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Patrick Palmer

Patrick Palmer

General Sir Patrick Palmer, KBE was Constable and Governor of Windsor Castle 1992 to 2000. He had been Commander in Chief, Allied Forces Northern Europe. Palmer, Patrick

General

General is a high military rank, used by nearly every country in the world. General may be a rank on its own, or can be used as a generic term for "general officers". In most nations, the various grades of General are at the top of the rank structure; but some countries have even higher ranks such as Field Marshal or Marshal. General Officer, often referred to less formally and imprecisely as "General", refers to a military officer who holds any rank grade of General. The exact rank of a general may be determined by combining a prefix (e.g. Major General) or suffix (e.g. General of the Army) with the word general. A General, without prefix or suffix (and sometimes referred to informally as a "full general"), is usually the most senior general officer rank, above Lieutenant General. In some armies, however, the rank of Captain General, General of the Army, Army General or Colonel General occupied or occupies this position. These ranks may be considered to be equivalent to a full General or to a Field Marshal, depending on the army in question. While historically an army rank, General is also used in most air forces, although those based on the British Royal Air Force use Air Marshal instead, with Air Officer being the generic title. In most navies of the world, the equivalent rank is Admiral and the generic term is Flag Officer; however a noteworthy historical exception was the Cromwellian naval rank General at sea. The rank of General began appearing around the time of the organization of professional armies in the 17th century. At first, it was added as an adjective to existing names of ranks, yielding Colonel General, Captain General, Lieutenant General and Sergeant Major General. These titles were used to distinguish the ruler's most important officers and usually involved a certain amount of negotiation over precedence.

General ranks by seniority

The following are the commoner modern grades of General, listed by seniority. Not all countries use all these ranks, although the lowest four are common to many. The highest rank is only used in the US. Grades of general are also not necessarily equal in all countries (for instance, in some countries Major General is the lowest general officer rank and may well be closer to Brigadier General in countries that have them). In some European and Commonwealth nations, the equivalent to Brigadier General is Brigadier, which is not considered to be a general officer rank, although it is generally considered to be equivalent to the rank of Brigadier General. During World War I and World War II, the German Navy maintained a rank known as General Admiral, but this was a naval position unconnected to the regular land forces rank of General. The rank of General may also be found commonly in fiction sources especially war dramas or science fiction settings.

General ranks by country

The following articles deal with the rank of General as it is employed in the militaries of various countries.
- Aluf (Israel)
- Général (France)
- General (Germany)
- General (Switzerland)
- General (United Kingdom)
- General (United States)
- Daejang (North Korea)
- Taejang (South Korea)

External links

- [http://www.generals.dk/ Generals of World War II]
- [http://schema-root.org/region/americas/north_america/usa/government/executive/departments/defense/personnel/generals/ Schema-root.org: US Generals] News feeds for US Generals in the news Category:Military ranks
- ja:将軍

Æsir

In Old Norse, the Æsir (singular Áss, feminine Ásynja, feminine plural Ásynjur, Anglo-Saxon Ós, from Proto-Germanic Ansuz) are the principal gods of the pantheon of Norse mythology. They include many of the major figures, such as Odin, Frigg, Thor, Baldr and Tyr. A second clan of gods, the Vanir, is also mentioned in the Norse mythos: the god Njord and his children, Freyr and Freyja, are the most prominent Vanir gods who join the Æsir as hostages after a war between Æsir and Vanir. The Vanir appear to have mainly been connected with cultivation and fertility, the Æsir with power and war.

Etymology

The word áss, Proto-Germanic
- ansuz is believed to be derived from Proto-Indo-European
- ansu- 'breath, god' related to Sanskrit asura and Avestan ahura with the same meaning; though in Sanskrit asura came to mean 'demon'. The cognate Old English form to áss is os 'god, deity', as in the still-current surname Osgood, or the first names Oswin, Osbert, Oswald, Osborn, Osmund (but Oscar is an unrelated Gaelic name). Snorri Sturluson's Euhemeristic in the 13th century connected the Æsir with Asia, an explanation repeated as late as in the 17th century by Schefferus, who held that Æsir referred to "Asian emperors", that is, a [Hereditary shamanism|shamanistic hereditary]] leadership, emanating out from the Eurasian steppes into Europe in ancient times (compare Thraco-Cimmerians). Ása is the genitive form of Áss. The form appears as a prefix to indicate membership in the Æsir in "Ása-Þórr", and also in the compound Ásatrú, a sect of Germanic Neopaganism.

Norse mythology

The interaction between the Æsir and the Vanir is an interesting aspect of Norse mythology. While other cultures have had "elder" and "younger" families of gods, as with the Titans versus the Olympians of ancient Greece, the Æsir and Vanir were portrayed as contemporary. The two clans of gods fought battles, concluded treaties, and exchanged hostages (Freyr and Freyja are mentioned as such hostages). It is tempting to speculate that the interactions described as occurring between Æsir and Vanir reflect the types of interaction common to various Norse clans at the time. According to another theory, the cult of the Vanir (who are mainly connected with fertility and relatively peaceful) may be of an older date, and that of the more warlike Æsir of later origin, so the mythical war may perhaps mirror a religious conflict. On the other hand this may be a parallel to the historicized conflict between the Romans and the Sabines. The noted comparative religion scholar Mircea Eliade speculated that both conflicts are actually different versions of an older Indo-European myth of conflict and integration between deities of sky and rulership vs. deities of earth and fertility, with no strict historical antecedents. The chronology of the cults would in that case not be pictured in the myths. However, only Odin and Thor were important in both myth and cult; an áss like Ullr is almost unknown in the myths, but his name is seen in a lot of geographical names, especially in Sweden, so his cult was probably quite wide-spread. The Æsir stayed forever young by eating the apples of Iðunn, although they could be slain, as it was predicted that nearly all will die at Ragnarok.

