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September 7 (Eastern Orthodox Liturgics)

September 7 (Eastern Orthodox Liturgics)

Sep. 6 - Eastern Orthodox Church calendar - Sep. 8 All fixed commemorations below celebrated on Sep. 20 by Old Calendarists

Saints

- Martyr Sozon of Cilicia (304)
- Saint John, Archbishop and wonderworker of Novgorod (1186)
- Martyr Eupsychios of Caesarea in Cappadocia (2nd century)
- Euodias of Antioch and Onesiphorus of Cyrene, of the Seventy Apostles (1st century)
- Saint Luke, abbot near Constantinople (10th century)
- Martyr Macarios, Archimandrite of Kanev (1678)
- Saint Cloud (Clodoald), abbot and founder of Nogent-sur-Seine near Paris (560)
- Saint Macarios of Optina
- Russian new martyr John Maslovsky

Other Commemorations

- Forefeast of the Nativity of the Theotokos Category:Eastern Orthodox liturgical days

September 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)

Sep. 5 - Eastern Orthodox Church calendar - Sep. 7 All fixed commemorations below celebrated on Sep. 19 by Old Calendarists

Saints

- Martyrs Eudoxius, Romulus, Zeno, and Macarios in Armenia (311,312)
- Saint Archipus of Herapolis
- Martyrs Cyriacos, Faustus, Abibus, and 11 others at Alexandria (250)
- Hieromartyr Cyril, Bishop of Gortyna, Crete (4th century)
- Saint David of Hermopolis in Egypt (6th century)
- Martyrs Calodote, Macarios, Andrew, Cyriacos, Dionysios, Andrew the Soldier, Andropelagia, Thekla, Theoctistus, and Sarapabon the Senator in Egypt
- New martyr Maxim Sandovitch at Lemkivshchyna of the Carpathian Mountains (1914)

Other Commemorations

- Commemoration of the Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Colossae
- Repose of Paisios the New of Mount Athos (1871) Category:Eastern Orthodox liturgical days

September 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)

Sep. 7 - Eastern Orthodox Church calendar - Sep. 9 All fixed commemorations below celebrated on Sep. 21 by Old Calendarists

Saints

- Saint Lucian, abbot of Alexandrov, Kostroma (1655)
- Saint Arsenius, abbot of Konevits
- Martyr Athanasius of Thessalonica (1774)
- Russian new martyr Alexander Jacobson (1930)
- Martyrs Rufus and Rufianus
- Martyrs Severus and Artemidorus
- Saint Sophronios of Iberia, bishop

Other Commemorations

- Feast of The Nativity of our Most Holy Lady Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary
- Icons of the Theotokos: "Kursk-Root", Pochaev, Kholm, and others
- Repose of Saint Serapion, monk, of Spaso-Eleazar Monastery in Pskov, wonderworker (1481)
- Repose of Elder Daniel of Katounakia on Mount Athos (1929) Category:Eastern Orthodox liturgical days

Martyr

:Apart from the religious meaning, Martyr is also a metal band (see Martyr (band)). Historically, a martyr is a person who dies for his or her religious faith. Sometimes, it is for a different "noble cause", like patriotically dying for a nation's glory in a war (usually known under other names such as "fallen warriors"). Occurrences of such a death are known as martyrdom.

History

Martyr is from marty (earlier martys), the Greek word for "witness". During the early Roman Empire, the independent cities of Asia Minor made efforts to reward benefactors for their services, and to promote further civic generosity by means of public acclamations, eulogistic honorific decrees were addressed to the Roman authorities and read in public places before an audience. Such commendations are usually referred to in epigraphic sources as martyriai. Christians adopted the phrase for the "testimonies" of the acts and sufferings of the persecuted, who became "martyrs".

In Christianity

Eastern and western liturgical Christians revere Saint Stephen as the first martyr, or protomartyr. Christians in the first three centuries A.D. were crucified in the same manner as Roman political prisoners or eaten by lions as a circus spectacle. They are recognized as martyrs because they preferred dying for their faith to apostasy (renunciation of faith). The Christian writer Tertullian (200 AD) asserted that "the blood of martyrs is the seed of the Church". With the Constantinian shift and the identification of the term Christianity with the Roman Empire, the tables were turned and pagans sometimes became martyrs if they refused the Roman Emperor when ordered to change their beliefs to the Roman Empire's version of Christianity. It didn't take long before Augustine of Hippo authorized the use of force against heretics and Christians who refused to fall in line with Roman orthodoxy. Persecution of heretics and the martyrdom that sometimes went with it became institutionalised in the office of the inquisition of the Roman Catholic Church, and in the political systems of the State, such as that of the English Queen Mary I (who became known as Bloody Mary), when she had nearly three hundred Christians tortured and killed (recorded in Foxe's Book of Martyrs) for refusing to denounce their reformist beliefs and for refusing to revert to Roman Catholicism. Some Christian sects such as Anabaptists as well as non-Christian sects, who began as Christians yet changed their beliefs, trace their origins to widespread persecution and martyrdom at the hands of the Catholic Church trying to suppress their break away sects. The Anabaptists have embraced this part of their heritage to such an extent that the book Martyrs Mirror, which describes the deaths of Anabaptist Martyrs in the 16th and 17th century, is still widely owned and read in Mennonite and Amish households (see Anabaptist persecution for more). The 20th century again saw large numbers of Christians martyred by non-Christians, in persecutions by political authorities that have antipathy directed towards particular faiths, or religion in general. Allegedly this has included the Soviet Union and early People's Republic of China. The Russian Orthodox Church in post-Soviet times termed many of those who died for this faith "New Martyrs", meaning that it was the 2nd greatest persecution of Christians since I-III AD. The Taliban regime has been known as well to mount another wave of persecutions, although this has received less international attention, given its scale. Many church historians believe that there were more Christian martyrs in the 20th century than in the first 19 centuries combined. This claim is, however, difficult to confirm for obvious reasons. See Persecution of Christians for more detail; also Passion bearer

In Islam

In Arabic, a martyr is termed "shaheed" (literally, "witness"). The concept of the shaheed is discussed in the Hadith, the sayings of Muhammad; the term does not appear in the Qur'an in the technical sense, but the later exegetical tradition has read it to mean martyr in the few passages that it does appear in. The first martyr in Islam was the old woman Sumayyah bint Khabbab[http://www.islam-qa.com/QA/6%7CIslamic_history_and_biography(Tareekh_wa_al-Seerah)/Mutafarraqaat_(Miscellaneous)/The_first_female_martyr_in_Islam.10061998.2223.shtml], the first Muslim to die at the hands of the polytheists of Mecca (specifically, Abu Jahl). A famous person widely regarded as a martyr - indeed, an archetypical martyr for the Shia - is Husayn bin Ali, who died at the hands of the forces of the second Umayyad caliph Yazid I at Karbala. The Shia commemorate this event each year at Aashurah. Muslims who die in a legitimate jihad bis saif (struggle with the sword, or Islamic holy war) are typically considered shahid. This usage became controversial in the late 20th century, when (due to the Islamic strictures against suicide) it began to be applied to suicide bombers, e.g. those belonging to Islamist and Palestinian nationalist groups, whose victims often included civilians. During the Iran-Iraq War, nuptial chambers were constructed to recognized unmarried male soliders killed in the war; according to tradition, this would allow them to attain carnal knowledge. (See also Persecution of Muslims for more detail.)

