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Historical Physicians

Historical physicians

This is a list of famous physicians in history:

Physicians famous for their role in advancement of medicine

- Sir Magdi Yacoub One of the leading developers of the techniques of heart and heart-lung transplantation
- Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843) - Creator of homoepathy
- Hippocrates (c. 460-370 B.C.) - Greek father of medicine
- Galen (A.D. 129- c. 210) - Roman physician and anatomist
- Madhav (8th century A.D.) - medical text author and systematizer
- Rhazes (A.D. c. 854-925) (Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi)
- Avicenna (980-1037) - Persian physician
- Averroës (1126-1198)
- Charaka Indian physician
- Pierre Fauchard father of dentistry
- Maimonides (1135-1204)
- Girolamo Fracastoro (1473-1553) - wrote on syphilis, forerunner of germ theory
- Paracelsus (1493-1541)
- Garcia de Orta (1501-1568) - revealed herbal medicines of India, described Cholera
- Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) - advanced surgical wound treatment
- Amato Lusitano (1511-1568) - discovered venous valves, studied blood circulation
- Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) - Belgian anatomist
- William Harvey (1578-1657) - English physician, described the circulatory system
- Ole Wormius (1588-1654) - pioneer in embryology
- Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) - Italian anatomist, pioneer in histology
- Richard Lower (1631-1691) - studied the lungs and heart
- Jean Astruc (1684-1766) - wrote one of the first treatises on syphilis
- Edward Jenner (1749-1823) - English physician popularized vaccination
- Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec (1781-1826) - inventor of the stethoscope
- William McBride discovered teratogenicity of thalidomide
- John Snow (1813-1858) - pioneer epidemiologist who studied cholera
- Theodor Kocher - thyroid surgery and first surgeon to win the Nobel
- Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865) - a pioneer of aseptic technique
- William Worrall Mayo (1819-1911) - co-founder, Mayo Clinic
- Joseph Lister (1827-1912) - pioneer of antiseptic surgery
- Theodor Billroth (1829-1894) - founding father of modern abdominal surgery.
- Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) - pioneering neurologist
- Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) - physician and anatomist
- Robert Koch (1843-1910) - formulated Koch's postulates
- William Osler (1849-1919) - called the "Father of Modern Medicine"
- Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) - founder of psychoanalysis
- Christiaan Eijkman (1858-1930) - pathologist, studied beriberi
- Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) - Swiss psychiatrist
- William James Mayo (1861-1939) - co-founder, Mayo Clinic
- Charles Horace Mayo (1865-1939) - co-founder, Mayo Clinic
- Charles Jean Henri Nicolle (1866-1936) - microbiologist who won Nobel prize for work on typhus
- Egas Moniz (1874-1955) -developed Lobotomy and Brain artery Angiography.
- Allen Oldfather Whipple (1881-1963) - devised the Whipple procedure in 1935 for treatment of pancreatic cancer
- Otto Fritz Meyerhof (1884-1951) - studied muscle metabolism (Nobel prize)
- George Richards Minot (1885-1950) - Nobel prize for his study of anemia
- Norman Bethune (1890-1939) - developer of battlefield surgical techniques
- Wilder Penfield (1891-1876) - pioneer in neurology
- Frederick Banting (1891-1941) - described the role of insulin
- Charles R. Drew (1904-1950) - blood transfusion pioneer
- Virginia Apgar (1909-1974) - anesthesiologist who devised the Apgar score used after childbirth
- Jonas Salk (1914-1995) - Developed a vaccine for Polio
- Joseph Ransohoff (1915-2001) - neurosurgeon who invented the modern technique for removing brain tumors
- Christiaan Barnard (1922-2001) - performed first heart transplant
- Daniel Carleton Gajdusek (b. 1923) - studied Kuru, Nobel prize winner
- Susruta Indian surgeon
- Carlo Urbani (1956-2003) - discovered, and died from, SARS
- Carl Wood in vitro fertilization

Physicians otherwise notable as practitioners

- Thomas Sydenham (1642-1689) - clinician
- Johann Friedrich Struensee (1737-1772) - royal physician of Christian VII of Denmark
- Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) - first woman to practice modern medicine
- Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1836-1917) - first British woman to practice as a doctor.
- Alphonse Laveran (Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran) (1845-1922) - parasitology
- Jack Kevorkian (b. 1923) - right-to-assisted-death advocate
- Sir Horace Evans - UK royal physician

Physicians famous chiefly as eponyms

- Thomas Addison (1793-1860) - Addison's disease
- Alois Alzheimer (1864-1915) - Alzheimer's disease
- Robert Barany (1876-1936) - the Barany chair is used in the study of vertigo
- Charles Édouard Brown-Sequard (1817-1894)
- Albert Calmette (1863-1933)- Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), a vaccine for tuberculosis
- Carlos Chagas (1879-1934) - Chagas disease
- Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) - Maladie de Charcot, Charcot joints, Charcot's triad, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease
- Burrill Bernard Crohn (1884-1983) - Crohn's disease
- Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (1738-1814) - Guillotine
- Charles Mantoux (1877-1947) - Mantoux test for tuberculosis
- Antoine Marfan (1858-1942) - Marfan syndrome
- Silas Weir Mitchell (1829-1914) - Mitchell's disease
- James Paget (1814-1899) - Paget's disease
- James Parkinson (1755-1824) - Parkinson's syndrome
- Cecil Charles Worster-Drought (1888-1971) Worster-Drought syndrome

Physicians famous as criminals

- Karl Brandt (1904-1948) - Nazi human experimentation
- Baruch Goldstein - assassin
- Radovan Karadžić (b. 1945) - accused of ethnic cleansing in Yugoslavia
- Josef Mengele (1911-1979) - known as the Angel of Death, Nazi human experimentation
- Samuel Mudd - condemned to prison for setting the leg of Abraham Lincoln's assassin
- Herta Oberheuser (1911-1978) - Nazi human experimentation
- Harold Shipman - British mass murderer