The a-rune

The a-rune 10px, Younger Futhark was probably named after the Æsir. The name survives only in the Icelandic rune poem as Óss, however, referring to Odin, identified with Jupiter: :10px Óss er algingautr : ok ásgarðs jöfurr, : ok valhallar vísi. : Jupiter oddviti. :Óss is aged Gautr : and prince of Ásgardr : and lord of Vallhalla. Ihe Norwegian rune poem, Óss has a meaning of "estuary" while in the Angl-Saxon one Os has the Latin meaning of "mouth". The name of 15px a in the Gothic alphabet is ahsa. The common Germanic name of the rune may thus have either been ansuz "God, one of the Æsir", or ahsam "ear (of corn)".

List of Æsir and Vanir

- Baldr — god of innocence and beauty
- Bragi — the bard (skald)
- Forseti — god of justice
- Freyja (a Vanir hostage) — goddess of love and sex
- Freyr (a Vanir hostage) — god of fertility and love
- Frigg — chief goddess
- Heimdallr — the watchman and guardian
- Höðr — blind god of darkness and winter
- Hœnir — the indecisive god
- Iðunn — goddess of youth, fertility and death
- Loki — the trickster
- Nanna — wife of Baldr
- Njörðr (a Vanir hostage) — god of seamanship and sailing
- Odin — chief god, of wisdom and war
- Sif — golden-haired wife of Thor
- Thor (also called Donar) — god of thunder and battle
- Týr — one-handed god of battles and bravery.
- Ullr — the hunter, tracker and archer
- Váli — the avenger
- Vé — brother of Odin, who gave men speech
- Viðarr — god of silence, stealth, and revenge
- Vili — brother of Odin, who gave men feeling and thought

External link

- [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE19.html Bartleby: American Heritage Dictionary: Indo-European roots: ansu] Category:Norse mythology Category:Runes ja:アース神族

KBE

KBE can stand for:
- Knight Commander of the British Empire
- Knowledge-Based Engineering
- Knowledge Based Economy

Constable

:For the painter see John Constable. For the city in New York, see Constable, New York. A constable is a person holding a particular office, most commonly in law enforcement. However, the office of constable can vary significantly in different jurisdictions.

United Kingdom and Commonwealth

A constable is a police officer in the United Kingdom and most countries with a British colonial history (now mostly members of the Commonwealth of Nations). This gives rise to the alternative name of Constabulary for the police force. Technically, every sworn police officer in these countries is a constable, since it is from this office that they derive their powers, but in general usage it refers to a police officer without any other rank. In British law and similar legal systems, a Constable has the legal powers of arrest given to him or her directly by a sworn oath and warrant, rather than being delegated powers that he or she has simply because of employment as a police officer. Technically this means that each sworn constable is an independent legal official rather than simply an employee of the police. The rank of Senior Constable can sometimes mean the head of the police force in an area, but this is not the case in the UK. Head Constable is the title for a Police Sergeant in some Commonwealth police forces and was also the title of some British police force chiefs until police ranks were standardised.

United Kingdom

The Chief Constable is the title of the head of all British territorial police forces except the Metropolitan Police and City of London Police, which are headed by Commissioners. Other British police ranks (outside the London forces) include:
- Chief Constable
- Deputy Chief Constable
- Assistant Chief Constable
- Chief Superintendent
- Superintendent
- Chief Inspector
- Inspector
- Sergeant
- Police Constable (PC) The additional identification prefix of Detective is added to the ranks of members of the Criminal Investigation Departments and Special Branches up to Chief Superintendent (e.g. Detective Chief Inspector, Detective Constable, etc). Every officer still only has the powers of constable, no matter what his rank. The Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis has exactly the same police powers as an ordinary constable. Section 30 of the Police Act 1996 says that "A member of a police force shall have all the powers and privileges of a constable throughout England and Wales and the adjacent United Kingdom waters". By agreement, however, these powers are only generally exercised within the officer's own force area and the immediately surrounding force areas (except in an emergency). Constables have identical powers whether on or off duty, since as soon as they exercise their powers they technically come on duty. A Special Constable is a volunteer Police Officer, with the same powers as a regular officer. The main role of a 'Special' is to work with the local Constabulary to provide a heightened police presence on the streets and in the local community. They may also be requested to police particular events such as football matches and community events.

United States

In the United States, there is no consistent use of the office of constable across the states, and use may vary even within a state. A constable can be merely an official responsible for service of process: such as summonses and subpoenas for people to appear in court in criminal and/or civil matters. Or, they may be fully empowered law enforcement officers. They may also have additional specialized duties unique to the office. In some states, a constable may be appointed by the judge of the Court in which he or she serves; in others the constable is an elected or appointed position at the village, precinct or township level of local government. Historically, the office was the same as was in the United Kingdom and has been in existence since the colonial period. However, with the development of modern police forces in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, the common law powers of constable have often been altered or removed by statute. Whereas, in the UK, constables were transformed by law into police services, in the US, state and local police services were created in addition to constables. Perhaps because of this, the title "constable" is not used for police of any rank. The lowest rank in a police organization would be officer, patrolman, trooper, and historically, private, depending on the particular organization. A constable may be assisted by deputy constables as sworn officers or constable's officers as civil staff, usually as process servers. In some states, villages or towns, an office with similar duties is marshal.

Alabama

Constables are elected by precinct.

Arizona

A constable is an elected officer of the county for the Justice of the Peace Court and must live in the precinct to which they are elected. They have similar powers and duties to sheriffs.

Arkansas

Same as for Arizona.

Connecticut

The positions of constable and sheriff were abolished in 2003.

Delaware

Since 1986, Delaware has had a unique law enforcement position entitled "Code Enforcement Constable". These officers can be appointed by any county or municipal chief executive officer to enforce all ordinances pertaining to building, housing, sanitation, or public health codes.

Maine

Constables have all of the powers and duties of police officers once they have completed training required by the state.

Massachusetts

Constables are appointed by towns and cities. They have statutory powers of arrest for certain offences connected to gambling, cruelty to animals, prostitution, defiling water supplies, restricting entry to medical facilities, etc. Constables can and usually do serve civil process, and capias arrests.

New Jersey

A constable is considerd a "peace officer" with very limited police authority. Their duties are mainly confined to the enforcement, and processing of civil law.

New Hampshire

New York

Constables serve at the pleasure of the local towns and villages, usually in a civil aspect for the courts. However, constables are considered law enforcement officers under New York State law. Their powers can be limited by each jurisdiction.