Martyrdom today

The term has since been used metaphorically for people killed in a historical struggle for some cause, or those whose deaths served to galvanize a particular movement. In this sense, for example, Martin Luther King Jr. can be regarded as a "civil rights martyr", but this designation is open to dispute as the motive for his assassination is hardly ascertainable. Other examples include (some disputed):
- John Brown
- Che Guevara
- Patrice Lumumba
- Harvey Milk Martyrdom in India: http://www.gfa.org/gfa/deaththreat

Hero or villain?

The term "martyr" is in some ways semantically interchangeable with "hero" — both are almost always controversial. The phrase "one man's hero is another's criminal" is a simple way of expressing this disparity. Warriors throughout history returning from battle, dead or alive, are typically revered for "heroism" and "bravery". In recent history, those that commit criminal acts during war run the risk of military courts martial. In all cultures, dying in a war is considered "martyrdom", although the word is usually applied to deaths specifically in a religious or moral cause. In the UK the summer of 2005 saw attempts by the Blair government to criminalize the use of the word "martyr" in reference to "Islamist" suicide bombers. This illustrates the polarization surrounding the issue and the need the government obviously felt to break the power of the word.

Saint

In general, the term Saint refers to someone who is exceptionally virtuous and holy. It can be applied to both the living and the dead and is an acceptable term in most of the world's popular religions. The Saint is held up by the community as an example of how we all should act, and his or her life story is usually recorded for the edification of future generations. The process of officially recognizing a person as a Saint, practiced by some churches, is called canonization and serves to hold up those individuals as role models and heroes of Christian virtue. Protestant groups object to this and use only the less formal, broader usage seen in Scripture to include all who are faithful as saints.

Etymology

The term Saint is derived from the Latin Sanctus meaning “Holy”. This is a direct translation from the Greek word άγιος (hagios) also meaning “Holy”. In its original scriptural usage it simply means “Holy” or “Sanctified”. In this form it can be applied to a “Holy” person, a place (άγιον όρος; - The Holy Mountain), a thing, such as Scripture itself (αγιογράφικα - Holy Writing), or even God (άγιον πνεύμα; - The Holy Spirit). But very soon the early Christians began to using the term “Saint” more narrowly to refer to a specific, exemplary individual. (For a lexical explanation, see Liddel & Scott. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23525]) The earliest known occurrence of άγιος as "Saint" seems to be in The Shepherd of Hermas, chapter 5 (or 13, depending on how chapters are counted), verse 2. "The Shepherd" was authored at about the same time as 2 Peter.

Short form

Abbreviation for the term Saint is usually “St.” or “St”; in cases where multiple Saints are referenced SS. is the norm.

Historicity

Some theologians believe that many people venerated as Saints never actually existed. The polite term for such "Saints" is ahistorical. Sorting out exactly which Saints are ahistorical is difficult, because of the larger difficulty of proving a negative: the absence of independent records of a Saint's existence doesn't prove she or he never existed; indeed there are no specific records of the existence of many people who lived before the 20th century. The Acta Sanctorum (hagiographical work) of the Bollandists forms a major part of the historiography of named Saints. There are a large number of Christian saints with what appear to be pagan names. Most likely they were pagans who converted to Christianity and subsequently became Saints. However, it is possible that some pre-Christian deities (especially in Rome's area) were accidentally adopted as saints. It is thought that some cults were “Christianized” in a fairly direct manner. The basis for this is usually a similarity of names. For example, it is now commonly asserted that Saint Brigid was based on the Celtic goddess Brigid. The goddess was popular long before Christianity reached Ireland. Another possibility is the melding of the actual life of the Saint with myths related to pre-Christian gods and heroes (see Comparative religion). There are some striking parallels to the events portrayed in the lives of certain saints and fables such as Androcles and the Lion.

Definition specific to religion

Christianity

Roman Catholicism

In the Roman Catholic church, the title of Saint - with a capital 'S' - refers to a person who has been formally canonized (officially recognized) by the Church. Formal Canonization is a lengthy process often taking many years, even centuries. The process includes a thorough investigation of the individual who has been put forth as a candidate for Sainthood. This investigation typically is concerned with examining and confirming (or disproving) any number of visions or miracles that may have been attributed to the person in question, or of the general holiness or specific good deeds that he or she may have done while alive. It should be noted, however, that the Church places special weight on those miracles or instances of intercession that happened after the individual died and which are seen to be demonstrative of the Saint's continued special relationship with God after death. Also, by this definition there are many people in heaven who have not been formally declared as Saints (most typically due to their obscurity and the involved process of formal canonization) but who may nevertheless generically be referred to as saints (lowercase 's'). While it can at times seem so, Saints are not worshiped — this would violate the Ten Commandments — but are asked for their help or their own prayer for a person. Some Saints intercede for specific problems: a "patron saint". Once a person has been declared a Saint, the body of the Saint is considered holy. In past centuries, the remains of Saints were distributed as holy artifacts. In modern times, however, there is a growing trend to respect the body of a Saint, leaving it alone and buried.

Eastern Orthodoxy

In the Eastern Orthodox Church a Saint is defined as anyone who is currently in Heaven, whether recognized here on earth, or not. By this definition, Adam and Eve, Moses, the various Prophets, the Angels and Archangels are all given the title of "Saint". Saints are not given the title by men, but by God The Orthodox believe that God reveals his Saints to us, often by answered prayers and other miracles. For the Orthodox, the formal recognition of a Saint often happens many years after they have been recognized by a localized community. There are numerous small local followings of countless saints that have not yet been recognized by the entire Orthodox church. After a careful process of deliberation by a synod of Bishops, there is a formal service of Glorification in which a Saint is recognized by the entire church. Such was the case with the sainthood of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and his family. At first the members of the Royal family were recognized as martyrs by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad in 1981, after which many believers in Russia began to pray to the Tsar and his family. Miracles were reported, including one miraculous icon which prompted an immediate local glorification. In 2000, the Tsar and his family were officially Glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church. A strong proponent of a saint's canonization can be a miraculous condition of their relics (although it is not in itself alone considered sufficient). In Orthodox countries it is often the custom to re-use graves after 3 to 5 years because of the limited space. Bones are respectfully washed and placed in an ossuary, often with the person's name written on the skull. Occasionally when a body is exhumed something miraculous occurs to reveal the person's Sainthood. There have been numerous occurrences where the exhumed bones suddenly give off a wonderful fragrance, like flowers; or sometimes the body is incorrupted, just as it was on the day the person died, despite having not been embalmed (traditionally the Orthodox do not embalm the dead) and having been buried for 3 years. The reason relics are considered sacred is because, for the Orthodox, the separation of body and soul is unnatural. Body and soul both comprise the person, and in the end, body and soul will be reunited; therefore, the body of a saint shares in the “Holiness” of the soul of the saint. Because the Church shows no true distinction between the living and the dead (the Saints are alive in Heaven), the Orthodox treat the saints as if they were still here. They venerate them and ask for their prayers, and consider them brothers and sisters in Christ Jesus. Saints are venerated and loved and asked to intercede for our salvation, but it should be clearly understood that they are not Worshiped; their holiness is from God who alone is worthy of Adoration. As Christ says in the Gospels, "Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve." (Matt 4:10). The relics of Saints are highly respected, even more so than the Roman Catholics. As a general rule only clergy will touch relics in order to move them or carry them in procession, however, in veneration the faithful will kiss the relic to show love and respect toward the saint. Every altar in every Orthodox church contains relics, usually of martyrs. The Church building interiors are covered with the Icons of saints. In the Orthodox Church, baptism is the moment one is born again into Christ. The person entering the baptismal font is not the same person that emerges. It is for this reason that the person is given a new name; always the name of a saint. What is proper is that the person no longer goes by his old name because that person is dead, but uses the new name exclusively. It is also common that instead of birthdays, the person celebrates his Saints Day, the day on the Calendar of Saints ascribed to that particular saint. In Orthodox tradition some saints are known by the title Equal-to-apostles in recognition of their role in evangelising countries.

