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Wilhem Reich

Wilhem Reich

Wilhelm Reich (March 24, 1897–November 3, 1957) was an Austrian-American psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and author, who was trained in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. In the 1930s, Reich claimed to have discovered a physical energy, which he called "orgone," and which he said was contained in the atmosphere and in all living matter. He developed instruments — orgone accumulators — to detect and harness the energy, which he said could be used to treat illnesses like cancer. His views were not accepted by the mainstream scientific community. When his Mass Psychology of Fascism, published in 1933, was banned by the Nazis, Reich realized he was in danger; he moved to the United States in 1939, where he continued his orgone research. In 1947, following a series of articles about orgone in The New Republic and Harpers, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began an investigation into Reich's claims about orgone therapy, and won an injunction against its promotion as a medical treatment. Charged with contempt of court for violating the injunction, Reich conducted his own defense, which involved sending the judge all his books to read. He was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. In August 1956, several tons of his publications were burned by the FDA. He died of heart failure in jail just over a year later, one day before he was due to apply for parole.

Early life and career

Wilhelm Reich was born in Dobrzanica, a village near Lemberg, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now in the Ukraine. His parents, Leon Reich, a prosperous farmer, and Cecilia Roniger, were Jewish. Shortly after his birth, the family moved south to a farm in Jujinetz, near Chernivtsi, Bukovina. He attributed his later interest in the study of sex and the biological basis of the emotions to his upbringing on his father's farm where, as he later put it, the "natural life functions" were never hidden from him. He was taught at home until he was 13 when his mother committed suicide after being discovered having an affair with Reich's tutor. [http://www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/biography.html] left Reich had to flee his home shortly after his father's death in 1914, when the Russian army invaded. In his Passion of Youth, he wrote: "I never saw either my homeland or my possessions again. Of a well-to-do past, nothing was left." He joined the Austrian Army, serving from 1915-18, for the last two years as a lieutenant. In 1918, when the war ended, he entered the medical school at the University of Vienna. As an undergraduate, he was drawn to the work of Sigmund Freud, who became aware of Reich's work in 1919 when Reich organized a seminar on sexology. Reich was accepted for membership of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association in October 1920 at the age of 23. According to the Wilhelm Reich Museum's biography, he was allowed to complete his six-year medical degree in four years because he was a war veteran, and received his M.D. in July 1922. [http://www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/biography.html] He worked in Internal Medicine at University Hospital, Vienna, and studied neuropsychiatry from 1922-24 at the Neurological and Psychiatric Clinic under Professor Wagner-Jauregg, who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1927.

The early development of orgone therapy

In 1922, Reich set up private practice as a psychoanalyst, and became first clinical assistant, and later vice-director, at Freud's Polyanalytic Polyclinic. He joined the faculty of the Psychoanalytic Institute in Vienna in 1924, and conducted research into the social causes of neurosis. It was at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association that Reich met Annie Pink, a fellow analyst-in-training. They married, and had their first daughter, Eva, in 1924 and a second daughter in 1928, but Reich was unable to control his interest in other women. The marriage was not a happy one, and did not last. Reich developed a theory that the ability to feel sexual love depended on a physical ability to make love with what he called "orgastic potency." He attempted to "measure" the male orgasm, noting that four distinct phases occurred physiologically: first, the psychosexual build-up or tension; second. the tumescence of the penis, with an accompanying "charge," which Reich measured electrically; third, an electrical discharge at the moment of orgasm, and fourth, the relaxation of the penis. He believed the force that he measured was a distinct type of energy present in all life forms. He called it "orgone." [http://www.newdawnmagazine.com/articles/Wilhelm%20Reich%20Scientific%20Genius%20or%20Medical%20Madman.html] He was a prolific writer for psychoanalytic journals in Europe, and his book Character Analysis brought forth a small revolution in the practice of psychoanalysis itself, and is still used today as a textbook for analytically-oriented classes in medical schools. Originally psychoanalysis was focused on the treatment of neurotic symptoms. Character Analysis was a major step in the development of what today would be called ego psychology. In Reich's view a person's entire character (or personality), not only individual symptoms, could be looked at and treated as a neurotic phenomenon. The book also introduced Reich's theory of "body armoring." He argued that unreleased psychosexual energy could produce actual physical blocks within muscles and organs, and that these act as a "body armor," preventing the release of the energy. An orgasm was one way to break through the armor. These ideas developed into a general theory of the importance of a healthy sex life to overall well-being, a theory compatible with Freud's views. Reich agreed with Freud that sexual development was the origin of mental disorder. They both believed that most psychological states were dictated by unconscious processes; that infant sexuality develops early but is repressed, and that this has important consequences for mental health. They were both atheists, believing that morality is a repression of the sexuality of individuals imposed on them as they move from childhood to maturity. At that time a Marxist, Reich argued that the source of sexual repression was bourgeois morality and the socio-economic structures that produced it. As sexual repression was the cause of the neuroses, the best cure would be to have an active, guilt-free sex life. He argued that such a liberation could come about only through a morality not imposed by a repressive economic structure. [http://www.marxist.com/scienceandtech/psychoanalysis_reich.htm] In 1928, he joined the Austrian Communist Party and founded the Socialist Association for Sexual Counselling and Research, which organized counselling centers for workers—in contrast to Freud, who was perceived as treating only the bourgeoisie. Reich employed an unusual therapeutic method. He used touch to accompany the talking cure, taking an active role in sessions, feeling his patients' chests to check their breathing, repositioning their bodies, and sometimes requiring them to remove their clothes, so that men were treated wearing shorts and women in bra and panties. These methods caused a split between Reich and the rest of the psychoanalytic community. [http://www.newdawnmagazine.com/articles/Wilhelm%20Reich%20Scientific%20Genius%20or%20Medical%20Madman.html] In 1930, he moved his practice to Berlin and joined the Communist Party of Germany, becoming its spokesman. His best-known book, The Sexual Revolution, was published at this time in Vienna. Advocating free contraceptives and abortion on demand, he again set up clinics in working-class areas and taught sex education, but eventually became too outspoken even for the communists, and he was expelled from the party in 1933. In the same year, The Mass Psychology of Fascism was published, in which Reich categorized fascism as a symptom of sexual repression. The book was banned by the Nazis when they came to power. Reich was expelled from the International Psychological Association in 1934 for political militancy. German newspapers started attacking him as a womanizer, a communist, and a Jew who advocated free love. He realized he was in danger and hurriedly left Germany disguised as a tourist on a ski trip to Austria. He spent some years in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, before leaving for the U.S. in 1939.