Pennsylvania

In the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the office of constable is mandated in the state constitution. All constables in Pennsylvania are elected Officers of the Court, as are all state court officers in the state system. Pennsylvania constables, although elected or appointed at the local government level, receive no funding at all. Although elected or appointed for a 6-year term, they are not considered employees of the Commonwealth or any government body. They must provide everything for their office at their own expense (including vehicle, all equipment, office rent, liability insurance, etc). Despite the lack of funding, Pennsylvania constables still possess the police power of arrest for any felony or breach of peace on view. However, if a person is in a vehicle when they commit an offense, the constable in Pennsylvania cannot make a traffic stop, due to a Supreme Court decision (case law).

Tennessee

Constable is an elected position whose primary purpose is to service the justice of the peace courts. The Tennessee constitution allows county voters to abolish the position, especially if left unfilled for some time.

Texas

Texas constables are elected officials, similar to a sheriff, who are responsible for providing services for their precinct justice of the peace, but also for his county, and the state district courts. They have full law enforcement authority throughout their respective counties. Many constable offices have only one or two persons, but in the major metropolitan counties with four or more precints, they may have up to a hundred persons. Texas contains over 1300 constable offices employing over 3500 persons. The Texas constable is also listed as a unique independent local police agency on the United States Department of Justice's Uniform Crime Reports.

Vermont

Constables are generally elected by the town. They are charged with service of process; the destruction of unlicensed or dangerous dogs or wolf-hybrids, and of injured deer; removal of disorderly people from town meeting; collection of taxes, when no tax collector is elected; and other duties. Constables have full law enforcement authority unless the town votes to either remove the authority or require training before such authority is exercised. Cities and villages may also have constables. Their duties and method of selection are governed by the corporation's charter.

Channel Islands

corporation In Jersey and Guernsey, the elected heads of the parishes are titled "constables" (connétables in French). In Jersey, the constables also represent their parish in the legislature.

Ancient position

A constable was an official in some European countries during the Middle Ages, in charge of keeping the horses of his lord. The title comes from the Latin comes stabulari (count of the stables).

Military ranks

In some countries this developed into a high military rank, such as:
- The Constable of France
- The Constable of Portugal and
- The Lord High Constable of England. The office of constable was also held by the person in charge of the defence of a castle. Even today, there is a Constable of the Tower of London.

Governor

A governor is also a device that regulates the speed of a machine. See Governor (device). A governor is a governing official, usually in chief (at least nominally, to different degrees also politically and administratively) of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state; furthermore the title apllies to high ranking officials in private or similar governance such as commercial and non-profit management. Most countries in the world have some sort of official known or rendered as governor, though in some countries, the heads of the constitutive states, provinces, communities and regions may have a different title. This is particularly common in European nations and many of their former colonies, with titles such as President of the Regional Council in France and minister-president in Germany. Other countries using different titles for sub-national units include Spain, Italy, Switzerland. There can also be non-political governors: governors who simply govern an institution, such as a corporation or a bank. For example, in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries there are prison governors ("warden" in the United States), school governors and bank governors.

Etymology

The English word "governor" stems from the Latin gubernātor and the Greek kybernetes (helmsman or steersman), which in origin stem from the Latin gubernare and the Greek kybernan (to steer or govern). The recent English word "cybernetics" shares the same etymology. Strictly or etymologically speaking, the word "governor" is therefore supposed to be a metaphor derived from "steersman".

Pre-Roman empires

Although the legal and administrative framework of provinces, each administrated by a governor, was created by the Romans, the term governor has been a convenient term for historians to use in describing similar systems in antiquity. Indeed, many regions of the pre-roman antiquity were ultimately replaced by Roman 'standardized' provincial governments after their conquest by Rome.

Egypt

- In Pharaonic times, the governors of each of dozens of provinces in the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt (called "nomes" by the Greeks, and whose names often alluded to local patterns of religious worship) are usually known by the Greek word Nomarch.
- The whole (or most) of Egypt was repeatedly reduced to the status of province of a larger empire under foreign conquerors, notably under an Achaemenid satrap (see below).

Mesopotamia and beyond

Assyria, a ruthless conqueror of a large empire, ...
- shaknu
- bel pihati

Pre- & hellenistic satraps

- Media and Achaemenid Persia introduced the satrapy, probably inspired by the Assyrian / Babylonian examples
- Alexander the Great and equally Greco-Macedonian diadoch kingdoms, mainly Seleucids (greater Syria) and Lagids ('Ptolemies' in hellenistic Egypt)
- in later Persia, again under Iranian dynasties :
- Parthia
- the Sassanid dynasty dispensed with the office after Shapur I (who had still 7 of them), replacing them with petty vassal rulers, known as shahdars

Roman empires and legacy

In ancient Rome

From the creation of the earliest Roman subject provinces a governor was appointed each year to administer each of them. The core function of a Roman governor was as a magistrate or judge, and the management of taxation and public spending in their area. Under the Republic and the early Empire, however, a governor also commanded military forces in his province. Republican governors were all men who had served in senior magistracies (the consulate or praetorship) in Rome in the previous year, and carried related titles as governor (proconsul or propraetor). The first Emperor, Augustus (who acquired or settled a number of new territories), divided the provinces into two categories; the traditionally prestigious governorships remained as before (in what have become known as "senatorial" provinces), while in a range of others he retained the formal governorships himself, delegating the actual task of administration to appointees (usually with the title legatus Augusti, although some small provinces received governors with other titles such as procurator). A special case was Egypt, a rich 'private' domain and vital granary, where the Emperor almost inherited the theocratic status of a Pharaoh. The Emperor was represented there by a governor sui generis styled Praefectus Augustalis (the very title evokes the religious cult of the Emperor). Diocletian and Constantine in the fourth century carried out a root and branch reorganisation of the administration. This had two main features:
- Provinces were divided up and became much more numerous; they were then grouped into dioceses, and the dioceses in turn into prefectures;
- Military responsibilities were removed from governors and given to new officials called comes or dux. In addition, Italy was brought into the system for the first time. The prestige governorships of Africa and Asia remained with the title proconsul, and the special right to refer matters directly to the Emperor; the Praefectus Augustalis in Alexandria and the Comes Orientis in Antioch also retained special titles. Otherwise the governors of provinces had various titles without obvious logic, some known as consularis, some as corrector, some as praeses. Apart from Egypt and the East (Oriens - viz greater Syria), each diocese was directed by a governor known as a vicarius. The prefectures were directed by praefecti praetorio (a role transformed from a very different one in the early Empire).