Protestantism

In many Protestant churches, the word is used more generally to refer to anyone who is a Christian. This is similar in usage to St. Paul's numerous references. In this sense, anyone who is within the Body of Christ is “Holy” because of their relationship with Jesus. However, high-church Anglicans and Episcopalians use the term "saint" similarly to the manner in which Catholics use it.

Latter-day Saints

Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints follow the Protestant tradition described above, referring to themselves as "Latter-day Saints", or simply "Saints". This is usually preferred over the nickname "Mormons".

Islam

Islam has, traditionally, had a central place for saints within its cosmology and saints [Arabic: awliya--literally, Friends of Allah (singular: wali)] are mentioned in verses of the Qur'an. Although there is no formal canonization process in Islam, there do exist traditions of the Prophet (hadith) and sayings of the scholars of Islam about what the qualities of a true saint are. These include soundness of faith (aqidah), a strict adherence to the Prophetic traditions (sunnah) and Shar'iah Law, an upright moral character, the performance of charismatic marvels (Ar.: karamat) and, crucially, the acknowledgment by consensus of the orthodox that such and such a person is a saint. i.e. if the Muslim masses consider someone a Saint, he or she is one. Theoretically too a saint is said to have the ability to perform any miracle which the Prophet performed and there is also a spiritual hierarchy of saints in Islam with the Qutb or Ghawth (Pole or Succour) at the apex. This hierrarchy is detailed in the work of the great Andalusian Sufi Muhyuddin Ibn al-Arabi, who is considered one of the great Saints of Islam, as well as many others. Indeed, amongst orthodox, traditional, Muslims, those referred to as [Sufis] by Orientalist scholars of Islam are considered Saints and the two terms are virtually synonyms. Traditionally, the veneration of saints and tombs or shrines in Islam is very widespread and includes all geographical areas of the Muslim world, including the conservative Arabian peninsula. Saints are believed to have a power of intercession with God (Allah), and thus the ability to perform miracles and to give power or blessings known as baraka. In most Muslim countries there are religious festivities associated with saints, such as Urs festivals in India and Pakistan or the annual Mawlid in Egypt. A great Urs is yearly held in the valley of MohraSharif where great saints still live. On these days, the local saint(s) is/are venerated, and blessings are expected. Believers are nevertheless careful to distinguish between the blessings of the prophets (particularly Moses, Jesus and Muhammad) and those of the saints. Saints are an important component of popular Islam and are associated with Sufism, which includes many of the mystical branches of Islam. Sufism has several orders with precepts (tarika) for students (murid) who seek to follow the teachings of a saint. Although saints are acknowledged by many sufis, Sufism distances itself from the more animistic and cultic aspects of the veneration of saints, which includes, as in popular Christianity, all types of religious paraphernalia and popular rituals.

Judaism

The closest notion in Judaism is the tzadik, a righteous person. The Talmud says that at any time at least 36 tzaddikim are living among us: they are anonymous, but it is for their sake that the world is not destroyed. The Talmud and the Kabbalah offer various ideas about the nature and role of these 36 tzaddikim. The term can also be used generically to mean any righteous or saintly person.

Hinduism

Saints are also recognized in Hinduism. However, unlike the Roman Catholic or Orthodox Church, no formal process is required to acknowledge a person as a saint.
- Jagadguru Kripaluji Maharaj, the founder of the Jagadguru Kripalu Parishat, an organization which propagates Raganuga Bhakti, a form of selfless devotional practise and loving service to Radha Rani and Lord Krishna
- Raghavendra Swami, one of the most famous Hindu saints was believed to have performed miracles during his lifetime and continues to bless his devotees. He espoused Vaishnavism monotheism (worship of Vishnu as Supreme God) and Dvaita philosophy.
- Shri Ramakrishna
- Swami Ramana Maharshi
- Shirdi Sai Baba (c. 1838 - October 15, 1918) was an Indian fakir/guru who is regarded by his Hindu and Muslim followers as a saint.
- Tukaram was a great saint who was believed to have performed miracles and was a devotee of Krishna.
- Sant Shiri Nunuram Sahib(1898 - 1973) , A great Saint Whose Aashram is situated in Islamkot city of Sindh Province in Pakistan. See also sant and Hindu Gurus and Saints

Buddhism

The Dhamma or path of purification as outlined by the Buddha leads the disciple eventually to the status of an ariya, a noble-hearted person, of which there are four levels of increasing sanctity and holiness. These are, sotapanna or ‘stream-winner’; sakadagami or ‘once-returner’; anagami or ‘non-returner’; and finally arahant or ‘Holy One’ – a human being who is free from all defilements. Arahant is synonymous with Buddha, a fully enlightened human being, and is frequently used as an epithet of the Buddha Gotama in the liturgy of Southern Buddhism. An arahant may be considered as both a saint and a gnani or Gnostic; somebody who possesses transcendental spiritual knowledge.

Other religions

In many of the more obscure religions of the world, a saint is a man or a woman who has a direct personal link or connection with God and who can put a person on the way back to God. Many gurus overtly or covertly claim to be saints, which followers may believe to be true, even if the objective evidence doesn't match a formal definition of a saint. In the modern religion of Discordianism, sainthood is given very easily. As one of the founders, Kerry Thornley, once said, "To be a saint you don't need to do anything special, you just need to suffer a lot". Discordians don't really agree on who (or what) are saints, but fictional characters are considered "saintlier" than real people, and insanity always helps. Yossarian from Joseph Heller's Catch-22, Don Quixote, and Bokonon from Kurt Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle all appear on the Principia Discordia's list of saintly folk.

Santeria - Voodoo

The veneration of Catholic saints forms the basis of the Cuban Santería religion. In Santería, saints are syncretised with Yoruban deities, and are equally worshipped in churches (where they appear as saints) and in Santería religious festivities, where they appear as deities (orishas); however, this practice is condemned by the Roman Catholic Church. Santeria, Haitian Vodoun, Brazilian Umbanda and other similar religions adopted the Roman Catholic Saints, or the images of the saints, as representations of their own spirits/deities or 'Orishas' in Santeria and 'Lwa' in Vodoun. Although there are many similarities between Vodoun and Santeria, they are different in respect to origin and language (Vodou is French, Santeria is Spanish). The adoption of Catholic Saints was fairly common in the religions that were adapted by the slaves in the New World. It can be understood as a more recent example of the absorption of pre-Christian elements into European "Catholicism" — although with Santeria and Vodoun the native religion seems to be more dominant. Different regions of the world where Catholicism is practiced have varying ways of practicing their faith. The Catholic Church has not always condemned the practices of these "religions" or sub-sects (although there were brief local movements against Vodoun by the Church in Haiti). Perhaps the adoption of the Catholic saints is more of a testament to the durability and adaptability of religions like Vodoun. It is remarkable that Vodoun practitioners can consider themselves Catholic and Vodounists at the same time. Perhaps it is more realistic to say that elements of Catholicism were adapted into Vodoun and Santeria.