The bion experiments

From 1934-37, based for most of the period in Oslo, Reich conducted experiments seeking the origins of life. He examined protozoa, single-celled creatures with nuclei that, like animals, display mobility and heterotrophy, meaning they require organic matter to obtain carbon for growth. He grew cultured vesicles using grass, beach sand, iron, and animal tissue, boiling them, adding potassium and gelatin. Having heated the materials to incandescence with a heat-torch, he noted bright, glowing, blue vesicles, which, he claimed, could be cultured, and which gave off an observable radiant energy, which he called orgone. He named the vesicles "bions" and believed they were a rudimentary form of life, or halfway between life and non-life. When he poured the cooled mixture onto growth media, bacteria were born. Reich dismissed the idea that the bacteria were already present in the air, or in the sand and other materials he used. Reich's The Bion Experiments on the Origin of Life was published in Oslo in 1938, leading to attacks in the press that he was a "Jew pornographer" who was daring to meddle with the origins of life. [http://www.newdawnmagazine.com/articles/Wilhelm%20Reich%20Scientific%20Genius%20or%20Medical%20Madman.html]

T-bacilli

In 1936, in Beyond Psychology, Reich wrote that:
Since everything is antithetically arranged, there must be two different types of single-celled organisms: (a) life-destroying organisms or organisms that form through organic decay, (b) life-promoting organisms that form from inorganic material that comes to life.
This idea led Reich to believe he had found the cause of cancer. He called the life-destroying organisms "T-bacill," with the T standing for Thanatos, Greek for death. He described in The Cancer Biopathy how he had found them in a culture of rotting cancerous tissue obtained from a local hospital. He wrote that T-bacilli were formed from the disintegration of protein. He claimed they were 0.2 to 0.5 micrometre in length, shaped like lancets, and when injected into mice, they caused inflammation and cancer. He concluded that when orgone energy diminishes in cells, through ageing or injury, the cells undergo "bionous degeneration" or death. At some point, the deadly T-bacilli start to form in the cells. Death from cancer, he believed, was caused by an overwhelming growth of the T-bacilli.

Orgone accumulators and cloudbusters

mice In March 1938, Hitler annexed Austria. Reich's ex-wife and daughters had already left for the U.S., and in August 1939, Reich sailed out of Norway on the last boat to leave before the war began. He settled in Forest Hills, Long Island, and in 1946, married Ilse Ollendorf, with whom he had a son, Peter. It was during this period, according to some researchers, that Reich appeared to suffer a breakdown. They say that he became paranoid and revised parts of his earlier works to remove references to Marxist theory. [http://www.marxist.com/scienceandtech/psychoanalysis_reich.htm] Reich's defenders say that Reich's revisions were minor, confined only to the English-speaking American period of his work, and were primarily sexological, clinical, or scientific in nature. Reich was one of the first of the European socialists to break ranks completely with the Communist Party; for example, in his book Mass Psychology of Fascism, which he wrote after a trip to Russia, he identified communism as "Red Fascism". His defenders say that the charge of paranoia is intended to discredit Reich's critique of Marxism. American writer Jim Martin alleges that many of those who have attacked Reich's biophysical research—on the orgone accumulator, for example—are themselves leftist and Marxist (Martin 2000). In 1940, Reich built boxes — orgone accumulators — to concentrate orgone energy in the atmosphere, some for lab animals, and some large enough for a human being to sit inside. He now believed orgone was a type of primordial cosmic energy, blue in color, which he claimed was omnipresent and responsible for such things as weather, the color of the sky, gravity, the formation of galaxies, and the biological expressions of emotion and sexuality. Composed of alternating layers of ferrous metals and insulators with a high-dielectrical constant, his orgone accumulators had the appearance of a large hollow "capacitor". He believed that sitting inside the box might provide a treatment for cancer and other illnesses. It was the construction of these boxes that caught the attention of the press, and wild rumors spread that they were "sex boxes" which caused uncontrollable erections. [http://www.newdawnmagazine.com/articles/Wilhelm%20Reich%20Scientific%20Genius%20or%20Medical%20Madman.html] Reich also designed a "cloudbuster" with which he said he could manipulate streams of orgone energy in the atmosphere to induce rain by forcing clouds to form and disperse. Based on experiments with the orgone accumulator, he argued that orgone energy was a negatively-entropic force in nature which was responsible for concentrating and organizing matter. During one drought-relief expedition to Arizona, he claimed to have observed UFOs, and speculated that orgone might be used for the propulsion of UFOs. According to his theory, illness was primarily caused by depletion or blockages of the orgone energy within the body. He conducted clinical tests of the orgone accumulator on people suffering from a variety of illnesses. The patient would sit within the accumulator and absorb the "concentrated orgone energy". He built smaller, more portable accumulator-blankets of the same layered construction for application to parts of the body. The effects observed were claimed to boost the immune system, even to the point of destroying certain types of tumors, though Reich was hesitant to claim this constituted a "cure." The orgone accumulator was also tested on mice with cancer, and on plant-growth, the results convincing Reich that the benefits of orgone therapy could not be attributed to a placebo effect. He had, he believed, developed a grand unified theory of physical and mental health. [http://www.mdpsych.org/SU01_gKlee.htm]

Orgone experiment with Einstein

In 1940, Reich wrote to Albert Einstein saying he had a scientific discovery he wanted to discuss, and on January 13, 1941, he went to visit Einstein in Princeton. They talked for five hours, and Einstein agreed to test an orgone accumulator, which Reich had made out of a Faraday cage made of galvanized steel and insulated by wood and paper on the outside. Einstein agreed with Reich that if, as Reich suggested, an object's temperature could be raised without an apparent heating source, it would be "a bomb" in physics. Reich supplied the device during their second meeting, and Einstein performed the experiment in his basement, which involved taking the temperature atop, inside, and near the device. He also stripped the device down to its Faraday cage to compare temperatures. Over the course of a week, in both cases, Einstein observed a rise in temperature, and confirmed Reich's finding in a published letter. Since Einstein could offer no explanation for the finding, Reich concluded that the heat was the result of a novel form of energy—orgone energy—that had accumulated inside the Faraday cage. However, one of Einstein's colleagues at Princeton, the Polish physicist Leopold Infeld, interpreted the phenomenon as resulting from thermal convection currents, though he failed to provide an experimental demonstration of his contention. Einstein concurred that the experiment could be explained by convection. Over the next three years of correspondence, Reich and Einstein disagreed on the interpretation of the experiment. The entire correspondence between Reich and Einstein was published by Reich's press as The Einstein Affair in 1953. In 2001, the neo-Reichians Paulo Correa and Alexandra Correa reproduced the experiment and introduced controls that they say rule out the possibility of convection as an explanation (see Aetherometry). A similar experiment was independently carried out by their supporter Eugene Mallove.

The Brady articles and the FDA

Eugene Mallove In 1947, Reich was attacked in The New Republic and Harpers in a series of articles written by Mildred Brady, a freelance writer. Jim Martin writes that Michael Straight, a former member of the Cambridge Apostles and friend of some of those involved in the Soviet-Cambridge spy ring, was the publisher of the Brady articles, and that the attack on Reich may have been prompted by Reich's turning his back on Marxism (Martin, 2000). The articles triggered an investigation of Reich by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), who believed he was peddling a quack cancer cure. Reich had already been investigated by the FBI because he was an immigrant with a communist background. According to an FBI press release dated February 25, 2000:
This German immigrant described himself as the Associate Professor of Medical Psychology, Director of the Orgone Institute, President and research physician of the Wilhelm Reich Foundation, and discoverer of biological or life energy. A 1940 security investigation was begun to determine the extent of Reich's communist commitments. In 1947, a security investigation concluded that neither the Orgone Project nor any of its staff were engaged in subversive activities or were in violation of any statute within the jurisdiction of the FBI. [http://www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel00/foia022500.htm]
Though cleared of suspicion of subversive activities, the FDA investigation continued. On February 10, 1954, acting on allegations in the Brady articles, they filed a complaint seeking a permanent injunction under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act to prevent interstate shipment of orgone-therapy equipment and literature. [http://www.orgone.org/wr-vs-usa/wr40210a.htm] Reich refused to appear in court, apparently believing that no court was in a position to evaluate his work. On February 25, he wrote to Judge Clifford:
My factual position in the case as well as in the world of science of today does not permit me to enter the case against the Food and Drug Administration, since such action would, in my mind, imply admission of the authority of this special branch of the government to pass judgment on primordial, pre-atomic cosmic orgone energy." [http://www.orgone.org/wr-vs-usa/wr40225a.htm]
Because of Reich's failure to appear, Judge Clifford granted the injunction on March 19, 1954. [http://www.orgone.org/wr-vs-usa/wr40319d.htm] The ruling stated that all written material, including books, papers and pamphlets that mentioned "orgone energy" had to be destroyed, and that further copies of Reich's books could not be published, including his revised classics like The Mass Psychology of Fascism, unless the words "orgone energy" were deleted.