Byzantium

This system survived with few significant changes until the collapse of the empire in the West, and in the East the breakdown of order with the Persian and Arab invasions of the seventh century. At that stage a new kind governor emerged, the Strategos a role leading the themes which replaced provinces at this point, and involving a return to the amalgamation of civil and military office which had been the practice under the Republic and the early Empire.

Legacy

While the Roman administration in the West was largely destroyed in the barbarian invasions, its model was remembered, and would again be very influential through two particular vehicles: Roman law and the Christian Church.

Holy Roman/ Habsburg Empires and successor states

- Reichskommissar

British Empire and Commonwealth

In the British Empire a governor was originally an official appointed by the British monarch to oversee one of his colonies. Generally of the gubernatorial offices established under the British, the structure comprised three levels:—
- Governor-General (formerly in charge of a group of colonies, and now also with largely ceremonial functions in relation to independent, sovereign Commonwealth Realms);
- Governor (in charge of a colony); and
- Lieutenant-Governor (in charge of a sub-colonial unit, usually styled a "province").
- (Note: colony in this sense means any separate jurisdiction inside the British Empire) In the first two cases the Governor (or Governor-General) represents the authority of the Monarch. Lieutenant-Governors represent the authority of their superiors (a Governor or Governor-General). Administrators, Commissioners and High Commissioners exercise similar powers (Note: such High Commissioners are not to be confused with the High Commissioners who are the equivalent of Ambassadors between Commonwealth states). A Governor would usually have an Executive Council to help with the colony's administration. Governors could also, in addition, have Legislative Councils and/or Assemblies underneath them. Today crown colonies of the United Kingdom continue to be administered by a governor, who holds varying degrees of power. Worldwide, there are 15 Governors-General who represent the dignity of the Monarch in the (sovereign) Commonwealth Realms. Because of the different constitutional histories of the former colonies of the United Kingdom, the term "Governor" now refers to officials with differing amounts of power. Especially after colonies became independent of the United Kingdom, the presence of the word "Governor" does not guarantee that the said Governor is the "typical British-style" Governor; examples include:
- Sri Lanka, once a colony governed by a single British Governor before independence, now has many "governors" controlling sub-national units
- Nigeria, also a colony once governed by a single British Governor before independence, now has many "governors" controlling sub-national provinces Governors (of all ranks) are usually housed in a building called 'Government House'. Governors used also to have a standard flag pattern (a Union Flag with the colonial seal or coat of arms in the centre). Governors-General still have a standard pattern flag, a blue flag with the royal crest (lion and crown) with the name of the jurisdiction on a scroll underneath. Below, the Governors described for Australia, Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom overseas territories fit the traditional British framework as just described. The rest are not British-style governors.

Colonial style

United Kingdom overseas territories

In the United Kingdom's remaining overseas territories the governor is normally a direct appointee of the British Government and plays an active role in governing and lawmaking (though usually with the advice of elected local representatives). In some minor overseas territories there is instead of a Governor an Administrator or Commissioner, or the job is ex officio done by a High Commissioner.

Australia

Main article: Governors of the Australian states In Australia, each state has a Governor as its formal representative of the Queen as head of the state government. each State Governor is appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Premier (politically responsible head ofstate government) and play a largely ceremonial role. State Governors have emergency reserve powers but these are rarely used. The Territories of Australia have Administrators instead of governors, who are appointed formally by the Governor-General. The Governor-General is the representative of Australia's head of state (i.e. the -British and- Australian Sovereign) at a federal level appointed by the crown on the advice given by the Australian (federal) Prime Minister. When the office of the Governor-General is vacant, or the occupant is unable to discharge their duties (on holidays, or travelling overseas for example), frequently the most senior state governor acts in their position. If this is not practicable, a justice of the High Court is appointed as administrator for the Commonwealth, and exercises those powers of the Governor-General in their absence. The difference in terminology between the Australian state Governors and the Canadian provincial Lieutenant Governors is significant. In the Australian case, the Governor nominally derives power directly from the monarch and is in practice nominated by the Premier of a state. In the Canadian case, the Lieutenant Governor nominally is appointed by the Governor-General and in practice is named by the federal Prime Minister. See also:

- Governor of New South Wales
- Governor of Queensland
- Governor of South Australia
- Governor of Tasmania
- Governor of Victoria
- Governor of Western Australia

- List of Governors of New South Wales
- List of Governors of Queensland
- List of Governors of South Australia
- List of Governors of Tasmania
- List of Governors of Victoria
- List of Governors of Western Australia

Hong Kong

See Governor of Hong Kong.

Northern Ireland

There was a position of Governor of Northern Ireland from 1922 until the suspension of Stormont in 1973.

New style

India

In India each state has a ceremonial Governor appointed by the President of India. These Governors are different to the Governors which controlled the British-controlled portions of the Indian Empire (as opposed to the princely states) prior to 1949.

Malaysia

In Malaysia the four non-monarchical states -Penang, Malacca, and the two on Borneo : Sabah and Sarawak- each have a ceremonial Governor styled Yang di-Pertua Negeri, appointed by the federal King Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, with a seat but no vote in the federal majlis Raja-raja (council of rulers). These states have a separate head of government which is the Chief Minister or Menteri Besar. All other states have royalty as head of state, no governor : a raja in Perlis, a Yang di-pertuan besar (elected from local rulers) in Negeri Sembilan, or a Sultan in the states of Selangor, Pahang, Johore, Perak, Kelantan and Kedah.

Nigeria

In Nigeria, the leaders of the regions, which in 1967 were divided into states, have been known as governors since 1954. Following a military coup in November 1993, President Sani Abacha suspended all the governors, and appointed administrators. When democracy was restored in 1999, the office of governor was revived and new governors were elected. The president of Nigeria can suspend state governors in a state of emergency and replace them with administrators. They are elected by popular vote.