Archbishop

In Christianity, an archbishop is an elevated bishop heading a diocese of particular importance due to either its size, history, or both, called an archdiocese. An archbishop is equivalent to a bishop in sacred matters but simply has a higher precedence or degree of prestige. Thus, when someone who is already a bishop becomes an archbishop, that person does not receive Holy Orders again or any other sacrament; however, when a person who is not a bishop at all becomes an archbishop, they will need to be ordained a bishop. ordained Archbishops do not necessarily have more power than bishops, but they are in charge of more prestigious dioceses. However, many archbishops are also the metropolitans of the ecclesiastical province in which their archdiocese is located. In Western churches (Catholic and Anglican), this is almost always the case. However, there are exceptions in Latin rite Roman Catholicism, which has three types of non-metropolitan archbishops. The first (and most common) type are titular bishops of titular sees that were once archdioceses but now do not exist. The second type are leaders of archdioceses that are not metropolitical. Two examples are the Archbishop of Strasbourg, whose archdiocese is not in any ecclesiastical province and is immediately subject to the Holy See, and the Archbishop of Avignon, who is suffragan to the Archbishop of Marseille [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/davig.html]. The third kind of non-metropolitan archbishop are archbishops ad personam: honorary archbishops whose dioceses do not become archdioceses when they receive the title. None of these archbishops are entitled to wear the pallium, as they are not metropolitan bishops. An archbishop who retires is granted the title of Archbishop Emeritus of the last see he occupied before his retirement, in order to conserve titular sees for active auxiliary bishops. In the Eastern churches (Catholic and Orthodox) archbishops and metropolitans are distinct, although a metropolitan may be referred to as metropolitan archbishop. In the Greek Orthodox Church, archbishops outrank metropolitans, and have the same rights as Eastern Orthodox metropolitans. The Oriental Orthodox generally follow the pattern of the Slavic Orthodox with respect to the archbishop/metropolitan distinction. Etymology: From Greek archepiskopos: arche, first, and epi-skopos, over-seer or supervisor.

Novgorod

:For other cities named Novgorod see Novgorod (disambiguation). Novgorod (disambiguation) Velikiy Novgorod (Но́вгород) is the foremost historic city of North-Western Russia, situated on the highway (but slightly off the railway) connecting Moscow and St Petersburg. "Novgorod" is the Russian for "new city", whereas "Velikiy" means "the Great". An administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, the city lies along the Volkhov River just below its outflow from Lake Ilmen. Its population is estimated at 290,000, geographical location is

History

Main article: Novgorod Republic Novgorod is the most ancient Slavic city recorded in Russia. The chronicle first mentions it in 859, when it was already a major station on the trade route from the Baltics to Byzantium. The Varangian name of the city Holmgard (Holmgard, Holmegaard) is mentioned in Norse Sagas as existing substantially earlier, but it is impossible to separate the historical facts from the surrounding myth. Later in history, Holmgard referred only to the stronghold inside the city (Riurikovo Gorodische, named after Rurik, who made the city his capital). Archeological data suggests that the Gorodische, the residence of the Knyaz (Prince), dates from the middle of 9th century, but the town itself dates from end of the 9th century. By the middle of 10th century, Novgorod had become a fully developed medieval city. medieval In 882, Rurik's successor, Oleg of Novgorod, captured Kiev and founded the state of Kievan Rus. In that state Novgorod was the second city in importance. According to a custom, the elder son and heir of the ruling Kievan prince was sent to rule Novgorod even as a minor. In Norse sagas the city is mentioned as the capital of Gardariki (e.g., the East Slavic lands). Four Viking kings - Olav I of Norway, Olav II of Norway, Magnus I of Norway, and Harald Haardraade - sought refuge in Novgorod from enemies at home. Of all their princes, Novgorodians cherished most the memory of Yaroslav the Wise, who promulgated first written code of laws (later incorporated into Russkaya Pravda) and sponsored the construction of the great St Sophia Cathedral, standing to this day. As a sign of gratitude for helping him to defeat his elder brother and obtain the Kievan throne, Yaroslav conferred numerous privileges on the city. On the other hand, Novgorodians named their central square after Yaroslav. Russkaya Pravda In 1136, Novgorod merchants and boyars seceded from Kiev, banished their prince and proclaimed the Novgorod Republic. The powerful city state controlled most of Europe's North-East, from today's Estonia to the Ural Mountains. The most important figure in Novgorod was the Posadnik, an official elected by the popular assembly (called Veche) from the city's aristocracy. The Novgorod court was formally presided over by the Prince (also elected by the Veche), but his verdicts had to be confirmed by the Posadnik to become binding. In the 13th century, the city joined Hanseatic League. Throughout Middle Ages, the city throve culturally. Most of the population was literate and used birch bark letters for communication. When Paris and London were drowning in mud, Novgorod was praised by foreigners for its paved embankments and clean streets. Some of the most ancient Russian chronicles were written in the city. The Novgorod merchant Sadko became a popular hero of Russian folklore. The city's downfall was a result of its inability to feed its large population, making it dependent on the Vladimir-Suzdal region for grain. The main cities in this area, Moscow and Tver, used this dependence to gain control over Novgorod. Eventually Ivan III annexed the city to Muscovy in 1478. Novgorod remained the third largest Russian city, however, until Ivan the Terrible sacked the city and slaughtered thousands of its inhabitants in 1570. In 1727, Novgorod was made a capital of the Novgorod government. On August 15, 1941 it was occupied by the Nazi army. Its historic monuments were systematically annihilated. When the Red Army liberated the city on January 19, 1944, out of 2536 stone buildings less than 40 were still standing. After the WWII, the downtown has been gradually restored. Its chief monuments are declared the World Heritage Site. In 1998, the city was officially renamed Velikiy Novgorod, thus partly reverting to its medieval title "Lord Novgorod the Great".