Imprisonment and death

In May 1956, Reich was arrested for technical violation of the injunction when an associate moved some orgone-therapy equipment across a state line, and Reich was charged with contempt of court. Once again, he refused to arrange a legal defense. He was brought in chains to the courthouse in Portland, Maine. Representing himself, he admitted to having violated the injunction and arranged for the judge to be sent copies of his books. He was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. Dr. Morton Herskowitz, a fellow psychiatrist and friend of Reich's wrote of the trial:
Because he viewed himself as a historical figure, he was making a historical point, and to make that point he had conducted the trial that way. If I had been in his shoes, I would have wanted to escape jail, I would have wanted to be free, etc. I would have conducted the trial on a strictly legal basis because the lawyers had said, "We can win this case for you. Their case is so weak, so when you let us do our thing we can get you off." But he wouldn't do it. [http://www.orgonomicscience.org/memories/trial.html]
On June 5, 1956, FDA officials traveled to Orgonon, Reich's 200-acre (80-hectare) estate near Rangeley, Maine, where they destroyed the accumulators, and on June 26, burned many of his books. On August 25, 1956 and again on March 17, 1960, [http://www.orgone.org/wr-vs-usa/wr40319d.htm] the remaining six tons of his books, journals and papers were burned in the 25th Street public incinerator in New York's lower east side (Gansevoort incinerator). In March 1957, he was sent to Danbury Federal Prison, where a psychiatrist examined him, recording: "Paranoia manifested by delusions of grandiosity and persecution and ideas of reference." [http://www.newdawnmagazine.com/articles/Wilhelm%20Reich%20Scientific%20Genius%20or%20Medical%20Madman.html] Reich died in his sleep of heart failure on November 3, 1957 in the federal penitentiary in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, one day before he was due to apply for parole. He was buried in Orgonon. At his own instruction, his granite headstone said simply:
Wilhelm Reich
Born March 24, 1897
Died November 3, 1957
Not one psychiatric or established scientific journal carried an obituary. Time Magazine noted:
Died. Wilhelm Reich, 60, once-famed psychoanalyst, associate, and follower of Sigmund Freud, founder of the Wilhelm Reich Foundation, lately better known for unorthodox sex and energy theories; of a heart attack in Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary, Pa; where he was serving a two-year term for distributing his invention, the "orgone energy accumulator" (in violation of the Food and Drug Act), a telephone-booth-size device which supposedly gathered energy from the atmosphere, and could cure, while the patient sat inside, common colds, cancer and impotence.

Status of Reich's work

obituary As of 2005, the mainstream scientific community pays little attention to Reich's work, but he is popular in other areas, particularly psychotherapy. Nearly all of his publications have been reprinted, save for his research journals which are available only as photocopies via the Wilhelm Reich Museum. [http://www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org] The first editions are not available: Reich continously amended his books throughout his life, and the owners of Reich's intellectual property actively forbid anything other than the latest revised versions to be reprinted. In the late 1960s, the publishing house of Farrar, Straus & Giroux republished Reich's major works. Reich's earlier books, particularly The Mass Psychology of Fascism, are regarded as historically valuable. William Steig, Norman Mailer, William S. Burroughs, and Orson Bean have all undergone Reich's orgone therapy. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Reich's ideas on social and sexual freedom enjoyed a revival and most of his books were reprinted and widely read, including by the loosely defined "New Left" and students' movements in Europe and the U.S., though often with considerable distortion of his ideas. New Left His influence is strongly felt in psychotherapy. He was a forerunner of body-oriented, emotions-based psychotherapies, influencing Fritz Perls' Gestalt therapy and Arthur Janov's primal therapy. See also Neo-Reichian massage. His pupil Alexander Lowen, the founder of bioenergetic analysis, Charles Kelley, the founder of Radix Therapy, and James DeMeo of the Orgone Biophysical Research Laboratory [http://www.orgonelab.org] ensure that his research receives widespread attention. Many practising psychoanalysts give credence to his theory of character, and his book Character Analysis is still used as a textbook. The American College of Orgonomy [http://www.orgonomy.org], originally led by Dr. Elsworth Baker, and the Institute for Orgonomic Science [http://www.orgonomicscience.org] led by Dr. Morton Herskowitz, still use Reich's original therapeutic methods. Don Croft has invented a simple, modified cloudbuster that he claims converts dead orgone in the atmosphere into positive orgone in order to dispel chemtrails and to repel harmful alien spacecraft.[http://www.metatech.org/cloudbuster_&_orgone_generator.html] Reich's life and work continue to influence popular culture, with references to orgone and cloudbusting found in songs by Clutch, Hawkwind, Pop Will Eat Itself, Turbonegro and Patti Smith. Kate Bush's song, "Cloudbusting," [http://children.ofthenight.org/cloudbusting/cloudbusting.html] describes Reich's arrest and incarceration through the eyes of Reich's son, Peter, who wrote his father's story in A Book of Dreams, published in 1973. Frank Zappa was also influenced by Reich's work. The philosopher and science fiction author Robert Anton Wilson wrote a play, Wilhelm Reich in Hell, based on his life. A film about Reich's teachings called W.R.: Mysteries of the Organism was made in 1971 by Yugoslavian director Dusan Makavejev.