Papua New Guinea

In Papua New Guinea, the leaders of the provinces have been known as governors since August 1995. Previously they had been known as premiers.

Sri Lanka

The provinces of Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) are led by governors.

Russia and former Soviet Union

-Empress Catherine the Great -

Other modern Asian countries

People's Republic of China

In the People's Republic of China, the title "Governor" (省长) refers to the highest ranking executive of a Provincial Government. The Governor is usually placed second in the provincial power hierarchy, below the Provincial CPC Secretary (省委书记), who serves as the highest ranking Party official in the Province. A Governor can be also used when referring to a County Governor (县长).

Other modern countries in the Americas

United States

In the United States, the title governor refers to the chief executive of each state, not directly subordinate to the federal authorities, but the political and ceremonial head of the 'sovereign' state. The governor may also assume additional roles, such as the Commander-in-Chief of the State National Guard forces (when not federalized), and the ability to commute or pardon a criminal sentence. U.S. Governors serve four-year terms except those in New Hampshire and Vermont, who serve two-year terms. In all states, the governor is directly elected, and in most cases has considerable practical powers (notable exceptions with very weak governorships include Texas), though this is moderated by the state legislature and in some cases by other elected executive officials. They can veto state bills. In some cases legislatures can override a gubernatorial veto by a two-thirds vote, in others by three-fifths. In Tennessee the governor's veto can be overridden by an absolute majority vote making it virtually useless. The Governor of North Carolina had no veto power until a 1996 referendum. In most states, whenever there is a sudden vacancy of one of the state's Senate seats, that state's governor appoints someone to fill the vacancy until a special election is to be held, although the governors of Oregon, Massachusetts and Alaska no longer have this power. In colonial America, the governor was the representative of the monarch who exercised executive power, many colonies originally elected their governors, but in the years leading up to the American Revolutionary War, the king began to to appoint them directly. During the American Revolution, the royal governors were expelled, but the name was retained to denote the new elected official. See: List of United States Governors for past and present governors.
- Lieutenant Governor
- Governors of American Samoa
- Governors of Guam
- Governors of Northern Mariana Islands
- Governors of Puerto Rico
- Governors of U.S. Virgin Islands

Mexico

The elected heads of Mexico's 31 federal states are styled "governors" (gobernadores), closely following the U.S. model. See: List of Mexican state governors.

Brazil

Until the 1930 Revolution, the heads of the Brazilian Provinces then States where styled Presidents (presidentes), later governors and intervators (appointed by the federal goverment) and finally in 1945 only governors.

South America

Many of the South American republics (such as Chile and Argentina) have provinces or states run by elected governors, with offices similar in nature to U.S. state governors.

Other European countries and empires

Benelux monarchies

- In the Netherlands, the government-appointed heads of the provinces were known as Gouverneur from 1814 until 1850, when their title was changed to King's (or Queen's) Commissioner. In the Dutch crown's Caribbean Overseas territories, the style Governor is still used (alongside the political head of government) in the Netherlands Antilles as well as since 1986 on the neighbouring island of Aruba (separated from the former)
- In Belgium, the title of Gouverneur is used, in both the French and Dutch languages. There are presently 10 provinces, each with its own governor; the national capital, Brussels, does not belong to any, constituting a third 'capital' region (along with Flanders and Wallonia), with its own minister-president.

France & Napoleon

Italy

- The essentially maritime empire of the Venetian republic, comprising Terra Ferma, other Adriatic (mainly Istria and Dalmatia) and further Mediteranean (mainly Greek) possessions, used different gubernatorial styles, such as (castelleno e) provveditore (generale), baile

Papal & Vatican particularity

- In the various Italian provinces (former principalities and city-states) that became amalgamated as the Papal States, the Holy See exerced temporal power via its legates and delegates, including some cardinals
- Also in the southern French Comté Venaissin, the home of the popes during their 'babylonian exile', and retained centutries after, but never incorporated into the Papal States, Legates and Vice-legates were appointed
- The sovereign modern remnant of the formerly vast Papal States, the Vatican City State, is now a mere enclave in the capital of Italian Republic. It is too small to have further administrative territorial divisions, and so styles its equivalent of a Prime Minister, Governor and Mayor all roled in to one, as the Governor of Vatican City.

Turkish

In the Ottoman empire, various Pashas (generals) administered a province of the Great Sultan's vaste empire, with specific titles (such as Mutessaryf; Vali = Wali was often maintained or even revived in oriental successor states; cfr. Beilerbei (rendered as Governor-general, as he is appointed above several provinces under individual governors) and Dey)

Other modern African countries

Colonial entities

- Other countries then the UK with colonies in Asia, Africa and other areas, such as Germany, France, Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands give some, but not always all, of the top representatives of (or rather in) their colonies the title of governor.
- Currently, the län (counties) of Sweden, the provinces of Finland, the states of Indonesia and some of the administrative divisions of Russia are among the areas which have leaders with the title of governor. See also:
- Governor of Macau
- Governor-General of Finland
- Governor-General of the Irish Free State
- Over-Governor of Stockholm
- Governor of the Straits Settlements
- Governors-General of Sweden
- List of County Governors of Sweden
- Governor of Hong Kong

Modern equivalents

As a GENERIC term, Governor is used for various 'equivalent' officers governing part of a state or empire, rendering other official titles such as :
- colonial High Commissioner (not the Ambassadors exchanged within the Commonwealth) And this also applies to non-western and/or antique cultures

Furthermore, the word has other meanings

- as an administrator and/or supervisor (individually or collectively, see Board of Governors) in the socio-economic spheres of life.
- Governor of the Bank of Canada
- List of governors of national banks of Serbia and Yugoslavia

1992

1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday.