Physicians famous as writers

see also [http://members.aol.com/dbryantmd/index.html?f=fs A Roster of Physician Writers] The most famous writers:
- Anton Chekhov (1860-1904) - Russian playwright
- Erasmus Darwin - English poet
- Alfred de Musset (1810-1857) - known as a writer, but also discovered de Musset's sign, an indicator of syphilitic aortitis
- John Keats (1795-1821) - British poet.
- François Rabelais (1483-1553) - French author of Gargantua and Pantagruel.
- Friedrich von Schiller (1759-1805), German writer, poet, essayist and dramatist.
- Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930) - British author of Sherlock Holmes fame.
- A. J. Cronin (1896-1981) - Scottish novelist and essayist, author of The Citadel.
- W. Somerset Maugham (1874-1965) - British writer (e.g., Of Human Bondage.
- Michael Crichton (born 1942) - American author of Jurassic Park blockbuster fame.
- Robin Cook - American author of The Year of the Intern (1972), Coma 1977, Fever, Sphinx (1979), Brain (1981), Godplayer (1983), Mindbend (1985), Mutation (1990), Fatal Cure (1994) , Chromosome 6 (1997), Toxin (1999), Vector (1999)and other novels And others:
- Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) - British writer
- Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. (1809-1894) - American essayist
- Ctesias (5th century B.C.) - Greek historian
- David Livingstone
- Albert Schweitzer
- Mungo Park
- Sir William Gilbert
- Thomas Campion - poet, composer
- William Carlos Williams (1883-1963) - American writer, essayist and poet
- John Arbuthnot - author
- H. Richard Hornberger author of M
- A
- S
- H
- Oliver Goldsmith - American author
- Michael Cook - American writer of suspense novels
- Tobias Smollett (1721-1771) - author
- Patrick Abercromby (1656 - ~ 1716) - historian
- Arthur Johnston (1587-1641) - poet
- Georg Büchner - German dramatist
- Ludwig Büchner - German philosopher
- Kurt Schopenhauer - German writer and philosopher
- João Guimarães Rosa - Brazilian writer
- Silas Weir Mitchell (1829-1914) - American writer
- Lewis Thomas (1913-1993) - American essayist and poet
- Adeline Yen Mah - Chinese-American author.
- Janet Asimov - (born 1926) (née Janet O. Jeppson). American psychiatrist, wife of Isaac Asimov.
- Deepak Chopra - Indian/American writer of self-help and health books
- Alex Comfort (1920-2000) - British writer and poet, author of The Joy of Sex.
- Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802). British poet and founder of the Lunar Society. The grandfather of Charles Darwin and Francis Galton
- Theodor Drachman (1904-19880 - American author
- Georges Duhamel (1884-1966) - French writer, dramatist, poet and humanist
- Havelock Ellis (1859-1940) - British writer and poet, author of The Psychology of Sex
- Samuel Garth (1661-1719) - British author and translator of classics
- William A. Hammond (1828-1900) - American writer.
- Ronald Laing - American writer and poet, leader of the anti-psychiatry movement.
- Stanisław Lem (1929-) - Polish author of science-fiction (Solaris)
- Carlo Levi (1902-1975) - Italian novelist and writer
- Jean Paul Marat (1743-1793) - French writer and philosopher, also a leader of the French Revolution, was assassinated in a bathtub (see play by Peter Weiss and famous painting by Jacques-Louis David)
- Sir Ronald Ross (1857-1932) - British writer and poet, immortalized also as the discoverer of the malaria parasite.
- Theodore Isaac Rubin (1923-). American author of Lisa and David fame.
- Oliver Sacks (1933-). British essayist (e.g. The Man Who Mistook his Wife for a Hat)
- Frank Slaughter (1908-) American bestseller author (e.g., Doctor's Wives)
- Benjamin Spock (1903-1988) - American pediatrician, wrote Baby and Child Care.
- Sir Henry Thompson, British surgeon and polymath.
- Atul Gawande, surgeon and New Yorker medical writer.
- Vladislav Vančura (1891-1942) - Czech writer, scriptwriter and film director
- Paolo Mantegazza (1831-1910) - Italian writer, wrote a science fiction book, L'Anno 3000

Physicians famous as politicians

- Salvador Allende Chilean president
- Arnulfo Arias Panaman President
- Gro Harlem Brundtland (born 1939) first Norwegian female prime minister and Director-General of the World Health Organization
- Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929) French statesman
- Tom Coburn (born 1948) - U.S. Senator
- Howard Dean (born 1948) - American politician
- Che Guevara Latin American revolutionary leader
- Christian Friedrich, Baron von Stockmar - Anglo-Belgian statesman
- Ray Lyman Wilbur (1875-1949) - United States Secretary of the Interior, president of Stanford University
- François Duvalier (1907-1971) - also known as Papa Doc - President and later dictator of Haiti
- Bill Frist (born 1952) - United States Senate Majority Leader
- Hastings Kamuzu Banda (1898-1997) - Prime Minister, President and later dictator of Malawi
- Juscelino Kubitscheck - Brazilian president
- Mahathir bin Mohamad - Malaysian prime minister
- Agostinho Neto (1922-1979) - MPLA leader and president of Angola
- David Owen - British politician
- Antônio Palocci Filho - Brazilian politician, Finance Minister
- Ron Paul (born 1935) - American politician
- Bidhan Chandra Roy Indian politician
- Hélio de Oliveira Santos, Brazilian politician, mayor of Campinas
- Sun Yat-Sen (1866-1925) - Founder of republican China
- Ali Akbar Velayati (born 1945) - Iranian Foreign Minister from 1981 to 1997.
- William Walker (soldier) (1824-1860) - Ruler of Nicaragua
- Mohammad Reza Khatami - Iranian politician
- Iyad Allawi - interim Prime Minister of Iraq
- Navin Ramgoolam - Prime minister of Mauritius

Physicians famous for other activities

- Jane Addams - social activist
- Josiah Bartlett -American statesman and chief justice of New Hampshire
- Michael Servetus (1511–1553) — burnt at the stake by Calvinists for heresy
- John Hall (d. 1635) — son-in-law of William Shakespeare
- Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) — proponent of mesmerism and the idea of animal magnetism
- Oswald Avery (1877–1955) — molecular biologist who discovered DNA carried genetic information
- Hans Sloan
- Thomas Young — scientist
- Maria Montessori — educator
- Benjamin Rush — signer of the United States Constitution
- Solomon Drowne — Revolutiony War physician, settler of Marietta, Ohio, author, orator
- Georg Agricola — mineralologist
- Ali Bacher — cricketer
- Thomas Bowdler — censor
- Lafayette Bunnell — explorer of Yosemite Valley
- Gerolamo Cardano
- Arthur Dee
- Luigi Galvani — physicist
- Caspar Peucer
- Philippe Pinel
- Gordon S. Fahrni
- W. G. Grace — cricketer
- Claude Perrault — architect
- Nehemiah Grew — botanist
- Herman Boerhaave — humanist
- Jonathan Miller — television presenter and stage director
- Hermann von Helmholtz — physicist
- Niels Ryberg Finsen
- Albert Schweitzer — humanist
- Boris V. Morukov — cosmonaut
- Armand Hammer — entrepreneur
- Abd-el-latif — traveller
- Samuel Hahnemann — founder of homeopathy
- Norman Earl Thagard — astronaut
- Samuel Gridley Howe — abolitionist
- Archibald Menzies — naturalist
- William E. Thornton — astronaut
- Wilhelm Weinberg — with G.H. Hardy, developed the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium model of population genetics
- Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) — based his system of criminology on physiognomy
- Paul Möhring (1710–1792) — zoologist, botanist
- William Gilbert (1544–1603) — physician and physicist
- John Caius (1510–1573) — physician and educator
- Mouwafak al-Rabii — human rights advocate, member of the Interim Iraqi Governing Council
- Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) — philosopher
- Stuart Kauffman (b. 1939) — biologist
- James McHenry (1753–1816) — signer of the United States Constitution
- John Lovelock (1910–1949) — Olympic athlete
- Haing S. Ngor (Oscar winning film actor)
- Sextus Empiricus (2nd–3rd century C.E.) - philosopher
- Daniel Rutherford (1849–1819) — chemist
- Maximilian Bircher-Benner (1867–1939) — nutritionist
- Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers (1758–1840) — astronomer
- Jan Baptist van Helmont (1577–1655) — physiologist
- Mae Jemison (b. 1956) — astronaut
- Nostradamus — French esoterist.
- Ashoka Jahnavi-Prasad — introduced sodium valproate as a safer alternative to lithium
- Kurt Schopenhauer — philosopher
- William Walker Latin American Adventurer
- Sócrates — football (soccer) player
- JPR Williams — rugby union player
- Peter Mark Roget — English lexicographer
- Jacques Rogge — sports official
- Pope John XXI
- John Harvey Kellogg
- Felix Savart - physicist
- June McCarroll — inventor of lane marking Physicians
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Physician

