Likeno estas grupo de talofitaj plantoj (Lichenes), kiuj kreskas sur rokoj, muroj, arboj ktp. kaj kiuj estas duopaj estaĵoj formitaj per simbioza kunvivado de fungo (akomiceto, malofte bazidiomiceto) kaj algo.
ja:地衣類
Planto
Planto estas vivaĵo plurĉela, produktanta nutraĵon per fotosintezo(ĝenerale).
Ĝenerale dividiĝas inter ne-verdaj plantoj (brunaj, oraj, ruĝaj algoj, ktp) kaj verdaj plantoj (verdaj algoj kaj ter-plantoj). Kelkaj plantoj vivas en medio malriĉa je nitrogeno kaj ili havigas por si mem la necesan nitrogenon per la kaptado, digestado de insektoj. Tial oni nomas ilin insektovoraj plantoj aŭ karnovoraj plantoj.
La verdaj "globetoj" interne de la ĉelo nomiĝas kloroplastoj.
Laŭ formo ili povas varii inter:
- polihedraj - fuziformaj - cilindraj - stelformaj - ktp.
Por pliaj informoj kaj priserĉoj vidu Botaniko.
[http://www.geocities.com/wfpilger/pplp-l3.htm W.F. Pilger:
Provizora Privata Listo de Komunlingvaj Nomoj de Plantoj de Nord-Okcidenta Eŭropo]
C3-plantojC4-plantojKategorio:Plantojms:Tumbuhanzh-min-nan:Si̍t-bu̍tko:식물ja:植物simple:Plant
Fungo
Biologio > Fungo
----
Fungoj estas vivuloj kiuj havas ne-sinmovajn korpojn (taloj), kompozitaj el kresk-kapablaj filamentoj (hifoj).
La fungoj vivas per malkonstruo de vivaj kaj nevivaj plantoj, en kunlaboro de plantoj (mikorizo) aŭ kiel parazitoj.
:Ĉirkaŭ 70 000 specioj da ili estis priskribitaj, sed oni taksas ke 1,5 milionoj povas ekzisti ankoraŭ ne konataj.
La viv-ciklo inkluzivas kaj seksan kaj ne-seksan reprodukton, ĝenerale el
komuna talo; haplojdaj/haploidaj taloj rezultas el zigota meiozo/meioso, kaj heterotrofa sinnutrado. La ŝpinilaj polusaj korpoj, ne la centrioloj, ĝenerale asociiĝas kun la nuklea tegaĵo dum ĉel-dividiĝo. La karakterizaj mur-konsistaĵoj estas kitino (beta-1,4-interligaj homopolimeroj de N-acetilglukozamino je la mikrokristal-stato) kaj glukanoj ĉefe alpha-glukanoj (alfa-1,3- kaj alfa-1,6- interligoj).
Esceptoj por ĉi-priskribo pri fungoj inkluzivas la jenajn: plejparto de la specioj de Kitridiomicetoj havas ĉelojn kun sola, mola, post-flanke insertita flagelo je iu stadio en la viv-ciklo, kaj la centrioloj asociiĝas kun la nuklea dividiĝo. La viv-cikloj de plejparto de la Kitridiomicetoj estas malamplekse studitaj, sed kelkaj (Blastocladiales) konatiĝas pro zigota meiozo (do, alternado inter haplojda kaj diplojda generacioj). Al specifaj membroj de Zigomiketoj, Askomiketoj, kaj Bazidiomiketoj povas manki hifa
kresko dum parto aŭ entuto de ties viv-ciklo, kaj, anstataŭe, produkante ĝermemaj "gistofungo"-ĉeloj. La plejparto de fungaj specioj kies membroj prezentas gistofungosimilan kreskon enhavas nur malgrandajn kvantojn da kitino en la gistofungo-ĉel-muroj. Kelkaj specioj de Askomicetoj (Ophiostomataceae) havas celulozon en ties muroj, kaj al kelkaj membroj de Kitridiomiketoj (Coelomomycetales) mankas muroj.
seksa reproduktado
Nek bestoj, nek vegetaloj, fungoj estas parto de la "tria regno",
La seksa reproduktado de tiuj ĉi originalaj estajoj estas ege mistera afero. Fakte oni malkovris, ke nur streso instigus ilin al sekso. En idealaj kondiĉoj ili kontentiĝas je subtera vivo kaj etendas sian korpon (micelio) ĉiudirekte. Sed kiam ili estas ŝokataj, eĉ brutale traktataj per subita ŝanĝo de temperaturo aŭ procenta enteno de akvo, ili vekíĝas kaj pariĝas kondiĉe ke iii amasigis sufiĉe da nutrajo. Kiam iii estas tutsataj, ili ekmontras sian seksorganon (karboforo), kiun iii fabrikis tiucele, supersatigante kelkajn filamentojn.Tial aperas ĉapelo aŭ ombrelo, en kiu ili abundege produktas sian semon. Ekzemple la agariko (" ĉampinjono de Parizo") produktas 40 milionojn da sporoj hore, Le. 10 miliardojn en kelkaj tagoj.