Events

January

- January 1 - Boutros Boutros-Ghali of Egypt replaces Javier Pérez de Cuéllar of Peru as United Nations Secretary-General
- January 1 - George H. W. Bush becomes the first President of the United States to address the Australian Parliament.
- January 8 - Bosnian Serbs declare their own republic within Bosnia-Herzegovina in protest to the decision by Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Croats to seek EC recognition.
- January 8 - George H. W. Bush falls violently ill in the presence of the Prime Minister of Japan.
- January 11 - Paul Simon is the first major artist to tour South Africa after the end of the cultural boycott.
- January 12 - The second round of Algeria's general elections is cancelled when the first round is favorable to the Islamic Salvation Front.
- January 13 - Japan apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War II.
- January 13 - Jeffrey Dahmer pleads guilty but insane to the murders of 15 young men and boys.
- January 15 - The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ceases to exist. Slovenia and Croatia gain independence.
- January 16 - El Salvador officials and rebel leaders sign a pact in Mexico City that ends a 12 year civil war that claimed at least 75,000.
- January 22 - Rebel forces occupy Zaire's national radio station in Kinshasa and broadcast a demand for the government's resignation
- January 22 - STS-42: Dr. Roberta Bondar becomes the first Canadian woman in space.
- January 26 - Boris Yeltsin announces that Russia is going to stop targeting United States cities with nuclear weapons.

February

- February 1 - Chief Judicial Magistrate of Bhopal court declares Warren Anderson, ex-CEO of Union Carbide a fugitive under Indian law for failing to appear in the Bhopal Disaster case, and orders the Indian government to press for an extradition from United States
- February 7 - Signing of the Maastricht treaty, which founded the European Union.
- February 10 - In Indianapolis, Indiana boxer Mike Tyson is convicted of raping a Miss Black America contestant named Desiree Washington
- February 11 - F-16 jet crashes into a residential district of Hengelo, the Netherlands. No casualties are reported.
- February 17 - A court in Milwaukee, Wisconsin sentences Serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer to life in prison
- February 18 - Iraq disarmament crisis: The Executive Chairman of UNSCOM details Iraq's refusal to abide by UN Security Council disarmament resolutions.
- February 20 - The English FA Premier League was officially formed
- February 21 - United Nations Security Council approves Resolution 743 and decides to send UNPROFOR peacekeeping force to Yugoslavia
- February 26 - Supreme Court of Ireland rules that a 14-year-old rape victim may travel to England to get an abortion

March

- March - Boxer Mike Tyson is given a 6 year sentence for raping an 18 year old Miss Black America contestant, Desiree Washington
- March 1 - After a majority of the Bosnian Muslim and Bosnian Croat communities vote for Bosnian independence, Serb snipers fire on civilians
- March 12 - Mauritius becomes a republic while remaining a member of the British Commonwealth
- March 12 - 13 are killed and several injured when a tram-car crashes into a crowd of people at the tram-station at Vasaplatsen in Gothenburg, Sweden.
- March 13 - In eastern Turkey, an earthquake registering 6.8 on the Richter scale kills over 500.
- March 17 - 29 are killed and 242 injured when a suicide car-bomb goes off in the Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires.
- March 25 - Cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev returns to Earth after a 10-month stay aboard the Mir space station

April

- April - Bosnia and Herzegovina secedes from Yugoslavia.
- April 2 - In New York, Mafia boss John Gotti is convicted of murder of mob boss Paul Castellano and racketeering and is later sentenced to life in prison
- April 6 - Robert Schumann (record-breaker) becomes the youngest person to visit the north pole
- April 6 - Serbian troops begin to bombard Sarajevo
- April 8 - Punch magazine publishes its final issue
- April 9 - A Miami jury convicts former Panamanian ruler Manuel Noriega of assisting Colombia's cocaine cartel
- April 9 - United Kingdom general election - John Major unexpectedly re-elected.
- April 10 - IRA bomb explodes in the Baltic Exchange in the City of London - 3 dead, 91 injured
- April 13 - Flooding in downtown Chicago, Illinois
- April 13 - Roermond in the Netherlands is rocked by an earthquake along the Peel Fault.
- April 14-October 15 - The trial of the Russian serial killer Andrew Chikatilo - he is sentenced to death
- April 21 - Maria Vladimirovna of Russia succeeds her father as Head of the Imperial Family of Russia and Titular Empress and Autocrat of all the Russias.
- April 22 - Fuel that has leaked into sewer explodes in Guadalajara, Mexico - 215 dead, 1500 injured
- April 27 - Betty Boothroyd elected the first woman to be Speaker of the British House of Commons.
- April 29 - In Los Angeles, California, the police officers that were accused of excessive force in their severe beating of Rodney King, were found "not guilty". The verdict resulted in several days of riots in L.A. and smaller riots around the country.

May

- May 5 - Alabama ratifies a 202-year-old proposed amendment to the United States Constitution making the 27th Amendment law. This amendment bars the U.S. Congress from giving itself a midterm or retroactive pay raise
- May 5 - Russian leaders in Crimea declare their separation from Ukraine as a new republic. They withdraw the secession on May 10
- May 10 - Team of Sweden wins the Ice Hockey World Championships in Prague
- May 15 - The Genoa Expo '92 World's Fair opens in Genoa, Italy
- May 16 - STS-49: Space Shuttle Endeavour lands safely after a successful maiden voyage
- May 19 - Amy Fisher shoots at Mary Jo Buttafuoco
- May 23 - Mafia bomb kills Italian anti-mafia judge Giovanni Falcone
- May 26 - Charles Geschke, President of Adobe Systems is kidnapped from his company car park. Kidnappers demand ransom for $650,000 - they are later apprehended

June

- June 1 - Terrorist Carlos (the Jackal) is sentenced to life imprisonment
- June 1 - Kentucky celebrates its bicentennial statehood.
- June 1 - The Pittsburgh Penguins sweep the Chicago Blackhawks in 4 games in the 1992 Stanley Cup Finals.
- June 8 - The first World Ocean Day celebrated, coinciding with the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
- June 12 - Medical doctor Pravin Thakkar is sentenced for 16 years for aborting fetuses of two of his former lovers without their permission
- June 15 - During a spelling bee at a Trenton, New Jersey elementary school, U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle corrects a student's spelling of the word potato by indicating it should have an e at the end.
- June 17 - A 'Joint Understanding' agreement on arms reduction is signed by U.S. President George H.W. Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin (this would be later codified in START II). [http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/start2/]
- June 22 - Two skeletons excavated in Yekaterinburg are identified as Czar Nicholas II and his tsarina
- June 23 - Mafia boss John Gotti is sentenced to life in prison after being found guilty of conspiracy to commit murder and racketeering on April 2 [http://www.crimelibrary.com/gangsters_outlaws/mob_bosses/gotti/don_24.html?sect=15]
- June 26 - Denmark beat Germany 2-0 to win Euro 92 at Ullevi Stadium in Gothenburg, Sweden.
- June 29 - Bodyguard assassinates president Mohammed Boudigh of Algeria