A physician is a person who practices medicine. See that article for more information on what physicians do in their practices; this article focuses on physician training and regulation. In the United States, the term physician is traditional and commonly used. In Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Africa, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe, the term doctor is more common as physician refers to specialists in internal medicine. Because of the extensive training requirements, physicians are traditionally considered to be members of a learned profession.

Training

:See also: medical school and medical residency.

United Kingdom

Medicine in the UK is an undergraduate subject. Students can begin training after leaving the school at 18 years of age. Medical school training lasts either five or six years, depending on the institution, and combines academic and practical training. Junior doctors then enter a vocational training phase. In the UK a doctor's training normally follows this path: #Degree level preclinical - Doctors must study medicine in university or medical school for two to three years "preclinical" (meaning little patient contact). However following recommendations by the British Medical Association (BMA) many universities are following a "Problem-based learning" approach, which stresses basing the studies around actual patient cases. #Clinical - This time is spent in a teaching hospital and typically lasts two or three years. After this is completed the student doctor is awarded a Bachelor of Medicine (BM or MB) and Bachelor of Surgery (BCh or BS). An honorary prefix of "Dr" is now entitled to be used, although it is not recognised in the academic sense of the word (see Doctorate). Doctors who graduated overseas have to pass the Professional and Linguistic Assessment Board test (PLAB) to be eligible for further postgraduate training and jobs in UK. #The Foundation Programme - Due to recent changes in the training of junior doctors, newly qualified doctors enter a two year Foundation Programme, where they train in a variety of different specialities. These must include training in General Medicine and General Surgery but can also include other fields such as Paediatrics or General Practice. Following completion of the Foundation Programme a doctor can choose to specialise in one field. All routes involve further assessment and examinations. The majority in the UK work in the community as General practitioners (GPs), who are the first port of call for patients. They diagnose illness and refer patients for further examination by specialists if necessary. The majority of patients are managed by their GP without the need for further referral. Hospital doctors are promoted after sitting relevant postgraduate exams within their chosen specialty (e.g. Member of the Royal College of Physicians MRCP, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons MRCS) and a competitive interview selection process from SHO to Specialist Registrar and eventually Consultant on completion of the CCST (Certificate of Completion of Specialist Training), which is the highest level in a specialty team (with the exception of university-linked professors). The competition is great for those who wish to attain consultant level and many now complete higher degrees in research such as a Doctorate of Medicine (MD) which is a thesis-based award based on at least two years full-time research or PhD which involves at least three years of full-time research. The time taken to get from graduation from medical school to becoming a Consultant varies from speciality to speciality but can be anything from 7 to 10 years, or longer in some specialities.

United States

In the United States and countries following the U.S. method, the path to a medical degree is somewhat different. #Admissions: Admission into medical school requires either three years of undergraduate study or a four-year post-secondary bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university, depending on medical institution. Most require that the applicant have attained a bachelor's degree prior to matriculation. Admissions criteria include overall performance in the undergraduate years and performance in a group of courses specifically required by U.S. medical schools, the score on the Medical College Admissions Test (a national standardized test), application essays, letters of recommendation (number varies, but at least 1 from science faculty and 1 from non-science faculty), and interview(s). The list of courses required are as follows: #
- biology (1 year) #
- general chemistry (1 year) #
- organic chemistry (1 year) #
- physics (1 year) #
- calculus or sometimes statistics (1 year) #
- English composition (1 year) #
- sometimes behavior science and/or biochemistry (1 semester)
Note:These subjects are studied part time, so several can be completed in one year.

#Medical School: Once admitted to medical school, it takes four years to earn a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine "Osteopathy" (D.O.) degree. The course of study is divided into two roughly equal parts. Preclinical study generally comprises the first two years and consists of classroom and laboratory instruction in core subjects such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, microbiology, pathology, and neurosciences. Once the student successfully completes preclinical training, he or she moves on to the clinical portion. This usually occupies the final two years of medical school and takes place almost exclusively on the wards of a teaching hospital or, occasionally, with community physicians. The students observe and take part in the care of actual patients under the supervision of residents and attending physicians. Rotations on clinical services such as internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics/gynecology, and psychiatry are the foundation of this curriculum, but many specialty electives may be chosen as well. Upon completion of medical school, the student earns the title of doctor, but cannot practice independently until completing further training. Also, several universities across the U.S. admit high school students to both their undergraduate colleges and the medical schools simultaneously; students attend a single six-year to eight-year integrated program consisting of two to four years of an undergraduate curriculum and four years of medical school curriculum, culminating in both a bachelor's and M.D. degree.
#Internship: During the last year of medical school, students apply for postgraduate residencies in their chosen field of specialization. These are more or less competitive depending upon the desirability of the specialty, prestige of the program, and the number of applicants relative to the number of available positions. All but a few positions are granted via a national computer match which pairs an applicant's preference with the programs' preference for applicants. The first year of any residency is known as "internship". Completion of this year is the minimum training requirement for obtaining a license to practice medicine in the U.S.
#Residency: Each of the specialties in medicine has established its own curriculum, which defines the length and content of residency training necessary to practice in that specialty. Programs range from three years after medical school for internal medicine to five years for surgery to eight or nine for neurosurgery. This does not include research years that may last from 1 year up to a completion of a Ph.D. Each specialty incorporates an internship year to satisfy the requirements of licensure. All specialties hold a board exam (either written or written and oral) at the completion of training in order to confer "Board Certification" in that specialty.
#Fellowship: Certain highly specialized fields require formal training beyond residency. Examples of these are cardiology, endocrinology, oncology after internal medicine; cardiothoracic surgery, pediatric surgery, surgical oncology after general surgery to name just a few. There are many others for each field of study. The training programs for these fields are known as fellowships and their participants are "Fellows" to denote that they already have completed a residency and are "Board Eligible" or "Board Certified" in their basic specialty. Fellowships range in length from one to three years and are granted by application to the individual program or sub-specialty organizing board.
#Attending physicians and Consultants: The physician or surgeon who has completed his or her residency and possibly fellowship training and is in the practice of their specialty is known as an Attending or Consultant. These are the physicians who may independently care for patients and are the final arbiters of care. They are responsible for all care decisions and may bill for their services. However, medicine is an extremely diverse profession with many options available. Some doctors work in pharmaceutical research, occupational medicine (within a company), public health medicine (working for the general health of a population in an area), or join the armed forces.