Bibliography

Dusan Makavejev Books by Wilhelm Reich
- Der triebhafte Charakter : eine psychoanalytische Studie zur Pathologie des Ich, 1925
- Die Funktion des Orgasmus : zur Psychopathologie und zur Soziologie des Geschlechtslebens, 1927
- Ueber den Oedipuskomplex : drei psychoanalytische Studien with Felix Boehm and Otto Fenichel, 1931
- Character analysis or in the original: Charakteranalyse : Technik und Grundlagen für studierende und praktizierende Analytiker, 1933
- Massenpsychologie des Faschismus, 1933, original German edition, banned by the Nazis and the Communists.
- The Mass Psychology of Fascism, 1946 revised and enlarged U.S. edition
- Die Sexualitaet im Kulturkampf, 1936 U.S. edition 1945 The Sexual Revolution
- Dialektischer Materialismus und Psychoanalyse, 1929
- Der Einbruch der Sexualmoral, 1932
- Die Sexualitaet im Kulturkampf, 1936
- Die Bione, 1938 English-language books by Reich:
- American Odyssey:Letters and Journals 1940-1947
- Beyond Psychology:Letters and Journals 1934-1939
- The Bioelectrical Investigation of Sexuality and Anxiety
- The Bion Experiments: On the Origins of Life
- Function of the Orgasm (Discovery of the Orgone, Vol.1)
- The Cancer Biopathy (Discovery of the Orgone, Vol.2)
- Character Analysis
- Children of the Future: On the Prevention of Sexual Pathology
- Contact With Space: Oranur Second Report
- Cosmic Superimposition: Man's Orgonotic Roots in Nature
- Early Writings
- Ether, God and Devil
- Genitality in the Theory and Therapy of Neuroses
- The Invasion of Compulsory Sex-Morality
- Listen, Little Man!
- Mass Psychology of Fascism
- The Murder of Christ (Emotional Plague of Mankind, Vol.2)
- The Oranur Experiment
- The Orgone Energy Accumulator, Its Scientific and Medical Use
- Passion of Youth: An Autobiography, 1897-1922
- People in Trouble: Emotional Plague of Mankind, Vol.1)
- Record of a Friendship: The Correspondence of Wilhelm Reich and A.S. Neill (1936-1957)
- Reich Speaks of Freud
- Selected Writings: An Introduction to Orgonomy
- The Sexual Revolution About Reich and his findings, by various authors
- Albini, Carlo: Creazione & Castigo: La Grande Congiura Contro Wilhelm Reich, Tre Editori, Roma 1998.
- Baker, Elsworth F.: Man In The Trap, Macmillan, NY, 1967.
- Bean, Orson: Me And The Orgone, St. Martin's Press, NY, 1971.
- Boadella, David: Wilhelm Reich, The Evolution Of His Work, Henry Regnery, Chicago, 1973.
- Boadella, David (Ed.): In The Wake Of Reich, Coventure, London, 1976.
- Brady, Mildred Edie, "The Strange Case of Wilhelm Reich," New Republic, May 26, 1947
- ___________________ "The New Cult of Sex and Anarchy," Harper's, April 1947.
- Cantwell, Alan, [http://www.newdawnmagazine.com/articles/Wilhelm%20Reich%20Scientific%20Genius%20or%20Medical%20Madman.html"Dr. Wilhelm Reich: Scientific Genius or Medical Madman] New Dawn Magazine, May-June 2004
- DeMeo, James: The Orgone Accumulator Handbook: Construction Plans, Experimental Use and Protection Against Toxic Energy, Natural Energy Works, Ashland, Oregon 1989.
- DeMeo, James (Ed.): On Wilhelm Reich And Orgonomy (Pulse of the Planet #4), Natural Energy Works, Ashland, Oregon 1993.
- DeMeo, James: Saharasia: The 4000 BCE Origins of Child-Abuse, Sex-Repression, Warfare and Social Violence, In the Deserts of the Old World, Natural Energy Works, Ashland, Oregon 1998.
- DeMeo, James & Senf, Bernd (Eds.): Nach Reich: Neue Forschungen zur Orgonomie: Sexualokonomie, Die Entdeckung Der Orgonenergie (After Reich: New Research in Orgonomy: Sex-Economy, Discovery of the Orgone Energy), Zweitausendeins Verlag, Frankfurt, 1998.
- DeMeo, James (Ed.): Heretic's Notebook: Emotions, Protocells, Ether-Drift and Cosmic Life Energy, With New Research Supporting Wilhelm Reich, Natural Energy Works, Ashland, Oregon 2002.
- Eden, Jerome: Orgone Energy, The Answer To Atomic Suicide, Exposition, NY, 1972.
- Eden, Jerome: Animal Magnetism And The Life Energy, Exposition, NY, 1974.
- Greenfield, Jerome: Wilhelm Reich Vs. The USA, W.W. Norton, NY, 1974.
- Herskowitz, Morton: Emotional Armoring: An Introduction to Psychiatric Orgone Therapy, Transactions Press, NY 1998.
- Hoppe, Walter: Wilhelm Reich Und Andere Grosse Manner Der Wissenschaft Im Kampf Mit Dem Irrationalismus (Wilhelm Reich and Other Great Men of Science in the Battle Against Irrationalism), Verlag Kurt Nane Jurgensen, Munich, 1985.
- Laska, Bernd A.: [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/wrfreud.html#inhalt Sigmund Freud contra Wilhelm Reich] Auszug aus Laska, Bernd A.: Wilhelm Reich. Bildmonographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 1981, 1999
- Mann, Edward: Orgone, Reich And Eros: Wilhelm Reich's Theory Of The Life Energy, Simon & Schuster, NY, 1973.
- Mann, Edward & Hoffman, Ed: The Man Who Dreamed Of Tomorrow: A Conceptual Biography Of Wilhelm Reich, J.P. Tarcher, 1980.
- Martin, Jim: Wilhelm Reich and the Cold War, Flatland Books, Mendocino, CA, 2000.
- Meyerowitz, Jacob: Before the Beginning of Time, rRp Publishers, Easton, PA 1994.
- Moise, William S.: A Taste Of Color, A Touch Of Love, Hancock, Maine, 1970.
- Ollendorff, Ilse: Wilhelm Reich: A Personal Biography, St. Martin's Press, NY, 1969.
- Overly, Richard: Gentle Bio-Energetics: Tools for Everyone, Gentle Bioenergetics Press, Asheville, NC, 1998.
- Raknes, Ola: Wilhelm Reich And Orgonomy, St. Martin's Press, NY, 1970; Penguin, Baltimore, 1970.
- Reich, Peter: A Book Of Dreams, Harper & Row, NY, 1973.
- Ritter, Paul, Ed.: Wilhelm Reich Memorial Volume, Ritter Press, Nottingham, England, 1958.
- Sharaf, Myron: Fury On Earth: A Biography Of Wilhlem Reich, St. Martin's-Marek, NY, 1983.
- Senf, Bernd: Die Wiederentdeckung des Lebendigen (The Rediscovery of the Living), Zweitausendeins Verlag, Frankfurt, 1996.
- Wilson, Robert Anton: Wilhelm Reich in Hell, Aires Press, 1998.
- Wyckoff, James: Wilhelm Reich: Life Force Explorer, Fawcett, Greenwich, CT, 1973. The Einstein experiments
- Wilhelm Reich, The Einstein Affair, 1953
- Correa, P & Correa, A (1998, 2001) "The thermal anomaly in ORACs and the Reich-Einstein experiment: implications for blackbody theory", Akronos Publishing, Concord, ON, Canada, ABRI monograph AS2-05.
- Correa PN & Correa AN (2001) "The reproducible thermal anomaly of the Reich-Einstein experiment under limit conditions", Infinite Energy, 37:12.
- Mallove, E (2001) "Breaking Through: A Bombshell in Science", Infinite Energy, 37:6.
- Mallove, E (2001) "Breaking Through: Aether Science and Technology", Infinite Energy, 39:6.
- Aspden, H (2001) "Gravity and its thermal anomaly: was the Reich-Einstein experiment evidence of energy inflow from the aether?", Infinite Energy, 41:61.
- Bearden, T (2002) "Energy from the vacuum", Cheniere Press, Santa Barbara, CA, pp. 333-337.
- References in Einstein biographies:
  - Ronald W. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times, New York: Avon, 1971, ISBN 038001159X Reich on pages 689-90 paperback edition.
  - Denis Brian, Einstein: A Life, John WIley, 1996, ISBN 0471114596 Reich discussed on pages 325-327, 382, 399
  - See Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Physics#1941_Reich-Einstein_experiment for some quotes from the above two books.