July

- July 6-29 - Iraq disarmament crisis: Iraq refuses a U.N. inspection team access to the Iraqi Ministry of Agriculture. UNSCOM claimed that it had reliable information that the site contained archives related to illegal weapons activities. U.N. Inspectors stage a 17-day "sit-in" outside of the building, but leave when their safety is threatened by Iraqi soldiers
- July 10 - In Miami, Florida, former Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega is sentenced to 40 years in prison for drug and racketeering violations
- July 13 - Britain's former executioner Albert Pierrepoint dies
- July 20 - Václav Havel resigns as president of Czechoslovakia
- July 22 - Near Medellín, Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar escapes from his luxury prison fearing extradiction to the United States.
- July 25 - Summer Olympic Games in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain

August

- August 7 - Buckingham Palace opened to the public for the first time
- August 10 - The UK government bans Ulster Defence Association, a loyalist paramilitary organisation that had been legal for twenty years.
- August 17 - US Marshalls start Siege of Ruby Ridge
- August 18 - Wang Laboratories files for bankruptcy
- August 20 - Kristiansunds connection to the main land of Norway, Krifast, opens.
- August 24 - Hurricane Andrew hits South Florida.
- August 28 - Hurricane Andrew dissipates over the Tennessee valley when it merges with a storm system. Twenty-three were killed.

September

- September 11 - Hurricane Iniki hits the Hawaiian Islands, Kauai and Oahu
- September 16 - Pound Sterling and Italian Lira forced out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (Black Wednesday)
- September 23 - A large IRA bomb destroys the forensic laboratories in Belfast
- September 24 - The Kentucky Supreme Court in Kentucky v. Wasson holds that laws criminalizing same-sex sodomy are unconstitutional, and accurately predicts that other states and the nation will eventually rule the same way.

October

- October 1 - Pittsburgh International Airport's new facility is opened in Findlay Township, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania The new terminal's were built as an expansion for US Air and an upgrade from the older Pittsburgh International Airport facility.
- October 2 - Riot in the Carandiru prison system in São Paulo, Brazil, which leads up to the events known as the Carandiru Massacre.
- October 4 - Plane crash in Amsterdam, Netherlands, known as the Bijlmerramp.
- October 7 - In Turkey, the farmer Tevfik Esenç, the last fluent speaker of the Ubykh language, dies.
- October 9 - A 13-kilogram (29-pound) meteorite landed in the driveway of the Knapp residence in Peekskill, New York destroying the family's 1980 Chevrolet Malibu.
- October 15 - In Russia, Andrei Chikatilo is found guilty of 52 serial murders.
- October 17 - Yoshihiro Hattori, a 16-year-old Japanese exchange student mistakes from an address to a party, and is shot after knocking on the wrong door in Louisiana, United States. The shooter, Rodney Peairs, is acquitted by Jury causing an outrage in Japan.
- October 24 - Toronto Blue Jays win World Series in 6 games. Marking the first Canadian team to win.
- October 26 - In Canada, the Charlottetown Accord is defeated in a national referendum.
- October 29 - The Food and Drug Administration approves Depo Provera for use as a contraceptive in the United States.

November

- November 3 - Bill Clinton defeats George H. W. Bush and H. Ross Perot in the U.S. presidential election
- November 5 - In Detroit, Michigan, black motorist Malice Green is beaten to death by policemen Larry Nevers and Walter Budzyn during a struggle (the officers were later convicted and sentenced to prison)
- November 11 - The Church of England votes to allow women to become priests.
- November 20 - In England, a fire breaks out in the Private Chapel room of Windsor Castle, rages for 15 hours, and seriously damages the northwest side of the building (an investigation found that the fire was ignited after a spotlight came into contact with a curtain over an extended period).
- November 24 - In the People's Republic of China, a China Southern Airlines domestic flight crashes, killing all 141 people on-board
- November 24 - Queen Elizabeth II describes this year as an Annus Horribilis (horrible year) due to various scandals damaging the image of the Royal Family
- November 25 - The Czechoslovakia Federal Assembly votes to split the country into the Czech Republic and Slovakia starting on January 1, 1993
- November 30 - A murder trial of 14 South Vietnamese accused of murder of 24 North Vietnamese begins in Hong Kong (ends November 29, 1994)

December

- December 3 - UN Security Council Resolution 794 is unanimously passed, approving a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States to form UNITAF, tasked with ensuring humanitarian aid gets distributed and establishing peace in Somalia.
- December 3 - The Greek oil tanker Aegean Sea carrying 80,000 tonnes of crude oil runs aground in a storm while on approach to La Coruña, Spain, and spills much of its cargo
- December 4 - US military forces invade Somalia.
- December 5 - Kent Conrad of North Dakota resigns his seat in the United States Senate and is sworn into the other seat from North Dakota, becoming the only US Senator ever to have held two seats on the same day.
- December 6 - Hindu activists destroy the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya, India, triggering religious violence around the country.
- December 8 - Last blast fired in Falu Copper Mine in Sweden. The end of a millennium of continuous operation.
- December 20 - The Folies Bergere music hall in Paris, France closes.
- December 29 - Brazil's president Fernando Collor de Mello resigns, following charges that he stole more than $32 million from the government and impeachment precedings.

Unknown Dates

- The Council for National Academic Awards, UK is wound up.
- Pope John Paul II issues an apology and lifts the edict of Inquisition against Galileo Galilei
- The largest shopping mall in the US, Minnesota's Mall of America is constructed spanning 78 acres (316,000 m²)
- Carsington Reservoir opened in England after nearly 20 years planning and construction.
- Image Comics is founded by a number of former Marvel artists, seeking to create a company where creators were given exclusive ownership of their creations.

Fictional Events

- January 12 HAL 9000 is purported to become operational at the H.A.L. plant in Urbana, Illinois.
- The events of the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? take place.