France

In France, a doctor's training is performed in public university hospital, called Centre hospitalier universitaire or CHU; it consists in:
- First cycle
- the first year is common with the dentists and the midwives; the rank at the final examination determines in which branch the student can go on; it is called "PCEM1" (premier cycle des études médicales, first cycle of medical studies) or "P1";
- the second year is called "PCEM2" and is dedicated to the fundamental sciences (or propédeutique, propaedeutics): anatomy, human physiology, biochemistry, bacteriology, statistics...
- Second cycle
- The first year is called "DCEM1" (deuxième cycle des études médicales, second cycle of medical studies), and is also dedicated to the study of propaedeutics
- The second, third and fourth years (DCEM2-4) are called externat, and are dedicated to the study of clinical medicine; they end with a classifying examination, the rank determines in which speciality (the general medicine is one of them) the student can make an internat: the first graduate can choose speciality, and at the rank n, the graduate must choose amongst the places left; the graduate also gets a Certificat de synthèse clinique et thérapeutique (certificate of clinical and therapeutical synthesis).
- The internat is two years and a half (general medicine) or four years (specialist) of initial professional experience under the responsibility of a senior; the interne can prescribe, replacements of liberal phsicians can be made, and usually the student works in an hospital. This ends with a doctorate, a research work which most of times consist in a statistical study of cases to propose a care strategy of a specific affection (in an epidemiological, diagnostical, or therapeutical point of view). A specialist also gets a DES (diplôme d'études spécialisées, diploma for specialised studies). The initial training thus consist in eight years and a half for a general practitioner, and ten years for a specialist (including a surgeon).

India

See Medical College (India) for details

Regulation

In most jurisdictions, physicians need government permission to practise. This is known as licensing in the United States, as colegiation in Spain, as ishi menkyo in Japan, as autorisasjon in Norway, as approbation in Germany, and as registration in Australia and the United Kingdom. In France, civilian physicians must be a member of the Order of physicians to practice medicine. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, the profession regulates itself, with the government affirming the regulating body's authority (in the UK the General Medical Council [GMC]). Regulating authorities will revoke permission to practice in cases of malpractice or serious misconduct. Graduates of Foreign Medical Schools, who enter USA have to pass USMLE step 1 and 2 [http://ecfmg.org/ ECFMG old name]and do a residency program to qualify for a state license. After graduating from medical school, American physicians usually take a standardized exam which enables them to obtain a certificate to practice from the appropriate state agency. All American states have an agency which is usually called the "Medical Board," although there are alternate names such as "Board of Medicine," "Board of Medical Examiners," "Board of Medical Licensure," "Board of Healing Arts," etc. Australian states usually have a "Medical Board," while Canadian provinces usually have a "College of Physicians and Surgeons." In the United States, as a result of the war on drugs, pharmaceuticals are strictly regulated at the federal level by the Food and Drug Administration and the Drug Enforcement Administration. All practicing American physicians who intend to prescribe controlled substances must obtain a number from the DEA, and that DEA number must appear on all their prescriptions. Use of the DEA number enables dispensing pharmacists or the DEA to ensure that a physician is not dispensing potentially addictive or harmful drugs, such as opiates or stimulants, in contravention to accepted standards of care.

External links

- [http://www.fact-sheets.com/health/doctor_tips/ Tips for Talking to Your Doctor] Category:Healthcare occupations Category:Healthcare practitioners and technical occupations
- Physician ja:医師 ko:의사

Samuel Hahnemann

Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann (10th April 1755 in Meißen, Saxony, Holy Roman Empire - 2nd July 1843 in Paris, France) was a physician who, beginning with an article he published in a German medical journal in 1796, coined homoeopathic medicine. Hahnemann is also credited with introducing the practice of quarantine to the Kingdom of Prussia during his employment with the Duke of Anhalt-Köthen. He received his doctor of medicine degree at the University of Erlangen. Hahnemann is entombed in a mausoleum at Paris's Père Lachaise cemetery. Hahnemann's notable works include:
- Versuch über ein neues Prinzip zur Auffindung der Heilkräfte der Arzneisubstanzen, nebst einigen Blicken auf die bisherigen, (Hufelands Journal der practischen Arzneykunde, 1796)
- Organon der Heilkunst (1810) explains the theory of homeopathic medicine. Hahnemann published the 5th edition in 1833; an unfinished 6th edition was discovered after Hahnemann's death but not published until 1921.
- Materia Medica Pura is a compilation of homoeopathic proving reports, published in six volumes during the 1820s (vol. VI in 1827.) Revised editions of volumes I and II were published in 1830 and 1833, respectively.
- Chronic Diseases is an elucidation of the root and cure of chronic disease together with a compilation of homoeopathic proving reports, published in five volumes during the 1830s.

Etext links

- Online etext of Hahnemann's Organon der Heilkunst:
- [http://www.homeoint.org/books4/organon/ German original]
- [http://www.homeopathyhome.com/reference/organon/organon.html English translation]
- [http://www.mickler.de/journal/versuch-prinzip-1.htm Online etext of Versuch über ein neues Prinzip zur Auffindung der Heilkräfte der Arzneisubstanzen, nebst einigen Blicken auf die bisherigen (German only)] Hahnemann, Samuel Hahnemann, Samuel Hahnemann, Samuel

Galen

Claudius Galenus of Pergamum (131-201 AD), better known as Galen, was an ancient Greek physician. His views dominated European medicine for over a thousand years.

Life

Galen was born in Pergamum (modern-day Bergama, Turkey), the son of Nicon, a wealthy architect. His interests were eclectic - agriculture, architecture, astronomy, astrology, philosophy - until he concentrated on medicine. By the age of twenty he had become a therapeutes ("attendant" or "associate") of the god Asclepius in the local temple for four years. After his father's death in 148 or 149 he left to study abroad. He studied in Smyrna and Corinth and at Alexandria. He studied medicine for a total of twelve years. When he returned to Pergamum in 157, he worked as a physician in a gladiator school for three or four years. During this time he gained experience of trauma and wound treatment. He later regarded wounds as "windows into the body". From 162 he lived in Rome where he wrote extensively, lectured and publicly demonstrated his knowledge of anatomy. He gained a reputation as an experienced physician and his practice had widespread clientele. One of them was the consul Flavius Boethius who introduced him to the court where he became a court physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Later he also treated Lucius Verus, Commodus and Septimius Severus. Reputedly he spoke mostly Greek, which was a more respected language of medicine than Latin at the time. He briefly returned to Pergamum during 166-169. Galen spent the rest of his life in the Imperial court, writing and experimenting. He performed vivisections of numerous animals to study the function of the kidneys and the spinal cord. His favorite subject was the barbary ape. Reportedly he employed twenty scribes to write down his words. In 191, fire in the Temple of Peace destroyed some of his records. His exact date of death has traditionally been placed around the year 200, based on a reference from the 10th century Suda Lexicon. Some, however, have argued for dates as late as 216.