See also


- List of Austrian Scientists
- List of Austrians
- Aetherometry

External links


- [http://www.orgonelab.org/bibliog.htm Bibliography on Orgonomy], a full listing of scholarly works on Wilhelm Reich
- [http://www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/ Orgonon - The Wilhelm Reich Museum]
- [http://www.aetherometry.com/ Aetherometry - The Science of Massfree Energy; encompasses experimental and theoretical crystallization of, and enlargement upon, Reich's work]
- [http://www.orgonelab.org Orgone Biophysical Research Laboratory]
- [http://www.orgonelab.org/bibliog.htm On-Line Bibliography on Orgonomy] (Includes list of [http://www.orgonelab.org/bibliogDISS.htm University Theses and Dissertations focused on Reich's work])
- [http://www.orgone.org/ PORE, Public Orgonomic Research Exchange] (Includes a [http://www.orgone.org/wrbiog/biog00.htm Biography (Timeline) of Wilhelm Reich and his Orgonomic Research])
- [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/reich.htm Reich's FBI File]
- [http://skepdic.com/orgone.html Skeptic's Dictionary: orgone energy, Wilhelm Reich]
- [http://www.orgonelab.org/gardner.htm Response to Martin Gardner's Attack on Reich and Orgone Research in the Skeptical Inquirer]
- [http://orgonomy.org/ The American College of Orgonomy]
- [http://www.datadiwan.de/magazin/dz0100e_.htm Scientific Reproduction of Reich's Biophysical Experiments]
- [http://www.rogermwilcox.name/Reich/ A Skeptical Scrutiny of the Works and Theories of Wilhelm Reich]
- [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/enwr.html Wilhelm Reich within the Project LSR ("orgone forgone")]
- [http://www.marxist.com/scienceandtech/psychoanalysis_reich.htm Marxism and Psychoanalysis: Notes on Wilhelm Reich's life and work] Reich, Wilhelm Reich, Wilhelm Reich, Wilhelm Reich, Wilhelm Reich, Wilhelm Reich,Wilhelm Reich, Wilhelm Reich, Wilhelm

1897

1897 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

common year starting on Friday
- January 1 - Brooklyn, New York merges with New York City.
- January 4 - A British force is ambushed by Chief Ologbosere, son-in-law of the Oba of Benin. This leads to a Punitive Expedition against Benin.
- February 2 - Harrisburg, the Pennsylvania state capitol, is destroyed by fire.
- February 18- Benin is put to the torch by the Punitive Expedition.
- March 4 - William McKinley succeeds Grover Cleveland as President of the United States.
- March 13 - San Diego State University founded.
- April 5 - "Ordinance of April 5," equalizing German and Czech in Bohemia, signed in Austria-Hungary (see Kasimir Felix Graf Badeni).
- April 27 - Grant's Tomb is dedicated.
- May 19 - Oscar Wilde is released from prison.
- June 2 - Mark Twain, responding to rumors that he was dead, is quoted by the New York Journal as saying, "The report of my death was an exaggeration."
- July 17 - Klondike Gold Rush begins when first successful prospectors arrive in Seattle.
- July 25 - Writer Jack London sails to join the Klondike Gold Rush where he will write his first successful stories.
- July 31 - First ascent of Mount Saint Elias, second highest peak in the United States and Canada.
- August 29 - First Zionist Congress convenes in Basel, Switzerland.
- September 1 - The Boston subway opens, becoming the first underground metro in North America.
- September 10 - In the Lattimer Massacre, a sheriff's posse killes more than nineteen unarmed immigrant miners in Pennsylvania.
- September 11 - After months of searching, generals of Menelik II of Ethiopia capture Gaki Sherocho, the last king of Kaffa, bringing an end to that ancient kingdom.
- December 9 - First issue of the feminist newspaper La Fronde is published by Marguerite Durand.
- December 28 - The play Cyrano de Bergerac, by Edmond Rostand, premieres in Paris.
- December 30 - Natal annexes Zululand.
- Queen Victoria celebrates her Diamond Jubilee.
- France allows women to study at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.
- First use of the word computer meaning an electronic calculation device.
- Coseley Urban District Council formed
- Dos Equis first brewed in anticipation of new century

Births

January-March


- January 3 - Marion Davies, American actress (d. 1961)
- January 23 - Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, Austrian architect and anti-Nazi activist (d. 2000)
- February 4 - Ludwig Erhard, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1977)
- February 7 - Quincy Porter, American composer (d. 1966)
- February 10 - John F. Enders, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1985)
- February 10 - Dame Judith Anderson, Australian actress (d. 1992)
- February 27 - Marian Anderson, American contralto (d. 1993)
- March 1 - Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith (d.1957)
- March 2 - Violet Baudelaire, heiress to the Baudelaire inheritance (d.1980)
- March 4 - Lefty O'Doul, baseball player and restaurateur (d. 1969)
- March 15 - Jackson Scholz, American sprinter (d. 1986)
- March 24 - Wilhelm Reich, Austrian psychotherapist (d. 1957)
- March 28 - Sepp Herberger, German football coach (d. 1977)

April-June


- April 1 - Nita Naldi, American film actress (d. 1961)
- April 7 - Walter Winchell, American broadcast journalist (d. 1972)
- April 9 - John B. Gambling, American radio talk-show host (d. 1974)
- April 19 - Peter de Noronha, Indian businessman
- April 23 - Lester B. Pearson, Prime Minister of Canada, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1972)
- April 25 - Mary, Princess Royal of England (d. 1965)
- April 26 - Douglas Sirk, German-born director (d. 1987)
- April 26 - Eddie Eagan, American boxer and bobsledder (d. 1967)
- May 14 - Sidney Bechet, American musician (d. 1959)
- May 17 - Odd Hassel, Norwegian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)
- May 18 - Frank Capra, American producer, director, and writer (d. 1991)
- May 19 - Frank Luke, American World War I pilot (d. 1918)
- May 21 - Nikola Avramov, Bulgarian painter (d. 1945)
- May 27 - John Cockcroft, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)
- May 29 - Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Austrian composer (d. 1957)
- June 7 - George Szell, Hungarian conductor (d. 1970)
- June 10 - Grand Duchess Tatiana of Russia (d. 1918)
- June 13 - Paavo Nurmi, Finnish runner (d. 1973)
- June 16 - Georg Wittig, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)
- June 19 - Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)
- June 19 - Moe Howard, American comedian and actor, Three Stooges member (d.1975)

July-September


- July 20 - Tadeus Reichstein, Polish-born chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1996)
- July 24 - Amelia Earhart, American aviator
- July 29 - Sir Neil Ritchie, British general (d. 1983)
- August 2 - Max Weber, Swiss Federal Councilor (d. 1974)
- August 28 - Charles Boyer, French actor (d. 1978)
- September 8 - Jimmie Rodgers, American singer (d. 1933)
- September 12 - Irene Joliot-Curie, French physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (d. 1956)
- September 17 - Earl Webb, baseball player (d. 1965)
- September 23 - Walter Pidgeon, Canadian actor (d. 1984)
- September 25 - William Faulkner, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1962)
- September 26 - Pope Paul VI (d. 1978)
- September 26 - Arthur Rhys Davids, English pilot (d.1917)