La elĵetitaj sporoj tuj ĝermas en la tero. luj naskas virfilamenton, aliaj in-filamenton. Post la sekskuniĝo de du filamentoj de kontraŭaj seksoj, naskiĝas nova filamento. Tiu ĉi generas micelion, t.e. novan fungon, kapabian reproduktiĝi siavice.
Sed malantaŭ tiu idilia ciklo foje sin kaŝas kruela realaĵo. Se la sporoj estas grandakvante produktitaj, maimuite da ili ĝermos, se ili ne falas sur riĉan grundon. Tial kelkaj specioj uzas inĝeniajn artifikojn por maigrandigi la perdojn. Ekzemple pilobolus vivas sur bovidfekajoj. Por malebligi al siaj sporoj fali sur sekan fekaĵon, sur kiu ili malfacile ĝermus, ĝi elĵetas sian ĉapelon je du metroj for; ĝia ceio: demeti la valoran kargon sur herbo
trunketojn por ke tiu estu certe manĝita anstataŭ eble disperdita en fekalo de bovino.
La boleto uzas sian moskodoron por altiri la insektojn, kiuj demetas ovojn en ĝian ĉapelon kaj sur ĝian piedon. Tial la larvoj forlasos sian nestaĉon kun sporoj gluitaj al la dorso.
Aliaj fungoj uzas alian taktikon por redukti la seksan malŝparadon. Ili "dormigas" siajn sporojn (ĝis 25 jarojn la "kario de tritiko"). Tial la sporoj povas trankvile atendi bonajn kondiĉojn por ĝermi.
La pulvofungo estas vera "seksa bombo". Kiam ĝi atingas sian pienkreskecon, sub la premo de akvogutoj, ĝi eksplodas kaj liberigas milionojn da sporoj. La rekordulo estas giganta pulvofungo, kiu elĵetis 2000 miliardojn da ili!
Kontakto 1997/2
__________ Kitridiomicetoj (akvo-ŝimoj, Allomyces, ktp)
/
/
/____________ Zigomicetoj (pan-ŝimoj, Rhizopus, Mucor, ktp)
/
__/
\
\ ____ Bazidiomicetoj (klabfungoj, lamenfungoj, muŝfungoj, ĉampinjonoj, planto-rustoj)
\ /
\_____/
\
\____ Askofungoj (sakfungoj, gistofungoj, Penicillium, ktp)
- [http://www.geocities.com/retoklubo/fungojl.html kelkaj fungoj]
- [http://www.uni-leipzig.de/esperanto/voko/revo/art/fung.html#fung.klab0oj ReVo]
el Monato (gazeto) (2004/11, p. 13)
Kategorio:Vivaĵojja:菌類
Algo
La nocio algo uzatas diversmaniere en la scienca branĉo algologio.
#Ĝi signifas ĝenerale plantosimilan organismon vivantan en la akvo kaj uzanta fotosintezon.
#blualgo nomiĝas la cianobakterioj, kiuj apartenas al prokariontoj.
#algoj estas en strikta senco la multnombraj protistaj, ekz. ruĝa algo, bruna algo, verda algo. Ĉi-tien apartenas ankaŭ la unuĉeluloj kaj ankaŭ multĉelulaj organismoj.
La algoj ĝenerale vivas en maro kaj dolĉakvo, sed multaj unuĉelaj algoj vivas en aero sur malsekaj surfacoj: cemento, arboŝeloj, subĉielaj plankoj, ktp. Tie ili produktas la fitoplanktonon, la plantan parton de planktonoj.
Je tio aldonendas ankaŭ la algoj partoprenantaj en likenoj.
ja:藻類
Roman Colosseum
See also the band Colosseum.Colosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat.Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. Construction was initiated by Emperor Vespasian and completed by his sons, Titus and Domitian, between AD 72 and AD 81. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot, or 40-metre, statue) of Nero which once stood nearby. The Colosseum is located at .
Construction
40-metre
The construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians believe that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand, presumably to allow the blood to drain away.
Games
The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals (see: Zoophilia: Roman games and circus) and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena) up until AD 81, and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that several hundreds of thousands died in the Colosseum games. Saint Ignatius of Antioch was martyred there.