Sights

1998 No other Russian or Ukrainian city may compete with Novgorod in the variety and age of its medieval monuments. The foremost among these is the St Sophia Cathedral, built in the 1040s on behest of Yaroslav the Wise. It is the best preserved of 11th century churches, and the first one to represent original features of Russian architecture (austere stone walls, five helmet-like cupolas). Its frescoes were painted in the 12th century and renovated in the 1860s. The cathedral features famous bronze gates, made in Magdeburg in 1156 and reportedly snatched by Novgorodians from the Swedish capital Sigtuna in 1187. Novgorod kremlin, traditionally known as Detinets, also contains the oldest palace in Russia (the so-called Chamber of the Facets, 1433), the oldest Russian bell tower (mid-15th cent.), and the oldest Russian clock tower (1673). Among later structures, the most remarkable are a royal palace (1771) and a bronze monument to the Millennium of Russia, representing the most important figures from the country's history (unveiled in 1862). Outside kremlin walls, there are three cathedrals constructed during the reign of Mstislav the Great, the last monarch of united Rus. St Nicholas Cathedral (1113-23), containing frescoes of Mstislav's family, graces Yaroslav's Court (formerly the chief square of Novgorod Republic). The Yuriev Monastery (probably the oldest in Russia, 1030) contains a gloomy Romanesque cathedral from 1119. A similar three-domed cathedral (1117), probably designed by the same masters, stands in the Antoniev Monastery. There are numerous ancient churches scattered throughout the city. Some of them were blown up by the Nazis and subsequently restored. The most ancient pattern is represented by those dedicated to Sts Peter and Pavel (on the Swallow's Hill, 1185-92), to Annunciation (in Myachino, 1179), to Assumption (on Volotovo Field, 1180s) and to St Paraskeva (at Yaroslav's Court, 1207). The greatest masterpiece of early Novgorod architecture is the Saviour church at Nereditsa (1198). 1119 In the 13th century, there was a vogue for tiny churches of three-paddled design. These are represented by a small chapel in Peryn (1230s) and St Nicholas' on the Lipnya Islet (1292, also notable for its 14th-century frescoes). The next century saw development of two original church designs, one of them culminating in St Theodor's church (1360-61, fine frescoes from 1380s), and another one leading to the Saviour church on Ilyina street (1374, painted in 1378 by Feofan Grek). The Saviour' church in Kovalevo (1345) admittedly reflects Serban influence. During the last century of republican government, some new temples were consecrated to Sts Peter and Paul (on Slavna, 1367; in Kozhevniki, 1406), to Christ's Nativity (at the Cemetery, 1387), to St John the Apostle's (1384), to the Holy Apostles (1455), to St Demetrius (1467), to St Simeon (1462), and other saints. Generally, they are not thought so innovative as the churches from the previous epoch. Several 12th-century shrines (i.e., in Opoki) were demolished brick by brick and then reconstructed exactly as they used to be. Novgorod's conquest by Ivan III in 1478 decisively changed the character of local architecture. Large commissions were thenceforth executed by Muscovite masters and patterned after cathedrals of Moscow Kremlin: e.g., the Saviour Cathedral of Khutyn Monastery (1515), the Cathedral of the Sign (1688), the Nicholas Cathedral of Vyaschizhy Monastery (1685). Nevertheless, some parochial churches were still styled in keeping with traditions of local art: e.g., the churches of Holy Wives (1510) and of Sts Boris and Gleb (1586). In the village of Vitoslavlitsy, on the road from Novgorod to the Yuriev Monastery, a museum of ancient wooden art was established. Many wooden churches, houses and mills, some of the dating to the 14th century, were transported there from all around the Novgorod region.

Sister Cities

- Strasbourg, France
- Rochester, New York
- Bielefeld, Germany
- Watford, UK
- Zibo, China

External links

- [http://www.novgorod.ru/english.php Novgorod website]
- [http://www.xenophongi.org/rushistory/rulers/novgorod.htm Novgorod rulers]
- http://www.veliky-novgorod.ru/htmlrus/index.htm
- http://www.weblab.ru/dalv/museum /
- http://www.velikiynovgorod.ru/
- http://nbp.natm.ru/
- http://www.adm.nov.ru/web.nsf/pages/framesmain
- http://1000.home.nov.ru/home.htm
- http://www.tourism.velikiynovgorod.ru/ - english
- http://novgorod.rfn.ru/
- http://news.novgorod.ru/news/
- http://www.vnovgorode.ru/
- http://www.russiancity.ru/text/nov.htm
- http://www.novsu.ac.ru/
- [http://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/novgorod Flickr: Photos tagged with novgorod], photos likely of Novgorod

References

- Yanin. The Archaeology of Novgorod, by Valentin L. Yanin, in Ancient Cities, Special Issue, (Scientific American), pg 120-127, c 1994. Covers, History, Kremlin of Novgorod, Novgorod Museum of History, preservation dynamics of the soils, and the production of Birch bark document's. Category:Cities and towns in Russia Category:Novgorod Oblast Category:Kievan Rus Category:Viking Age Category:World Heritage Sites in Russia Category:History of Russia ko:노브고로트 ja:ノヴゴロド

1186

Events

- John the Chanter becomes Bishop of Exeter.
- January 27 - Constance of Sicily marries Henry (the future Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor).
- The Byzantine Empire recognises the indepence of Bulgaria.
- Guy of Lusignan becomes King of Jerusalem.

Births

- May 18 - Konstantin of Rostov, Prince of Novgorod (d. 1218)
- Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk (died 1225)
- Iziaslav IV Vladimirovich, Grand Prince of Kiev

Deaths

- May 29 or June 23 or June 24 - Robert of Torigni
- August 19 - Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (born 1158)
- Baldwin V of Jerusalem (born 1177)
- William of Tyre, Archbishop of Tyre
- Minamoto no Yukiie, Japanese warlord Category:1186 ko:1186년

Cappadocia

In ancient geography, Cappadocia (spelled Kapadokya in Turkish) (Greek: Καππαδοκία; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was an extensive inland district of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). In the time of Herodotus the Cappadocians occupied the whole region from Mount Taurus to the Euxine (Black Sea). Cappadocia, in this sense, was bounded in the south by the chain of Mount Taurus, to the east by the Euphrates, north by Pontus, and west vaguely by the great central salt lake. But it is impossible to define its limits with accuracy. Strabo, the only ancient author who gives any circumstantial account of the country, greatly exaggerated its dimensions; it is now believed to have been about 250 miles in length by less than 150 in breadth.

Etymology

Herodotus tells us that the name of the Cappadocians (Katpatouka) was applied to them by the Persians, while they were termed by the Greeks "Syrians" or "White Syrians" (Leucosyri). Historian Josephus claimed that these people were founded by the biblical figure Meshech, son of Japheth, "and the Mosocheni were founded by Mosoch; now they are Cappadocians." AotJ I:6. For more on Cappadocia and 'Meshech' see Ivane Javakhishvili. Under the later kings of the Persian empire they were divided into two satrapies, or governments, the one comprising the central and inland portion, to which the name of Cappadocia continued to be applied by Greek geographers, while the other was called Pontus. This division had already come about before the time of Xenophon. As after the fall of the Persian government the two provinces continued to be separate, the distinction was perpetuated, and the name Cappadocia came to be restricted to the inland province (sometimes called Great Cappadocia), which alone will be the focus of this article. The kingdom of Cappadocia was still in existence in the time of Strabo as a nominally independent state. Cilicia was the name given to the district in which Caesarea, the capital of the whole country, was situated. The only two cities of Cappadocia considered by Strabo to deserve that appellation were Caesarea (originally known as Mazaca) and Tyana, not far from the foot of the Taurus.

