar mares, are plains of basalt and gabbro, and basalt Moon samples were brought to Earth by the astronauts of the Apollo program.
Types of basalt
- Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in sodium. Included in this category are most basalts of the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, and continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau. Pyroxene (augite and orthopyroxene or pigeonite), calcium rich plagioclase, and magnetite are common minerals. Contains interstitial quartz or tridymite plus minor olivine.
- Olivine tholeiite has augite and orthopyroxene or pigeonite with abundant olivine. Olivine may have rims of pyroxene.
- High alumina basalt has typically only augite with common olivine. Has greater than 17% alumina (Al2O3) and less titanium than tholeites.
- Alkaline basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium. It has augite, olivine, feldspathoids, and may have alkali feldspar and phlogopite.
Pontruet to miejscowość i gmina we Francji, w regionie Pikardia, w departamencie Aisne.
Według danych na rok 1990 gminę zamieszkiwało 287 osób, a gęstość zaludnienia wynosiła 43 osób/km² (wśród 2293 gmin Pikardii Pontruet plasuje się na 712. miejscu pod względem liczby ludności, natomiast pod względem powierzchni na miejscu 717.).
Linki zewnętrzne
- Źródło danych: [http://www.insee.fr Insee]
- Mapy i zdjęcia satelitarne: [http://kvaleberg.com/extensions/mapsources/index.php?params=49_54_N_3_14_E_region:fr_type:city link do Wiki mapsources]
- Zdjęcie satelitarne: [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=49.9,3.2333&spn=0.1,0.1&t=k Google maps]
- Mapa: [http://maps.msn.com/(cgxnej455qpgxeu5vurxtejz)/map.aspx?&lats1=49.9&lons1=3.2333&alts1=14®n1=2 MSN World Atlas]
Kategoria:Miejscowości FrancjiKategoria:Departament Aisne
Shalom Archav
La paix maintenant (en hébreu, שלום עכשיו - « Shalom Achshav ») est un mouvement extra-parlementaire israélien dont l'objectif est « de convaincre l'opinion publique et le gouvernement israelien qu'il est d'une part possible et nécessaire d'obtenir une paix juste et d'autre part de réconcilier Israël, le peuple palestinien et les pays arabes voisins — une solution fondée sur l'échange de 'la terre contre la paix' » (traduction libre depuis le site de Shalom Achshav et la version anglaise de cet article). Historiquement, il s'ag