October-December


- October 3 - Louis Aragon, French author (d. 1982)
- October 15 - Johannes Sikkar, Estonian statesman (d. 1960)
- October 20 - Yi, Eun, Korean Crown Prince (d. 1970)
- October 29 - Joseph Goebbels, German Nazi propagnadist (d. 1945)
- November 9 - Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1978)
- November 15 - Sacheverell Sitwell, English author (d. 1988)
- November 18 - Patrick Blackett, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974)
- November 23 - Nirad C. Chaudhuri, Bengali author (d. 1999)
- December 18 - Fletcher Henderson, American musician (d. 1952)
- December 30 - Alfredo Bracchi, Italian author (d. 1976)

Deaths


- February 4 - Major Charles Bendire, U.S. Army captain and ornithologist (b. 1836)
- February 19 - Karl Weierstrass, German mathematician (b. 1815
- March 19 - Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie, Irish-born traveler (b. 1810)
- April 3 - Johannes Brahms, German composer (b. 1833)
- September 9 - Richard Holt Hutton, English writer and theologian (b. 1826)
- September 21 - Wilhelm Wattenbach, German historian (b. 1819)
- October 29 - Henry George, American economist (b. 1839)
- November 19 - William Seymour Tyler, American educator and historian (b. 1810)
- November 20 - Ernest Giles, Australian explorer (b. 1835)
- December 17 - Alphonse Daudet, French writer (b. 1840)
- Jang Seung-eop, Korean painter (b. 1843) Category:1897 ko:1897년 ms:1897 simple:1897 th:พ.ศ. 2440

1957

1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar.

Events

January-February


- January 1 - Saarland joins West Germany
- January 2 - San Francisco and Los Angeles stock exchanges merge to form Pacific Coast Stock Exchange.
- January 3 - Hamilton Watch Company introduces the first electric watch
- January 4 - After 69 years the last issue of Collier's Weekly magazine is published
- January 5 - Russell Endean becomes the first batsman to be dismissed handled the ball in test match cricket
- January 10 - Anthony Eden resigns - Harold Macmillan becomes the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- January 11 - The African Convention is founded in Dakar.
- January 13 - Wham-O Company produces the first Frisbee
- January 16 - The Cavern Club opens in Liverpool
- January 22 - Israel withdraws from the Sinai Peninsula (they captured it from Egypt in a battle on October 29, 1956)
- January 22 - The New York City "Mad Bomber," George P. Metesky, is arrested in Waterbury, Connecticut and is charged with planting more than 30 bombs.
- January 23 - Ku Klux Klan members force truck driver Willie Edwards to jump off a bridge into the Alabama River - he drowns as a result.
- February 4 - France prohibits UN involvement in Algeria
- February 15 - Andrei Gromyko becomes foreign minister of Soviet Union

March

Soviet Union
- March 1 - U Nu becomes Prime Minister of Burma
- March 1 - Arturo Lezama becomes President of the National Council of Government of Uruguay
- March 1 - Sud Aviation forms from a merger between SNCASE (Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques du Sud Est) and SNCASO (Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques du Sud Ouest)
- March 6 - United Kingdom colonies Gold Coast and British Togoland become the independent Republic of Ghana
- March 8 - Egypt re-opens the Suez Canal
- March 10 - Floodgates of The Dalles Dam are closed inundating Celilo Falls and ancient indian fisheries along the Columbia River in Oregon.
- March 13 - The FBI arrests Jimmy Hoffa and charges him with bribery
- March 14 - President Sukarno declares martial law in Indonesia
- March 20 - French newspaper L'Express reveals that the French army tortures Algerian prisoners
- March 25 - Treaty of Rome (patto di Roma) establishes the European Economic Community (EEC); see EU

April-June


- April 1 - The first new conscripts join the Bundeswehr
- April 5 - First elected government of Kerala. CPI won the elections and E. M. S. Namboodiripad became the first chief minister of united Kerala
- April 9 - Egypt reopens Suez Canal for all shipping
- April 12 - United Kingdom announces that Singapore will gain self rule January 1 1958
- April 12 - Allen Ginsberg's poem Howl, printed in England, is seized by U.S. customs officials on the grounds of obscenity
- May 2 - Vincent Gigante fails to assassinate mafioso Frank Costello
- May 2 - Senator Joseph McCarthy of the Red Scare dies.
- May 3 - Walter O'Malley, the owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers, agrees to move the team from Brooklyn, New York, to Los Angeles, California.
- May 15 - Stanley Matthews plays his final international game, ending an English record international career of almost 23 years
- May 16 - Paul-Henri Spaak becomes the new Secretary General of NATO.
- June 9 - First ascent of Broad Peak
- June 15 - Eindhoven University of Technology is founded.
- June 21 - John Diefenbaker becomes Canada's thirteenth prime minister.
- June 25 - United Church of Christ formed in Cleveland, Ohio by merger of Congregational Christian Churches and the Evangelical and Reformed Church.
- June 27 - Hurricane Audrey demolishes Cameron, Louisiana, killing 400 people.

July-September


- July - International Geophysical Year begins.
- July 16 - United States Marine Major John Glenn flies an F8U supersonic jet from California to New York in 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8 seconds setting a new transcontinental speed record.
- July 25 - Tunisia becomes a republic.
- July 29 - The International Atomic Energy Agency is established.
- August 4 - Juan Manuel Fangio, driving for Maserati, wins the Formula One German Grand Prix, clinching (with 4 wins that season) his record fifth world drivers championship, including his fourth consecutive championship (also a record); these two records would endure for nearly half a century.
- August 31 - The Federation of Malaya, which does not include Singapore, gains independence from the United Kingdom. Tuanku Abdul Rahman ibni Almarhum Tuanku Muhammad, Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan becomes the first Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
- September 4 - American Civil Rights Movement: Little Rock Crisis - Orville Faubus, governor of Arkansas, calls out the US National Guard to prevent black students from enrolling in Central High School in Little Rock.
- September 4 - The Ford Motor Company introduces the Edsel on what the company proclaims as "E Day."
- September 21 - Olav V becomes King of Norway on the death of Haakon VII.

October


- October 4 - Sputnik program: The Soviet Union launches Sputnik I, the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth.
- October 9 - Neil H. McElroy was sworn in as the 6th Secretary of Defense of United States.
- October 10 - US President Dwight D. Eisenhower apologizes to the finance minister of Ghana, Komla Agbeli Gbdemah, after he was refused service in a Dover, Delaware restaurant.
- October 11 - Radio telescope of Jodrell Bank, Cheshire, UK, opened.
- October 23 - Morocco begins its invasion of Ifni.
- October 25 - Assassination of a Mafia boss Albert Anastasia in a barber shop in Park Sheraton Hotel.
- October 27 - Celal Bayar re-elected president of Turkey

November-December


- November 1 - Michigan's Mackinac Bridge opened.
- November 3 - Sputnik program: The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 2. On board is the first animal to enter space - a dog named Laika (she was kept alive for several days in space with a sophisticated life-support system).
- November 7 - Cold War: In the United States, the Gaither Report calls for more American missiles and fallout shelters.
- November 13 - Flooding in the Po River valley of Italy leads to the flooding also in Venice
- November 14 - Apalachin Meeting - The leaders of the American Mafia meet at a convention in Apalachin, New York at the house of Joseph Barbara. It is broken up by a curious patrolman.
- November 15 - Plane crash in the Isle of Wight leaves 43 dead.
- November 16 - Serial killer Edward Gein murders his last victim, Bernice Worden of Plainfield, Wisconsin.
- November 30 - Grenade attack against Indonesian president Sukarno in Cikini School in Jakarta. Six children killed, Sukarno survives unscathed.
- December 1 - In Indonesia, Sukarno announces nationalization of 246 Dutch businesses
- December 4 - Lewisham train disaster in UK leaves 92 dead
- December 5 - All 326,000 Dutch nationals are expelled from Indonesia.
- December 6 - First US attempt to launch a satellite fails, the satellite blowing up on the launch pad.