History

TyanaLittle is known of the history of Cappadocia before it became subject to the Persian empire, except that the country was the home of a great Hittite power centred at Hattusa (the modern village of Boğazköy in north-central Turkey), which has left monuments at many places. With the decline of the Syro-Cappadocians after their defeat by Croesus, Cappadocia was left in the power of a sort of feudal aristocracy, dwelling in strong castles and keeping the peasants in a servile condition, which later made them apt for foreign slavery. It was included in the third Persian satrapy in the division established by Darius, but long continued to be governed by rulers of its own, none apparently supreme over the whole country and all more or less tributary to the Great King. Thoroughly subdued at last by the satrap Datames, Cappadocia recovered independence under a single ruler, Ariarathes (hence called Ariarathes I), who was a contemporary of Alexander the Great, and maintained himself on the throne of Cappadocia after the fall of the Persian monarchy. The province was not visited by Alexander, who contented himself with the tributary acknowledgment of his sovereignty made by Ariarathes before the conqueror's departure from Asia Minor; and the continuity of the native dynasty was only interrupted for a short time after Alexander's death, when the kingdom fell, in the general partition of the empire, to Eumenes. His claims were made good in 322 BC by the regent Perdiccas, who crucified Ariarathes; but in the dissensions which brought to Eumenes's death, the son of Ariarathes recovered his inheritance and left it to a line of successors, who mostly bore the name of the founder of the dynasty. Under Ariarathes IV Cappadocia came into relations with Rome, first as a foe espousing the cause of Antiochus the Great, then as an ally against Perseus of Macedon. The kings henceforward threw in their lot with the Republic as against the Seleucids, to whom they had been from time to time tributary. Ariarathes V marched with the Roman proconsul Crassus against Aristonicus, a claimant to the throne of Pergamon, and their forces were annihilated (130 BC). The imbroglio which followed his death ultimately led to interference by the rising power of Pontus and the intrigues and wars which ended in the failure of the dynasty. Pontus The Cappadocians, supported by Rome against Mithradates, elected a native lord, Ariobarzanes, to succeed (93 BC); but it was not till Rome had disposed at once of the Pontic and Armenian kings that his rule was established (63 BC). In the civil wars Cappadocia was now for Pompey, now for Caesar, now for Antony, now against him. The Ariobarzanes dynasty came to an end and a certain Archelaus reigned in its stead, by favour first of Antony, then of Octavian, and maintained tributary independence till AD 17, when the emperor Tiberius, on Archelaus's death in disgrace, reduced Cappadocia at last to a province. Cappadocia contains several underground cities, largely used by early Christians as hiding places. There are many places to "must see" in Cappadocia like; "Fairy chimneys", Göreme Valley, Göreme National Park and rock churches, underground cities of Kaymakli, Derinkuyu or Ozkonak, Zelve Valley, Avanos with its pottery and, Uchisar rock fortress, Ihlara Valley, Soganli. Over the years, the landscape of Cappadocia has been used in such movies as Yor: Hunter from the Future and the Turkish remake of Star Wars.

External links

- [http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_12 Pictures of Cappadocia]
- [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/capadocia_turkey Pictures (hundreds) of several major villages and sites in the region, extensive treatment of many churches and the landscape]

References

- Category:Hellenistic colonies Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies Cappadocia Category:Underground cities ko:카파도키아 ja:カッパドキア

2nd century

Events

- Roman Empire governed by the "Five Good Emperors" (96–180) – Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius.
- The kingdom of Aksum emerges.

Significant persons

- Cai Lun, Chinese inventor
- Galen, medical writer
- Saint Irenaeus
- Pliny the Younger
- Plutarch
- Ptolemy
- Trajan
- Hadrian
- Antoninus Pius
- Marcus Aurelius
- Commodus
- Septimius Severus

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

- Cai Lun invents paper (c. 105)
- Ptolemy compiles a catalogue of all stars visible to the naked eye.

Decades and years

Category:2nd century 02nd century ko:2세기 ja:2世紀 th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 2

Seventy Apostles

The Seventy of the Gospel of Luke 10:1 – 20, though not literally named apostles, were followers that Jesus appointed and sent away (the Greek verb form apostello, not the noun form apostolos). They were to eat any food offered, heal the sick and spread the word; that God's reign is coming, that whoever hears them hears Jesus, whoever rejects them rejects Jesus and whoever rejects Jesus rejects the One who sent him. In addition they were granted great powers over the enemy and their names written in heaven. The episode is termed the "Synaxis of the Seventy Apostles" in Eastern Orthodoxy. This is the only mention of the group. The number is "seventy" in reliable manuscripts in the Alexandrian and Caesarean text traditions but "seventy-two" in reliable Alexandrian and Western (Roman) texts. In editing the Vulgate, Jerome selected the reading of seventy-two. The passage in Luke 10 reads: :1 After this the Lord appointed seventy (-two) others whom he sent ahead of him in pairs to every town and place he intended to visit. :9 Whatever town you enter and they welcome you, eat what is set before you, cure the sick in it and say to them, 'The kingdom of God is at hand for you.' :16-17 "Whoever listens to you listens to me. Whoever rejects you rejects me. And whoever rejects me rejects the one who sent me." The seventy (-two) returned rejoicing, and said, "Lord, even the demons are subject to us because of your name." :19-20 "Behold, I have given you the power to tread upon serpents and scorpions and upon the full force of the enemy and nothing will harm you. Nevertheless, do not rejoice because the spirits are subject to you, but rejoice because your names are written in heaven." (translation in the United States Convention of Roman Catholic Bishops' New American Bible [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/luke/luke10.htm])

Sources and traditions

The Gospel of Luke is alone among the synoptic gospels in containing two episodes in which Jesus sends out his followers on a mission. This first occasion (Luke 10:1-6) is closely based on the mission in Mark 6:6b-13 which, however, recounts the sending out of the Twelve Apostles, though with similar details. The parallels suggest a common origin in the posited Q document. What has been said to the seventy (two) in Luke 10:4 is referred in passing to the Twelve in Luke 22:35: :"He said to them, "When I sent you forth without a money bag or a sack or sandals, were you in need of anything?" "No, nothing," they replied. The Orthodox Church tradition of supplying names to the Seventy or the Seventy-Two whose "names are written in heaven" is associated with a late 3rd century bishop Dorotheus of Tyre, unknown except in this context, to whom has been ascribed an account of the Seventy Apostles, of which the surviving version is 8th century. The names of these disciples are given in several lists: Chronicon Paschale, and the Pseudo-Dorotheus printed in Jacques Paul Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, XCII, 521-524; 543-545; 1061-1065. The Roman Catholic church finds that "these lists are unfortunately worthless" (Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908, "Apostle"). Eusebius positively asserted that no such roll existed in his time, and mentioned among the disciples only Barnabas, Sosthenes, Cephas, Matthias, Thaddeus and James "the Lord's brother" (Historia Ecclesiae I.xii). In the Orthodox Church, the Seventy Apostles are commemorated together, on January 4. However, their individual commemorations are scattered throughout the year as well (see Eastern Orthodox Church calendar). Many of their names are recognizable for their other achievements. The names included in various lists differ slightly. In the lists Luke is also one of these seventy himself. The following list gives a widely accepted canon.