Work and impact

Galen transmitted Hippocratic medicine all the way to the Renaissance. His On the Elements According to Hippocrates describes the philosopher's system of four bodily humours, which were identified with the four classical elements. He created his own theories from those principles. In turn, he mainly ignored Latin writings of Celsus. Amongst Galen's own major works is a seventeen-volume On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Human Body. He also wrote about philosophy and philology. His collected works total twenty-two volumes. Galen's own theories, in accord with Plato's, emphasized purposeful creation by a single Creator ("Nature" - Greek phusis) - a major reason why later Christian and Muslim scholars could accept his views. His fundamental principle of life was pneuma (air, breath) that later writers connected with the soul. Pneuma physicon (animal spirit) in the brain took care of movement, perception, and senses. Pneuma zoticon (vital spirit) in the heart controlled blood and body temperature. "Natural spirit" in the liver handled nutrition and metabolism. Galen expanded his knowledge partly by experimenting with live animals. One of his methods was to publicly dissect a living pig and cut its nerve bundles one at a time. Eventually he cut a laryngeal nerve (now also known as Galen's Nerve) and the pig stopped squealing. He tied the ureters of living animals to show that urine comes from the kidneys. He severed spinal cords to demonstrate paralysis. From the modern viewpoint, Galen's theories were partially correct, partially flawed. He demonstrated that arteries carry blood, not air and made first studies about nerve functions, and the brain and heart. He also argued that the mind was in the brain, not in the heart as Aristotle had claimed. However, much of Galen's understanding is flawed from the modern point of view. He did not recognize blood circulation and thought that venous and arterial systems were separate. This view did not change until William Harvey's work in the 17th century. Since most of his knowledge of anatomy was based on dissection of pigs, dogs, and Barbary apes, he also assumed that rete mirabile, a blood vessel plexus of ungulates, also existed in the human body. He also resisted the idea of tourniquets to stop bleeding and vigorously propagated blood letting as a treatment. Galen's authority dominated medicine all the way to the 16th century. Experimenters' disciples did not bother to experiment and studies of physiology and anatomy stopped - Galen had already written about everything. Blood letting became a standard medical procedure. Vesalius presented the first serious challenge to his hegemony. Most of Galen's Greek writings were first translated to the Syriac language by Nestorian monks in the university of Jundi Shapur, Persia. Then Muslim scholars translated them to Arabic, alongside many other Greek classics. They became one of the main sources for Persian scholars such as Avicenna and Rhazes.

External links

- [http://www.med.virginia.edu/hs-library/historical/antiqua/galen.htm Galen]
- [http://www.udayton.edu/~hume/Galen/galen.htm Galen, university dayton]
- [http://www.medicinaantiqua.org.uk/bio_gal.html Galen: A Biographical Sketch]
- [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html Greek Biology and Medicine] by Henry Osborn Taylor (1922), scanned edition. Chapter 5 is devoted to [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0109.html "The Final System: Galen"].
- [http://pacs.unica.it/biblio/lesson2.htm Galen and the Greek-Helenic history of medicine]

Books

- Jeanne Bendick - Galen and the Gateway to Medicine Category:History of ancient medicine Category:Roman era writers Category:Anatomists

Madhav

Madhav was an 8th century Indian physician who wrote the Nidāna, which soon assumed a position of authority. In the 79 chapters of this book, he lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications. He also included a special chapter on smallpox (masūrikā). Ayurveda used a system of inoculation to protect against smallpox. Treatment was done by inoculation with year-old smallpox matter. The inoculators would travel all across India pricking the skin of the arm with a small metal instrument using "variolous matter" taken from pustules produced by the previous year's inoculations. The effectiveness of this system was confirmed by the British doctor J.Z. Holwell based on observations made during his residence in Bengal in an account to the College of Physicians in London in 1767. Madhav is another name for Lord Krishna. Category:Ayurveda

Rhazes

Al-Razi, (full name Abū Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi) (ابو بکر الرازی), also known as "Zakaria al-Razi" in Arabic; or in Latin as Rhazes and Rasis. According to al-Biruni born in Rayy, Iran in the year 251AH/865AD and died in Rayy, Iran 313AH/925AD. 925AD He was a versatile Persian philosopher who made fundamental and lasting contributions to the fields of medicine, chemistry, alchemy, and philosophy. Razi realized no organized system of philosophy, but taking in account the time he lived in, he must be reckoned as one of the most vigorous and liberal thinkers in Islam and perhaps in the history of human thought. He was a pure rationalist, extremely confident of the power of reason, free from any kind of prejudice, and very bold and daring in expressing his ideas without a qualm. He believed in man, progress and in "God the Wise". He is credited with the discovery of sulfuric acid, the "work horse" of modern chemistry, and chemical engineering among other things; he also discovered ethanol and its refinement and use in medicine. Razi was a prolific writer: he wrote 184 books and articles in various fields of science. According to historian Ibn an-Nadim, Razi distinguished himself as the best physician of his time who had fully mastered Greek medical knowledge. He traveled in many lands and rendered service to several princes and rulers especially to Baghdad where he had his lab. As a teacher in Medicine he attracted a great amount of students of all diciplines and was said to be compassionate, kind, upright, and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor. The modern-day Razi Institute near Tehran, Iran was named after him, and 'Razi Day' ('Pharmacy Day') is commemorated in Iran every August 27.