Undated


- Consumers' Association founded (UK)
- Project Orion begins, a U.S. program to build a spacecraft powered by nuclear explosions.
- Civil Rights Commission established under the Civil Rights Act of 1957
- IBM makes FORTRAN scientific programming language available to customers. It becomes the most widely used computer language for technical work.
- Citroën stops production of its Traction Avant motor car (production started in 1934).
- The Piña Colada was invented by Ramon Marrero, a bartender at Puerto Rico's Caribe Hilton. [http://melindalee.com/recipearchive.html?action=124&item_id=698]

Environmental change


- The Africanized bee is accidentally released in Brazil
- The Asian Flu pandemic begins in China

Births

January-February


- January 6 - Nancy Lopez, American golfer
- January 7 - Nicholson Baker, American novelist
- January 7 - Katie Couric, American television host
- January 7 - Julian Solis, Puerto Rican boxer
- January 11 - Robert Earl Keen, American musician and singer
- January 15 - Mario Van Peebles, Mexican actor and director
- January 19 - Katey Sagal, American actress, singer, and writer
- January 22 - Mike Bossy, Canadian hockey player
- January 23 - Princess Caroline of Monaco
- January 30 - Payne Stewart, American golfer (d. 1999)
- February 4 - Don Davis, American composer
- February 6 - Kathy Najimy, American actress and comedian
- February 6 - Robert Townsend, American comedian, actor, director, and producer
- February 8 - Cindy Wilson, American singer (The B-52's)
- February 9 - John Axon GC, British railwayman
- February 16 - LeVar Burton, American actor
- February 16 - James Ingram, American singer
- February 18 - Vanna White, American game show presenter
- February 19 - Falco, Austrian musician (d. 1998)
- February 27 - Viktor Markin, Russian athlete
- February 28 - Ian Smith, New Zealand cricket captains

March-May


- March 5 - Ray Suarez, American journalist
- March 10 - Osama bin Laden, Saudi-born Islamic extremist
- March 12 - Steve Harris, British bassist (Iron Maiden)
- March 20 - Spike Lee, American film director and actor
- March 29 - Christophe Lambert, American-born actor
- March 30 - Paul Reiser, American actor
- March 31 - Marc McClure, American actor
- April 4 - Aki Kaurismäki, Finnish film director
- April 4 - Nobuyoshi Kuwano, Japanese television performer and musician (Rats & Star)
- April 5 - Ivan Corea, Sri Lankan autism campaigner
- April 8 - Henry Cluney, Irish musician
- April 9 - Seve Ballesteros, Spanish golfer
- April 29 - Daniel Day-Lewis, Anglo-Irish actor
- May 3 - William Clay Ford, Jr., American automobile executive
- May 10 - Sid Vicious, English bassist (Sex Pistols) (d. 1979)
- May 22 - Gary Sweet, Australian actor
- May 26 - Margaret Colin, American actress
- May 27 - Siouxsie Sioux, British singer (Siouxsie and the Banshees)
- May 28 - Kirk Gibson, baseball player
- May 29 - Jeb Hensarling, American politician

June-October


- June 2 - King Lizzard, American entertainer
- June 3 - Horst-Ulrich Hänel, German field hockey player
- June 8 - Scott Adams, American cartoonist
- June 10 - Hidetsugu Aneha, Japanese one class authorized architect and builder
- June 11 - Jamaaladeen Tacuma, American musician
- June 12 - Javed Miandad, Pakistani cricketer
- June 19 - Anna Lindh, Swedish politician (d. 2003)
- July 13 - Cameron Crowe, American writer and film director
- June 13 - Frances McDormand, American actress
- July 23 - Theo van Gogh, Dutch film director (d. 2004)
- July 26 - Nana Visitor, American actress
- July 29 - Nelli Kim, Russian gymnast
- August 6 - Jim McGreevey, Governor of New Jersey
- August 7 - Mark Bagley, American comic book artist
- August 9 - Melanie Griffith, American actress
- August 11 - Richie Ramone, American drummer (The Ramones)
- August 18 - Carole Bouquet, French actress
- August 18 - Denis Leary, American comedian and actor
- August 24 - Stephen Fry, British comedian, author, and actor
- August 27 - Bernhard Langer, German golfer
- August 28 - Daniel Stern, American actor
- September 1 - Gloria Estefan, Cuban-born singer
- September 12 - Rachel Ward, British actress
- October 14 - Kenny Neal, American guitarist
- October 21 - Wolfgang Ketterle, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- October 26 - Bob Golic, American football player
- October 27 - Jeff East, American actor

November-December


- November 6 - Klaus Kleinfeld, German business executive
- November 7 - Christopher Knight, American actor November 9 - Spiro Agnew, American politician
- November 15 - Kevin Eubanks, American jazz guitarist
- November 24 - Denise Crosby, American actress
- November 30 - Colin Mochrie, Scottish-born comedian
- December 6 - Thomas Brinkman, American politician
- December 8 - Phil Collen, British singer and guitarist (Def Leppard)
- December 9 - Donny Osmond, American singer
- December 10 - Michael Clarke Duncan, American actor
- December 13 - Steve Buscemi, American actor
- December 13 - Morris Day, American musician (The Time (Band))
- December 13 - Jean-Marie Messier, French businessman
- December 20 - Billy Bragg, British singer
- December 20 - Joyce Hyser, American actress
- December 21 - Tom Henke, baseball player
- December 21 - Ray Romano, American actor and comedian
- December 30 - Matt Lauer, American newscaster

Unknown date


- Walter Moers, German comic artist and writer
- Eugene Spafford, American computer scientist

Deaths

January-March


- January 10 - Gabriela Mistral, Chilean writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1889)
- January 14 - Humphrey Bogart, American actor (b. 1899)
- January 16 - Arturo Toscanini, Italian conductor (b. 1867)
- February 8 - Walther Bothe, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1891)
- February 8 - John von Neumann, Hungarian-born mathematician (b. 1903)
- February 9 - Miklós Horthy, Hungarian admiral and regent (b. 1868)
- February 10 - Laura Ingalls Wilder, American author (b. 1867)
- February 18 - Henry Norris Russell, American astronomer (b. 1877)
- February 25 - George "Bugs" Moran, American gangster (b. 1893)
- March 11 - Admiral Richard E. Byrd, American explorer (b. 1888)
- March 16 - Constantin Brancusi, Romanian sculptor (b. 1876)
- March 17 - Ramon Magsaysay, President of the Philippines (b. 1907)
- March 25 - Max Ophüls, German film director and writer (b. 1902)
- March 29 - Joyce Cary, Irish author (b. 1888)