List of the Seventy Apostles

Their attributes, as appended to the names in this list, are also traditional. # James the Just, the brother of Jesus, author of the Epistle of James, and first Bishop of Jerusalem # Mark the Evangelist, author of the Gospel of Mark and Bishop of Alexandria # Luke the Evangelist, author of the Gospel of Luke, and Bishop of Salonika # Cleopas the brother of Joseph the Betrothed and second Bishop of Jerusalem # Symeon the son of Cleopas and Bishop of Jerusalem # Barnabas, Bishop of Milan # Justus, Bishop of Eleutheropolis # Thaddeus # Ananias, Bishop of Damascus # Stephen the Archdeacon and first martyr # Philip the Evangelist, of the Seven Deacons, Bishop of Tralia in Asia Minor # Prochorus, of the Seven, Bishop of Nicomedia in Bithynia # Nicanor the Deacon, of the Seven # Timon, of the Seven # Parmenas the Deacon, of the Seven # Timothy, # Titus # Philemon, Bishop of Gaza # Onesimus # Epaphras, Bishop of Andriaca # Archippus # Silas, Bishop of Corinth # Silvanus # Crescens # Crispus, Bishop of Chalcedon in Galilee # Epenetus, Bishop of Carthage # Andronicus, Bishop of Pannonia # Stachys, Bishop of Byzantium # Amplias, Bishop of Odissa # Urban, Bishop of Macedonia # Narcissus, Bishop of Athens # Apelles, Bishop of Heraklion # Aristobulus, Bishop of Britannia # Herodion, Bishop of Patfas # Agabus the Prophet # Rufus, Bishop of Thebes # Asyncritus, Bishop of Hyrcania # Phlegon, Bishop of Marathon # Hermes, Bishop of Philippopolis # Parrobus, Bishop of Pottole # Hermas, Bishop of Dalmatia # Pope Linus, Bishop of Rome # Gaius, Bishop of Ephesus # Philologus, Bishop of Sinope # Lucius of Cyrene, Bishop of Laodicea in Syria # Jason, Bishop of Tarsis # Sosipater, Bishop of Iconium # Olympas # Tertius, transcriber of the Epistle to the Romans and Bishop of Iconium # Erastus, Bishop of Paneas # Quartus, Bishop of Berytus # Euodias, Bishop of Antioch # Onesiphorus, Bishop of Cyrene # Clement, Bishop of Sardice # Sosthenes, Bishop of Colophon # Apollos, Bishop of Caesarea # Tychicus, Bishop of Colophon # Epaphroditus # Carpus, Bishop of Berrhoe in Thrace # Quadratus # Mark called John, Bishop of Byblos # Zenas the Lawyer, Bishop of Giospolis # Aristarchus, Bishop of Apamea in Syria # Pudens # Trophimus # Mark, Bishop of Apollonia # Artemas, Bishop of Lystra # Aquila # Fortunatus # Achaicus

Original Apostles who Apostasized

Some of the original seventy sent by Jesus later apostasized. Thus, some of the names on the above list were not actually in the original seventy, but are considered part of the group anyway as "replacements", similarly to Matthias's replacement of Judas Iscariot in the Twelve Apostles. The following are those who fell away from mainline Christianity:
- Nicolas of Samaria, one of the Seven Deacons
- Phygellus of Ephesus
- Hermogenes of Magara
- Demas

Other Apostles

Also, some lists name a few different apostles than the ones listed above. Solomon, Nestorian bishop of Basra in the 13th century, in The Book of the Bee (chapter xlix) offers the following list: "The names of the seventy. James, the son of Joseph; Simon the son of Cleopas; Cleopas his father; Joses; Simon; Judah; Barnabas; Manaeus (?); Ananias, who baptised Paul; Cephas, who preached at Antioch; Joseph the senator; Nicodemus the archon; Nathaniel the chief scribe; Justus, that is Joseph, who is called Barshabbâ; Silas; Judah; John, surnamed Mark; Mnason, who received Paul; Manaël, the foster-brother of Herod; Simon called Niger; Jason, who is (mentioned) in the Acts (of the Apostles); Rufus; Alexander; Simon the Cyrenian, their father; Lucius the Cyrenian; another Judah, who is mentioned in the Acts [of the Apostles]; Judah, who is called Simon; Eurion (Orion) the splay-footed; Thôrus (?); Thorîsus (?); Zabdon; Zakron. Most commonly named are:
- Another Stephen
- Rodion
- Cephas, Bishop of Iconium
- Caesar, Bishop of Dyrrhachium
- Another Mark, Bishop of Apollonias
- Another Tychicus of Chalcedon, Bishop of Chalcedon in Bythinia These are usually included at the expense of the aforementioned Timothy, Titus, Archippus, Crescens, Olympas, Epaphroditus, Quadratus, Aquila, Fortunatus, and/or Achaicus.

External links

- [http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~fisher/cgi-bin/gnt?id=0310 Luke 10 in Greek]
- [http://bibledbdata.org/onlinebibles/greek_translit/42_010.htm Luke 10 in Greek transliterated]
- [http://www.orthodox.net/saints/70apostles.html The Seventy]
- (Budge, Ernest A. Wallace, editor) 1886. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/bb/bbtp.htm The Book of the Bee] by Solomon, Nestorian bishop of Basra, 13th century; ch. xlix "The names of the Apostles in order" Category:Ancient Roman Christianity
- Category:Saints

1st century

The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 AD to 100 AD, or from 0 to 99 in a more scientific notation (using a year zero), as in astronomical year numbering.

Events

- Beginning of Christianity
- Spread of the Roman Empire
- Masoretes adds vowel pointings to the text of the Tanakh
- 70: destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans under Vespasian
- Pompeii and Herculaneum destroyed by eruption of Mount Vesuvius in August 79
- Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka first write down Buddha's teachings, creating the Pali canon
- Buddhism reaches China
- Tacitus mentions the Suiones, who will one day be called the Swedes.
- Kaundinya, a Indian Brahmin marries Soma and establishes the Pre-Angkor Cambodian Kingdom of Funan.
- Arena (colosseum) is constructed, origin of the name Arena
- The Goths settle in northern Poland, which they called Gothiscandza, and shape the Wielbark culture.

Significant persons

- Apollonius of Tyana.
- Arminius.
- Boudica.
- Caesar Augustus.
- Caligula.
- Claudius.
- Domitian.
- Galba.
- Hero of Alexandria.
- Jesus Christ.
- Josephus.
- Livy.
- Nero.
- Nerva.
- Otho.
- Saint Paul of Tarsus.
- Pliny the Elder.
- Seneca the Younger.
- Tacitus.
- Tiberius.
- Titus.
- Trajan.
- Vespasian.
- Vitellius.

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

- Codex, the first form of the modern book, appears in the Roman empire
- Year 78 - the beginning of the Saka Era South Asian calendar system.
- Bookbinding
- Various inventions by Hero of Alexandria, including the steam turbine (aeolipile), vending machine, machine gun, water organ, and various other water-powered machines.

Decades and years

Category:1st century 01st century ko:1세기 ja:1世紀

Constantinople

:This article details the history of Constantinople before the Turkish Conquest of 1453. For details on the city since 1453, see İstanbul. İstanbul Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις) was the original and best known name of the modern city of İstanbul in Turkey in its role over more than a millennium as capital, first of the Eastern Roman Empire, subsequently of the Byzantine Empire. The last imperial designation reveals the city's even more ancient Greek name: Byzantium. Constantinople was located strategically between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara at the point where Europe met Asia, and was highly significant as the successor to ancient Rome and the largest and wealthiest city in Europe throughout the Middle Ages.

Names

The name of Constantinople is an honorific eponym referencing its founder, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Constantine established the Greek city of Byzantium as the second capital of the Roman Empire on May 11, AD 330, naming the city Nova Roma (New Rome). That particular name, however, enjoyed little common use, and it was as the 'City of Constantine' (Constantinopolis) that it lived through the subsequent centuries. A historical Slavic name for the city was Tsargrad. The word is an Old Church Slavonic translation of the Greek, presumably of Βασιλεως Πόλις, "the city of the emperor [king]": combining the Slavonic words tsar for "Caesar" and grad for "city", it stood for "the City of the Emperor [Caesar]". As fashions have changed the term has faded, and the word Tsargrad is now an archaic term in Russian, but is still used occasionally in Bulgarian. The Ottoman Turks called the city Stamboul or İstanbul, adopting a usage in Greek "eis tin Poli" (to or at the City). But they still used "Konstantiniyye" ("Constantine's City", or Constantinople) as the official name. When the Republic of Turkey was founded in 1923, the capital was moved to Ankara. Constantinople was officially renamed İstanbul by the Republic of Turkey in 1930.