Births

For more 1992 births see :Category:1992 births
- January 10 - Eric & Brandon Billings, Twin American actors
- January 19 - Logan Lerman, American actor
- January 21 - Logan O'Brien, American actor
- February 14 - Freddie Highmore, British actor
- March 15 - Sosie Bacon, American actress
- March 21 - Bobby Preston, American actor
- April 15 - Richard Sandrak, American bodybuilder and actor
- May 18 - Spencer Breslin, American actor
- June 7 - Jordan Fry, American Actor
- June 12 - Ryan Malgarini, American actor
- June 14 - Daryl Sabara, American voice actor
- July 13 - Dylan Patton, American actor and model
- August 4 - Dylan and Cole Sprouse, Twin child actors
- September 19 - Gavin Fink, American actor
- October 9 - Tyler James Williams, American actor
- October 15 - Vincent Martella, American actor
- October 30 - Tequan Richmond, American actor
- November 25 - Zack Shada, American actor
- November 30 - Dylan Smith, American actor
- December 23 - Spencer Daniels, American actor

Deaths

January-April

- January 3 - Dame Judith Anderson, Australian actress (b. 1897)
- January 9 - Bill Naughton, British playwright (b. 1910)
- January 23 - Freddie Bartholomew, Irish actor (b. 1924)
- January 26 - José Ferrer, Puerto Rican actor (b. 1912)
- January 27 - Allan Jones, American actor and singer (b. 1908)
- January 29 - Willie Dixon, American composer and musician (b. 1915)
- February 2 - Bert Parks, American game show host (b. 1914)
- February 4 - Lisa Fonssagrives, Swedish model (b. 1911)
- February 10 - Alex Haley, American author (b. 1921)
- February 12 - Bep van Klaveren, Dutch boxer (b. 1907)
- February 20 - Dick York, American actor (b. 1928)
- March 2 - Sandy Dennis, American actress (b. 1939)
- March 9 - Menachem Begin, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1913)
- March 23 - Friedrich Hayek, Austrian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)
- March 29 - Paul Henreid, Austrian-born actor (b. 1908)
- April 5 - Molly Picon, American actress (b. 1898)
- April 6 - Isaac Asimov, Russian-born author (b. 1920)
- April 8 - Daniel Bovet, Swiss-born pharmacologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1907)
- April 18 - Benny Hill, British comedian and actor
- April 21 - Grand Duke Vladimir Cyrillovitch of Russia (b. 1917)
- April 23 - Satyajit Ray, Indian filmmaker (b. 1921)
- April 27 - Olivier Messiaen, French composer (b. 1908)
- April 28 - Francis Bacon, Irish-born painter (b. 1909)

May-December

- May 6 - Marlene Dietrich, German actress (b. 1901)
- May 12 - Robert Reed, American actor (b. 1932
- May 17 - Lawrence Welk, American musician (b. 1903)
- May 22 - Tony Accardo, American gangster (b. 1906)
- May 23 - Giovanni Falcone, Italian judge (b. 1939)
- June 22 - Chuck Mitchell, American actor (b. 1927)
- July 15 - Hammer DeRoburt, first President of Nauru (b. 1922)
- August 5 - Jeff Porcaro, American musician (b. 1954)
- August 12 - John Cage, American composer (b. 1912)
- August - Mark Heard, American singer (b. 1951)
- September 2 - Barbara McClintock, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1902)
- October 7 - Tevfik Esenç, last known speaker of Ubykh (b. 1904)
- October 8 - Willy Brandt, Chancellor of Germany, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1913)
- October 17 - Yoshihiro Hattori, Japanese exchange student (b. 1975)
- October 19 - Arthur Wint, Jamaican runner (b. 1920)
- October 25 - Roger Miller, American singer (b. 1936)
- October 27 - David Bohm, American-born physicist, philosopher, and neuropsychologist (b. 1917)
- November 22 - Sterling Holloway, American actor (b. 1905)
- December 18 - Mark Goodson, American game show producer (b. 1915)
- December 21 - Nathan Milstein, Ukrainian-born violinist (b. 1903)
- December 22 - Albert King, American musician (b. 1930)

Unknown date

- E. Harold Munn, American activist (b. 1903)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Georges Charpak
- Chemistry - Rudolph A. Marcus
- Medicine - Edmond H. Fischer, Edwin G. Krebs
- Literature - Derek Walcott
- Peace - Rigoberta Menchu Tum

Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire

Knight Commander (KBE).

拉约什一世

拉约什一世（大帝）（匈牙利语：I.（Nagy）Lajos，1326年 3月5日—1382年 9月11日）安茹王朝的匈牙利国王（1342年—1382年在位）和波兰国王（称路德维克一世 Ludwik Węgierski，1370年起）。他是安茹王朝最强大的统治者。拉约什一世大约在1351年颁布一部意在巩固封建制度的法典，禁止把贵族采邑收为国有，但若该贵族绝嗣，土地收归王室；确认中小贵族享有大领主所享有的种种特权。结果到哈布斯堡王朝时代，匈牙利成了一个贵族数量大得不成比例的国家。拉约什一世对外进行多次战争，胜利地扩展了匈牙利的领土。他曾与那不勒斯（1347年）、威尼斯及立陶宛等国家作战（1351年，1372年，1377年）。1358年，拉约什一世几乎征服了全部达尔马提亚。克罗地亚在他统治时期被确认为“圣斯蒂芬王国”的一部分。拉约什一世使保加利亚、波斯尼亚、塞尔维亚、瓦拉几亚和摩尔多瓦等巴尔干小国承认匈牙利的宗主国地位。但是在1349年时，摩尔多瓦一度脱离了匈牙利的统治。 1366年，拉约什一世击退了入侵巴尔干半岛的奥斯曼帝国军队。 1370年，波兰的皮雅斯特王朝绝嗣，拉约什一世经王朝贵族协议（其父查理一世与波兰国王卡西米尔三世的条约）入主波兰。他于1374年给波兰的小贵族颁发了所谓科希策特权。在拉约什一世统治时期，中世纪的匈牙利国力达到了顶峰。 Category:匈牙利国王 Category:波兰君主 L L ja:ラヨシュ1世

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