Biography

In Persian and Arabic, Razi means "from the city of Rayy (also spelled RAY, REY, or RAI, old Persian RAGHA, Latin RHAGAE) formerly one of the great cities of World)", an ancient town on the southern slopes of the Elburz Range that skirts the south of the Caspian Sea, situated near Tehran, Iran. In this city (like Avicenna) he accomplished most of his work. In his early life he could have been a jeweller (Baihaqi), a money-changer (Cf. ibn abi Usaibi'ah) but more likely a lute-player who changed his interest in music to alchemy( Cf. ibn Juljul, Sa'id, ibn Khallikan, Usaibi'ah, al-Safadi). At the age of thirty (Safadi says after forty) he stopped his study of alchemy because its experiments caused an eye-disease (Cf. al-Biruni), obliging him to search for physicians and medicine to cure it. al-Birflni, Baihaqi and others, say this was the reason why he began his medical studies. He was very studious working night and day. His teacher was 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari (Cf. al-Qifti, Usaibi'ah), a physician and philosopher born in Merv about 192/808 (d. approx. 240/855). Al-Razi studied medicine and probably also philosophy with ibn Rabban al-Tabari. Therefore his interest in spiritual philosophy can be traced to this master, whose father was a Rabbinist versed in the Scriptures. According to Prof.Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead, Professor of Chemistry at the Faculty of Science, University of Cairo (Cf. the Alchemy Website): " (...) Al-Razi took up the study of medicine after his first visit to Baghdad, when he was at least 30 years old, under the well-known physician Ali ibn Sahl (a Jewish convert to Islam, belonging to the famous medical school of Tabaristan or Hyrcania. He showed such a skill in the subject that he quickly surpassed his master, and wrote no fewer than a hundred medical books. He also composed 33 treatises on natural science (not including alchemy),mathematics and astronomy (...)." Al-Razi became famous in his native city as a physician. He became Director of the hospital of Rayy (Cf. ibn Juljul, al-Qifti, ibn abi Usaibi'ah), during the reign of Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad ibn Asad who was Governor of Rayy from 290-296/902-908 on behalf of his cousin Ahmad ibn Isma'il ibn Ahmad, second Samanian ruler. Razi dedicated his al-Tibb al-'Mansurito Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad , which was verified in a handwritten manuscript of hisbook. This was refuted by ibn al-Nadim', but al-Qifti and ibn abi Usaibi'ah confirmed that the named Mansur was indeed Mansur ibn Isma'il who died in 365/975. al-Razi moved from Rayy to Baghdad during Caliph Muktafi's reign (approx.289/901-295/907) where he again held a position as Chief Director of a hospital. After al-Muktafi's death (295/907) al-Razi allegedly returned to Rayy where he gathered many students around him. As ibn al-Nadim relates in Fihrist, al-Razi was then a Shaikh (title given to one entitled to teach) "with a big head similar to a sack", surrounded by several circles of students. When someone arrived with a scientific question, this question was passed on to students of the 'first circle'. if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second crcle'... and so on and on, until at last, when all others had failed to supply an answer, it came to al-Razi himself. We know of at least one of these students who became a physician. Al-Razi was a very generous man, with a humane behavior towards his patients, and acting charitable to the poor, He used to give them full treatment without charging any fee, nor demanding any other payment. When he was not occupied with pupils or patients he was always writing and studying. This fact might have been the cause for the gradual weakening of his sight which finally resulted in becoming blind in both eyes. Some say the cause of his blindness was that he used to eat too many broad beans (baqilah). His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The rumor goes that he refused to be treated for cataract, declaring that he "had seen so much of the world that he was tired of it." However, this seems to be an anecdote more than a historical fact. One of his pupils from Tabaristan came to look after him, but, according to al-Biruni, he refused to be treated proclaiming it was useless as his hour of death was approaching. Some days later he died in Rayy, on the 5th of Sha'ban 313/27th of October 925.

Al-Razi's Masters and Opponents

We already mentioned that Razi studied medicine under 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari, however, Ibn al-Nadim indicates that he studied philosophy under al-Balkhi, who had travelled much and possessed great knowledge of philosophy and ancient sciences. Some even say that al-Razi attributed some of al-Balkhi's books on philosophy to himself. We know nothing about this man called al-Balkhi, not even his full name. Razi's opponents, on the contrary, are well-known. They are the following: 1. Abu al-Qasim al-Balki, chief of the Mu'tazilah of Baghdad (d. 319/931), a contemporary of al-Razi who wrote many refutations about al-Razi's books, especially in his Ilm al-Ilahi. His disagreements with al-Razi entailed his thoughts on the concept of 'Time'. 2. Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi, with whom al-Razi had many controversies; one of these was on the concept of 'Pleasure', expounded in his Tafdll Ladhdhat al-Nafs which abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani quotes in his work Siwan al-Hikmah. Al-Balkhi died prior to 329/940. 3. Abu Hatim al-Razi became the most important of all his opponents (d. 322/933-934) and was one of the greatest Isma'ili missionaries. He published his controversies with al-Razi in his book A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Because of this book, al-Razi's thoughts on Prophets and Religion are preserved for us. 4. Ibn al-Tammar (seemingly being abu Bakr Husain al-Tammar, says Kraus) was a physician and he too had some disputes with al-Razi, which is documented by abu Hatim al-Razi in A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Ibn al-Tammar disagreed with al-Razi's book al-Tibb al-Ruhani but al-Razi counteracted this. In fact, al-Razi wrote two antitheses: (a) First refutation of al-Tammar's disagreement with Misma'i concerning 'Matter'. (b) Second refutation of al-Tammar's opinion of 'the Atmosphere of subterranean habitations'. 5.Following are authors as described by al-Razi in his writings: (a) al-Misma'i, a Mutakallim, who opposed 'materialists', counteracted byan al-Razi's treatise. (b) Jarir, a physician who had a theory about 'The eating of black mulberries after consuming water-melon'. (c) al-Hasan ibn Mubarik al-Ummi, to whom al-Razi wrote two epistles with commentaries. (d) al-Kayyal, a Mutakallim: al-Razi wrote a book on about his Theory of the Imam. (e) Mansur ibn Talhah, being the author of the book "Being", which was critized by al-Razi. (f) Muhammad ibn al-Laith al-Rasa'ili whose opposition against alchemists was disputed by al-Razi. 6. Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhasi (d. 286/899), was an older contemporary of al-Razi. Al-Razi disagreed with him on the question of 'bitter taste'. He moreover opposed his teacher Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, regarding his writings,in which he discredited alchemists.
- We could add more names to this list of all people opposed by al-Razi, specifically the Mu'tazilah and different Mutakallimin.

Contributions to medicine

Smallpox vs. measles

As chief physician of the Baghdad hospital Razi formulated the first known description of smallpox: :"Smallpox appears when blood 'boils' and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juveline blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as 'bubbles found in wine' -(as blisters)- ... this disease can also occur at other times -(meaning: not only during childhood)-. The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic." This diagnose is acknowledged by the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911), which states: "The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the 9th-century Arabian (=Persian) physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment.". Razi's book: al-Judari wa al-Hasbah was the first book describing smallpox, and was translated more than a dozen times into Latin and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation shows Razi's medical methods. We quote: "The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompagnied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body.A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflametory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breath and cough. Additional symtomps are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with 'measles' than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). All together one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one showsan overall shining redness, with an very pronounced redness of the gums." Razi was the first physician to diagnose smallpox and measles and the first one to distinguish the difference between them.

Allergies and fever

Razi is also known for having discovered 'allergic asthma', and was the first physician ever, who wrote an article on Allergy and Immunology. In the Sense of Smelling he explains the occurrence of 'rhinitis' after smelling a rose during the Spring: Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Rhinitis When Smelling Roses in Spring. In this article he dicusses seasonal 'rhinitis', which is the same as allergic asthma or hay fever. Razi was the first to realize that fever is a natural defense mechanism, the body's way of fighting disease.