Byzantium

Constantine's foundation of New Rome on this site reflected its strategic and commercial importance from the earliest times, lying as it does astride both the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black or Euxine Sea to the Mediterranean, whilst also being possessed of an excellent and spacious harbour in the Golden Horn. No doubt for these reasons, a city was first founded on the site in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, when in 667 BC the legendary Byzas established it with a group of citizens from the town of Megara. This city was named Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον), after its founder.

Constantine's Foundation

Byzantium, ca. 1000)]] Constantine had altogether more ambitious plans. Having restored the unity of the empire, now overseeing the progress of major governmental reforms and sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, Constantine was well aware that Rome had become an unsatisfactory capital for several reasons. Located in central Italy, Rome lay too far from the eastern imperial frontiers, and hence also from the legions and the Imperial courts.Moreover, Rome offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians; it also suffered regularly from flooding and from malaria. It seemed impossible to many that the capital could be moved. Nevertheless, Constantine identified the site of Byzantium as the correct place: a city where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the Danube or the Euphrates frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the empire. Constantine laid out the expanded city, dividing it into 14 regions, and ornamenting it with great public works worthy of a great imperial city. Yet initially Constantinople did not have all the dignities of Rome, possessing a proconsul, rather than a prefect of the city. Furthermore, it had no praetors, tribunes or quaestors. Although Constantinople did have senators, they held the title clarus, not clarissimus, like those of Rome. Nor did it have the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food-supply, the police, the statues, the temples, the sewers, the aqueducts and other public works. The new program of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and removed to the new city. By the same token, however, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets. The emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in Asiana and Pontica, and on 18 May 332 he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to citizens. At the time the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.

Public buildings

332 Constantinople was a Christian city, lying in the most Christianised part of the Empire. Justinian made the temples of Byzantium into ruins, and erected the splendid Church of the Holy Wisdom, Sancta Sophia (also known as Hagia Sophia in Greek), as the centrepiece of his Christian capital. He oversaw also the building of the Church of the Holy Apostles, and that of St Irene. Constantine laid out anew the square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the Augusteum in honour of his mother, Helena. Sancta Sophia lay on the north side of the Augusteum. The new senate-house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Located immediately nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot-races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the Baths of Zeuxippus (both originally built in the time of Severus). At the entrance at the western end of the Augusteum was the Milestone, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Empire. From the Augusteum a great street, the Mese, led, lined with colonnades. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law-court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second senate-house, then on and through the Forum of Taurus and then the Forum of Bous, and finally up the Sixth Hill and through to the Golden Gate on the Propontis. The Mese would be seven Roman miles long to the Golden Gate of the Walls of Theodosius. Constantine erected a high column in the centre of the Forum, on the Second Hill, with a statue of himself at the top, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking towards the rising sun.

Constantinople in the Divided Empire

Walls of Theodosius, on a contemporary silver plate (Royal Academy of History, Madrid)]] The first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople was Honoratus, who took office on 11 December 359 and held it until 361. The emperor Valens built the Palace of Hebdomon on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops. All the emperors, up to Zeno and Basiliscus, who were elevated at Constantinople, were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon. Theodosius I founded the church of John the Baptist to house a relic of the saint, put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of Aphrodite into a coachhouse for the Praetorian Prefect; Arcadius built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine. Gradually the importance of the city increased. Following the shock of the Battle of Adrianople in 376, when the emperor Valens with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the Goths within a few days' march of the city, Constantinople looked to its defences, and Theodosius II built in 413-414 the 60-foot tall walls which were never to be breached until the coming of gunpowder. Theodosius also founded a University at the Capitolium near the Forum of Taurus, on 27 February 425. In the 5th century, when the barbarians overran the Western Empire, its emperors retreated to Ravenna before it collapsed altogether. Thereafter, Constantinople became in truth the greatest city of the Empire, and the greatest in the world. Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces. They remained in their palace in the Great City, and sent generals to command their armies. The wealth of the Eastern Mediterranean and Western Asia flowed into Constantinople.

The City under Justinian

The emperor Justinian (527-565) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works. It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of Africa set sail on or about 21 June 533. Before their departure the ship of the commander, Belisarius, anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise. Chariot-racing had been important in Rome for centuries. In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance. It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor; and also where they openly criticised the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers. In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue. The entire late Roman and early Byzantine period was one where Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the orthodox and the monophysites became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the horse-racing parties of the Blues and the Greens, and in the form of a major rebellion in the capital of 532 AD, known as the "Nika" riots (from the battle-cry of "Victory!" of those involved). "Nika" riots Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed the basilica of St Sophia, the city's principal church. Justinian commissioned Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus to replace it with the incomparable St Sophia, the great cathedral of the Orthodox Church, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets (St Sophia was converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of the city, and is now a museum). The dedication took place on Christmas Day of 537 AD in the presence of the Emperor, who exclaimed, "O Solomon, I have outdone thee!" Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles, built by Constantine, with a new church under the same dedication. This was designed in the form of an equally-armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics. This church was to remain the burial place of the emperors from Constantine himself until the eleventh century. When the city fell to the Turks in 1453, the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of Mehmet II the Conqueror.

The City after Justinian

Justinian was succeeded in turn by Justin II, Tiberius II and Maurice, able emperors who had to deal with a deteriorating military situation, especially on the eastern frontier. Subsequently there was a period of near-anarchy, which was exploited by the enemies of the Empire. After the Avars came to threaten Constantinople from the west and simultaneously the Persians from the East, Heraclius, the exarch of Africa, set sail for the city and assumed the purple. He found the situation so dire that at first he contemplated moving the imperial capital to Carthage, but with military genius he succeeded in expelling the invaders. No sooner had he carried war into their own territories, however, and achieved an advantageous peace with Persia, than he was faced with the Arab expansion. Constantinople was besieged twice by the Arabs, once in a long blockade between 674 and 678, and once again in 717.

Importance of the City in its prime

Constantinople was historically important for a number of reasons. 717 Byzantium, later Constantinople, was one of the larger and richer urban centers in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Hellenic period and later during the Roman Empire, mostly due to its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean and the Black Sea. During the Fourth Century AD the Emperor Constantine relocated his eastern capital to Byzantium, hence the name Constantinople (Constantine's City), in an attempt to reinvigorate the Empire. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek speaking empire, short several interregnums, for over a thousand years. As the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (now commonly known as the Byzantine Empire), the Greeks called Constantinople simply "the City", while throughout Europe it was known as the "Queen of Cities." In its heyday, roughly corresponding to what is now known as the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, particularly the Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom. A Russian 14th-century traveller, Stephen of Novgorod, wrote, "As for St Sofia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it". The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in its extensive copying throughout Europe, particular examples include St. Mark's in Venice, the basilica of Ravenna and many churches throughout the Slavic East. Also, alone in Europe until the 13th century Italian florin, the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the solidus of Diocletian becoming the bezant prized throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls (the Theodosian Walls) and urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping a memory alive of the skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire. The city, also provided a defence for the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire against the invasions of the 5th century, for Europe against the Arabs, and for European Christendom against Islam. Constantine assured the position of the Bishop or Patriarch of Constantinople as pre-eminent in the Eastern Empire. This action placed Constantinople at