April-June


- May 2 - Joseph McCarthy, U.S. Senator (b. 1908)
- May 9 - Ezio Pinza, Italian bass (b. 1892)
- May 14 - Marie Vassilieff, Russian artist (b. 1884)
- May 16 - Eliot Ness, American Federal Bureau of Investigation agent (b. 1903)
- May 31 - Leopold Staff, Polish poet (b. 1878)
- June 17 - Dorothy Richardson, English feminist writer (b. 1873)
- June 21 - Johannes Stark, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874)
- June 26 - Alfred Döblin, German writer (b. 1878)
- June 27 - Malcolm Lowry, English novelist (b. 1909)

July-September


- July 4 - Judy Tyler, American actress (b. 1933)
- July 24 - Sacha Guitry, Russian-born French playright, actor, and director (b. 1885)
- July 28 - Edith Abbott, American social worker, educator, and author (b. 1876)
- August 5 - Heinrich Otto Wieland, German chemist, Nobel Prize larueate (b. 1877)
- August 7 - Oliver Hardy, American actor (b. 1892)
- August 16 - Irving Langmuir, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)
- August 19 - David Bomberg, English painter (b. 1890)
- September 1 - Dennis Brain, English French horn player (b. 1921)
- September 20 - Jean Sibelius, Finnish composer (b. 1865)
- September 21 - Haakon VII of Norway (b. 1872)
- September 22 - Toyoda Soemu, Japanese admiral (b. 1885)

October-December


- October 25 - Edward Plunkett, Baron Dunsany, Irish author (b. 1878)
- October 26 - Gerty Cori, Austrian-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1896)
- October 29 - Louis B. Mayer, American film producer (b. 1885)
- November 4 - Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith (b. 1897)
- November 4 - Laika, first Russian dog to orbit the earth
- November 24 - Diego Rivera, Mexican painter (b. 1886)
- November 29 - Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Austrian composer (b. 1897)
- November 30 - Beniamino Gigli, Italian tenor (b. 1890)
- December 21 - Eric Coates, English composer (b. 1886)

Nobel Prizes


- Physics - Chen Ning Yang, Tsung-Dao Lee
- Chemistry- Lord Alexander R. Todd
- Physiology or Medicine - Daniel Bovet
- Literature - Albert Camus
- Peace - Lester Bowles Pearson Category:1957 als:1957 ko:1957년 ms:1957 ja:1957年 simple:1957 th:พ.ศ. 2500

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods within the field of psychotherapy that seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental processes, and to do so in a systematic way through a process of tracing out associations. In classical psychoanalysis, the fundamental subject matter of psychoanalysis is the unconscious patterns of life as they become revealed through the analysand's (the patient's) free associations. The analyst's goal is to help liberate the analysand from unexamined or unconscious barriers of transference and resistance, that is, past patterns of relatedness that are no longer serviceable or that inhibit freedom. More recent forms of psychoanalysis seek, among other things, to help patients gain self-esteem through greater trust of the self, overcome the fear of death and its effects on current behavior, and maintain several relationships that appear to be incompatible.

History

Psychoanalysis was first devised in Vienna in the 1890s by Sigmund Freud, a neurologist interested in finding an effective treatment for patients with neurotic or hysterical symptoms. As a result of talking with these patients, Freud came to believe that their problems stemmed from culturally unacceptable, thus repressed and unconscious, desires and fantasies of a sexual nature, and as his theory developed, he included desires and fantasies of an aggressive nature, as well. Freud considered these aspects of life instinctive drives, libidinal energy/Eros Italic textand the death instinct/Thanatos. Freud's description of Eros/Libido included all creative, life-furthering instincts. The Death Instinct represented an instinctive drive to return to a state of calm, or non-existence. Since Freud's day, psychoanalysis has developed in many ways especially as a study of the personal, interpersonal and intersubjective sense of self. Prominent current schools of psychoanalysis include ego psychology, which emphasizes defense mechanisms and unconscious fantasies; self psychology, which emphasizes the development of a stable sense of self through mutually empathic contacts with other humans; Lacanian psychoanalysis, which integrates psychoanalysis with semiotics and Hegelian philosophy; analytical psychology, which has a more spiritual approach; object relations theory, which stresses the dynamics of one's relationships with internal, fantasized, others; interpersonal psychoanalysis, which accents the nuances of interpersonal interactions; and relational psychoanalysis, which combines interpersonal psychoanalysis with object-relations theory. Although these schools have dramatically different theories, most of them continue to stress the strong influence of self-deception and the influence a person's past has on their current mental life. A few of the most influential psychoanalysts are Jacob Arlow, Wilfred Bion, Charles Brenner, Erik Erikson, Ronald Fairbairn, Sandor Ferenczi, Sigmund Freud, Andre Green, Heinz Hartmann, Carl Jung, Otto Kernberg, Melanie Klein, Heinz Kohut, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Jacques Lacan, Margaret Mahler, Stephen A. Mitchell, David Rapaport, Roy Schafer, Daniel N. Stern, Donald Winnicott, Theodor Reik, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Slavoj Zizek.

Theories

Psychoanalysis is theoretically diverse. Most analysts use some selection of the following psychoanalytic models of the mind.

The topographical model

The topographical model of the mind was intended to help analysts understand how patients repress wishes, fantasies, and thoughts. In the topographical model, the mind is divided into conscious, preconscious, and unconscious systems. The conscious system includes all that we are subjectively aware of in our minds. The preconscious includes material that we are capable of becoming aware of, but do not happen to be aware of currently. The unconscious system includes material that we have defensively removed from our awareness by means of repression and other defense mechanisms. In clinical work, analysts try to move unconscious material to the preconscious and then to the conscious mind, to increase the patient's self-awareness. Although the topographic model remains in use in various clinical formulations and discussions, Freud realized its inherent limitations and paradoxes. In particular he observed that conflict occurs not only between consciousness and the unconscious, but also between separate mental process within the unconscious. A new theory, Freud felt, was needed to account for the fact that the defenses and the defended against material could both be in the repressed unconscious. It was this insight that led him to the reconsiderations of the Structural model in 1923.

The structural model

Perhaps the most famous psychoanalytic model of the mind, the structural model divides the mind into the id, ego, and superego. The id is the source of our motivation, and includes sexual and aggressive drives. The superego includes our moral code and ideals. The ego is made up of a group of mechanisms (reality-testing, judgment, impulse control, etc.) that help us deal with the real world. Analysts who use the structural model commonly focus on helping patients handle conflicts that occur between these three mental agencies. Many also use the structural model for clinical diagnosis. A structural-model diagnosis entails an assessment of the level of functioning of the patient's id, ego, and superego, and the specific areas of weakness and strength in each. For example, psychoanalysts usually diagnose a patient as psychotic if his or her ego suffers a severe impairment in reality-testing.

The economic model

The economic model of the mind is rarely used today, but is of historical importance. In the economic model, the mind is pictured as an energy system. Mental energy or "libido" may be distributed in a variety of ways thoughout the system, "cathecting" various activities or processes with energy. The vast majority of analysts have abandoned the economic model because it is rather complicated and relies heavily on nineteenth century ideas about hydraulics. Still, a small number of philosophically minded analysts retain the economic model because they believe that its vagueness is helpful in alluding to features of mental life that may lie beyond scientific understanding.

The conflict model

The conflict model of the mind is designed to help analysts understand specific mental conflicts. This model of the mind divides the mind into basic units called compromise-formations. A compromise formation consists of a wish, a feeling of discomfort about the wish, and a defense used t