Pharmacy

Rhazes contributed in many ways to the early practice of pharmacy by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of ' mercurial ointments' and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.

Ethics of medicine

On a professional level, Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and 'cures'. At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician.

Books and articles on medicine

- The Virtuous Life (al-Hawi). ::This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes — known in Europe also as The Large Comprehensive or Continens Liber — contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato, and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider Razi the greatest medical doctor of the Middle Ages. ::The al-Hawi is not a formal medical encyclopaedia, but a posthumous compilation of Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou, and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe.
- A medical advisor for the general public (Man la Yahduruhu Tab) ::Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home Medical Manual (remedial) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveler, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book, of course, is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century.Razi described in its 36 chapters,diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results. ::Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example,he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of duhn (oily extract) of rose, to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of linen cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a laxative, " 7 drams of dried violet flowers with 20 pears, macerated and well mixed, then strained. Add to this filtrate, 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either poppies or its juice (opium), clover fodder (Curcuma epithymum) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised myrrh, saffron, and frankincense, 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of yellow arsenic formed into tablets. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of coriander water and used as eye drops.
- Doubts About Galen (Shukuk 'ala alinusor) ::Rhazes's independent mind is strikingly revealed in this book and G. Stolyarov II quotes: :::"In the manner of numerous Greek thinkers, including Socrates and Aristotle, Rhazes rejected the mind-body dichotomy and pioneered the concept of mental health and self-esteem as being essential to a patient's welfare. This "sound mind, healthy body" connection prompted him to frequently communicate with his patients on a friendly level, encouraging them to heed his advice as a path to their recovery and bolstering their fortitude and determination to resist the illness and resulting in a speedy convalescence." ::In his book Doubts about Galen, Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy,and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's. ::He criticized moreover Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "humors" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted particularry that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (Cf. I. E. Goodman) ::This line of criticism essentially had the potentiality to destroy completely Galen's Theory of Humours including Aristotele's theory of the Four Elements, on which it was grounded. Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability and salinity, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements. ::Razi's challenge to the current fundaments of medical theory were quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his commendable contributions and labors. saying: :::"I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man Galen from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published." ::Then, Razi aiming to vindicate Galen's greatness and justifing his own criticism, lists four reasons why great men make more errors than lesser ones, due to: ::# Negligence, as a result of too much self-confidence. ::# Being unmindful (indifference) which often leads to errors. ::# Temptation to follow up on one's own thoughts or impetuosity, being convinced of that what one says or does is correct. ::# Crystallization of ancient knowledge, and the refusal to accept the fact that new data and ideas indicate that present day knowledge ultimately might surpass that of previous generations. ::Razi believed that contemporary scientists and scholars are by far better equipped, more knowledgeable, and more competent than the ancient ones, due to the accumulated knowledge at their disposal. Razi's attempt to overthrow blind acceptance of the unchallenged authority of ancient Sages, encouraged and stimulated research and advances in the arts, technology, and sciences.

Books on medicine

This is a partial list of Razi's books and articles in medicine, according to Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah. Some books may have been copied or printed under different names.
- al-Hawi, al-Hawi al-Kabir. Also known as The Virtuous Life, Continens Liber. The large medical Encyclopedia containing mostly recipes and Razi's notebooks.
- Isbateh Elmeh Pezeshki, An Introduction to Medical Science.
- Dar Amadi bar Elmeh Pezeshki
- Rade Manaategha 'tibb jahez
- Rade Naghzotibbeh Nashi
- The Experimentation of Medical Science and its Application
- Guidance
- Kenash
- The Classification of Diseases
- Royal Medicine
- For One Without a Doctor
- The Book of Simple Medicine
- The Great Book of Krabadin
- The Little Book of Krabadin
- The Book of Taj or The Book of the Crown
- The Book of Disasters
- Food and its Harmfulness
- al-Judari wa al-Hasbah, The Book of Smallpox and Measles
- Ketab dar Padid Amadaneh Sangrizeh (Stones in the Kidney and Bladder)
- Ketabeh Dardeh Roodeha
- Ketab dar Dard Paay va Dardeh Peyvandhayyeh Andam
- Ketab dar Falej
- The Book of Tooth Aches
- Dar Hey'ateh Kabed
- Dar Hey'ateh Ghalb (About Heart Ache)
- About the Nature of Doctors
- About the Earwhole
- Dar Rag Zadan
- Seydeh neh/sidneh
- Ketabeh Ibdal
- Food For Patients
- Soodhayeh Serkangabin
- Darmanhayeh Abneh
- The Book of Surgical Instruments
- The Book on Oil
- Fruits Before and After Lunch
- Book on Medical Discussion (with Jarir Tabib)
- Book on Medical Discussion II (with Abu Feiz)
- About the Menstrual Cycle
- Ghi Kardan
- Snow and Medicine
- Snow and Thirst
- The Foot
- Fatal Diseases
- About Poisoning
- Hunger
- Soil in Medicine
- The Thirst of Fish
- Sleep Sweating
- Warmth in Clothing
- Spring and Disease
- Misconceptions of a Doctors Capabilities
- The Social Role of Doctors

Translations

Razi's notable books and articles on medicine (in English) include:
- Mofid al Khavas, The Book for the Elite.
- The Book of Experiences
- The Cause of the Death of Most Animals because of Poisonous Winds
- The Physicians' Experiments
- The Person Who Has No Access to Physicians
- The Big Pharmacology
- The Small Pharmacology
- Gout
- Al Shakook ala Jalinoos, The Doubt on Galen
- Kidney and Bladder Stones
- Ketab tibb ar-Ruhani,The Spiritual Physik of Rhazes.

Alchemy

The Transmutation of Metals

Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by Ibn an-Nadim's book (The Philosophers Stone-Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to al-Kindi's denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801-873 BCE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mum founder of Baghdad, to 'the House of Wisdom' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy.
Finally we will mention Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: al-Asrar ("The Secrets"), and Sirr al-Asrar ("The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of the previous work. Apparently Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in Mohammad Zakaria Razi that a certain General Simjur confronted Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied": :"I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible..."

Chemical instruments and substances

Razi developed several chemical instruments that remain in use to this day. He is known to have perfected methods of distillation and extraction, which have led to his discovery of sulfuric acid (by dry distillation of vitriol, (al-zajat) and alcohol. These discoveries paved the way for other Islamic alchemists, such as the discovery of various other mineral acids by Jabir Ibn Hayyam (known as Geber in Europe).