History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times by the head of succeeding emperors. At some time during the Middle Ages, the statue disappeared; experts suspect that, since the statue was bronze, it was melted down for reuse.
After the colossus' disposal, the link to it seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but Flavian Amphitheatre is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have come to use forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.
Description
Romance language
The Colosseum measures 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.
The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators; the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower-class women.
stadium
After the Colosseum's first two years in operation, Vespasian's younger son (the newly-designated Emperor Domitian) ordered the construction of the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"), a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Numerous trap doors in the floor provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like.
Today the arena floor no longer exists, though the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the structure. The entire base of the Colosseum covers an area equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²). There are also tunnels, still in existence, configured to flood and evacuate water from the Colosseum floor, so that naval battles could be staged prior to the hypogeum's construction. Recent archaeological research has shown evidence of drain pipes connected to the City's sewer system and a large underground holding tank connected to a nearby aqueduct.
aqueduct
Another innovative feature of the Colosseum was its cooling system, known as the valerium, which consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, standing on special platforms, manipulated the ropes on command. The Colosseum incorporated a number of vomitoria — passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in as little as 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase.
There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event, disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets (giving rise, presumably, to the name).
Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress.
The marble that originally covered the façade was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; "What the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis" (one such family).
The Venerable Bede (c. 672–735) wrote:[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm]
Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma
(As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome);
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma
(When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome);
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus
(When Rome falls, so shall the world).
Note the use of coliseus, i.e. which made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.
Venerable Bede
In 1749, in a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs.[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.
In 2000 there was a diffused protest in Italy against the death penalty all over the world (in Italy it was abolished in 1948); several manifestations took place in front of the Colosseum. The illumination of the Colosseum is always on, and so it was at that time, but in that period, as a gesture against capital punishment, the local authorities of Rome changed the colour of the night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets commuted or released. [http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/views/y/2000/02/young.italydeath.feb24/]
According to the current political division of the center of Rome, the Colosseum is placed in rioneMonti.
Hollywood and the Colosseum
The Colosseum has a prominent place in many motion pictures. In 1954's Demetrius and the Gladiators Emperor Caligula sentences the Christian Demetrius to fight in the Colosseum's gladiator games. In the Science Fiction film The Core, the Colosseum is destroyed by intense lightning strikes, which blast it to bits. In director Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator, the Colosseum was re-created via computer-generated imagery (CGI) to "restore" it to the glory of its heyday in the 2nd century. However, many of the buildings depicted surrounding the colosseum never existed.
Flora
2nd century
The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history on the flora that grows in the amphitheatre. From 1643 on, when doctor Domenico Panaroli started to make a list of all plants in the Colosseum, there has been a total of 684 species. The peak was in 1855 (420 species), which decreased to 242 today. 200 of the species were present from the time that the first list was compiled through now.
The variety of different kinds of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome throughout the centuries. Bird migration, flower blooming, the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to not be on the outside skirts of the city anymore and deliberate transport of species are other ways to clearify the wide stream of plants.
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=rome,+italy&ll=41.890106,12.492142&spn=0.005023,0.008664&t=h&hl=en Google Maps satellite view of Colosseum]
- For broadband: [http://rome.arounder.com/colosseo/fullscreen.html Interactive high quality fullscreen QTVR panoramas]
:also available for low bandwidth in java: http://rome.arounder.com/colosseo/java.html
- [http://www.activitaly.it/infobase/en/show/1018 The Colosseum on the interactive map of Rome by Activitaly]
- [http://www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/roma/colosseum.htm The Roman Colosseum, Rome] virtual reality movies and pictures
- [http://www.the-colosseum.net The COLOSSEUM – a site on the Roman amphitheatre]
- [http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/r/images/roman_colosse.cutaway.gif A cut away view showing internal construction]
- [http://www.lauralee.com/news/romanplants.htm Colosseum's Flora]
Category:Ancient Roman architectureCategory:Flavian DynastyCategory:Monuments and sights of Romeja:コロッセオ
Mach (speed)
Mach number (Ma) (pronounced "mack" in British English and "mock" in American English) is defined as a ratio of speed to the speed of sound in the medium in case. The Mach number is commonly used both with objects travelling at high speed in a fluid, and with high-speed fluid flows inside channels such as nozzles,
Maccarthy Island
MacCarthy Island, also known as Lemain Island or Janjanbureh Island, is an island located approximately 170 miles (272 km) upriver from the mouth of the Gambia River, in eastern Gambia, in the Central River subdivision. The town of Janjanbureh on the island is the second largest in the country, though it still appears on many maps by its European name of Georgetown. In addition to being a destination fo