Hermeticism

Alchemy's source can be traced to the Hermetica, writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, Hermes Thrice-Great who is identified with the Egyptian god Thoth, inventor of alchemy and god of Wisdom. It was in ancient Egypt that the Hermetica emerged and reached the state now visible in various treatises of Arabian alchemists and philosophers. Hermeticism encompasses the Art of alchemy (both 'technical' and 'philosophical' alchemy) as well as astrology and talismanic magic. As in so may other respects, Moslems and other non-Europeans of late antiquity and the early middle ages outdid their Western contemporaries in preserving and extending the Hermetic tradition. Alchemical works began to enter Islamic lands from Alexandria as early as the 7th century, even prior to Jabir al-Hayan (known as Geberu). Many Arabian alchemists emerged since and most of them were physicians, just as al-Razi. Their alchemistical experiments lead to the discovery of many medicinal and chemical inventions which laid the foundation for future developments in both sciences. Razi's alchemy, as well as his medical thinking struggled within the cocoon of hylomorphism. It dismisses the idea of potions and dispenses with an appeal to magic, magic meaning the reliance on symbols as causes. Although Razi does not reject the idea that miracles exist, in the sense of unexplained phenomena in nature, his alchemical stockroom was enriched with products of Persian mining and manufacturing, even with sal ammoniac a Chinese discovery. He relied predominantly on the concept of 'dominant' forms or essences, which is the Neoplatonic conception of causality rather than an intellectual approach or a mechanical one. Razi's alchemy brings forward such empiric qualities as salinity and inflammability -the latter associated to 'oiliness' and 'sulphurousness'. These properties are not readily explained by the traditional composition of the elements such as : fire, water, earth and air, as al-óhazali and others after him were quick to note, influenced by critical thoughts such as Razi had.

Major works on alchemy

al-Razi's achievements are of exceptional importance in the history of chemistry, since in his books we find for the first time a systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. Razi's scheme of classification of the substances used in chemistry shows sound research on his part.
- The Secret (Al-Asrar) ::This book was written in response to a request from Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Mohammed b. Yunis of Bukhara, a Muslim mathematician, philosopher, a highly reputable natural scientist.
In his book Sirr al-Asrar, Razi divides the subject of "Matter' into three categories as he did in his previous book al-Asrar. ::# Knowledge and identification of drug components of plant-, animal- and mineral-origin and the description of the best type of each for utilization in treatment. ::# Knowledge of equipment and tools of interest to and used by either alchemist or apothecary. ::# Knowledge of seven alchemical procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of mercury, precipitation of sulfur and arsenic calcination of minerals (gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron), salts, glass, talc, shells, and waxing. ::This last category contains additionally a description of other methods and applications used in transmutation:

- The added mixture and use of solvent vehicles.

- The amount of heat (fire) used, 'bodies and stones', ('al-ajsad' and 'al-ahjar) that can or cannot be transmuted into corporal substances such of metals and Id salts ('al-amlah').

- The use of a liquid mordant which quickly and permanently colors lesser metals for more lucrative sale and profit. ::Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on amalgams ascribed to Al- Hayan (Jabir), Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring a silver object to imitate gold (gold leafing) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. Gilding and silvering of other metals (alum, calcium salts, iron, copper, and tutty) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. Behind these procedures one does not find a deceptive motive rather a technical and economic deliberation. This becomes evident from the author's quotation of market prices and the expressed triumph of artisan, craftsman or alchemist declaring the results of their efforts "to make it look exactly like gold!". However, another motive was involved, namely, to manufacture something resembling gold to be sold quickly so to help a good friend who happened to be in need of money fast. Could it be Razi's alchemical technique of silvering and gilding metals which convinced many Muslim biographers that he was first a jeweler before he turned to the study of alchemy? ::Of great interest in the text is Razi's classification of minerals into six divisions, showing his discussion a modern chemical connotation: ::# Four SPIRITS (AL-ARWAH) : mercury, sal ammoniac, sulfur, and arsenic sulphate (orpiment and realgar). ::# Seven BODIES (AL-AJSAD) : silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (plumbago), zinc (Kharsind), and tin. ::# Thirteen STONES : (AL-AHJAR) Pyrites marcasite (marqashita), magnesia, malachite, tutty Zinc oxide (tutiya), talcum, lapis lazuli, gypsum, azurite, magnesia , haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide, mica and asbestos and glass (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal Damascene is considered the best), ::# Seven VIRIOLS (AL-ZAJAT) : alum (ak-shubub), and white (qalqadzs), black , red, and yellow (qulqutar) vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green (qalqand). ::# Seven BORATES : tinkar, natron, and impure sodium borate. ::# Eleven SALTS (AL-AMLAH): including brine, common (table) salt, ashes, naphtha, live lime, and urine, rock, and sea salts. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances and their top choice, best colors and various adulterations. :: Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy This consists of 2 classes: ::# Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the Blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), macerator, stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pesstle), file, shears, descensory and semi-cylindrical iron mould. ::# Utensils used to carry out the proces of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort, alembic, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers,large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, phials, beakers, glass funnel,crucible, alundel, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish.
- Secret of Secrets (Sirr Al-asrar) ::This is Razi's most famous book which has gained a lot of recognition in the West. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy.

Books on alchemy

Here is a list of Razi's known books on alchemy, mostly in Persian:
- Modkhele Taalimi
- Elaleh Ma'aaden
- Isbaate Sanaa'at
- Ketabeh Sang
- Ketabe Tadbir
- Ketabe Aksir
- Ketabe Sharafe Sanaa'at
- Ketabe Tartib, Ketabe Rahat, The Simple Book
- Ketabe Tadabir
- Ketabe Shavahed
- Ketabe Azmayeshe Zar va Sim (Experimentation on Gold)
- Ketabe Serre Hakimaan
- Ketabe Serr (The Book of Secrets)
- Ketabe Serre Serr (The Secret of Secrets)
- The First Book on Experiments
- The Second Book on Experiments
- Resaale'ei Be Faan
- Arezooyeh Arezookhah
- A letter to Vazir Ghasem ben Abidellah
- Ketabe Tabvib

Philosophy

On existence

Razi believed that a competent physician must also be a philosopher well versed in the fundamental questions regarding existence: :"He proclaimed the absolutism of Euclidean space and mechanical time as the natural foundation of the world in which men lived, but resolved the dilemma of existent infinities by synthesizing this outlook with the atomic theory of Democritus, which recognized that matter existed in the form of indivisible and fathomable quanta. The continuity of space, however, holds due to the existence of void, or a region lacking matter... This is remarkably close to the systems yielded by the discoveries of such later European scientists as John Dalton and Max Planck, as well as the observational and theoretical works of modern astronomer Halton Arp and Objectivist philosopher Michael Miller. Progress, in the view of all these men, is not to be obstructed by a jumble of haphazard and contradictory relativistic assertions which result in metaphysical hodge-podge instead of a sturdy intellectual base. Even in regard to the task of the philosopher, Rhazes considered it to be progressing beyond the level of one's teachers, expanding the accuracy and scope of one's doctrine, and individually elevating oneself onto a higher intellectual plane." (G. Stolyarov II) Razi is known to have been a free-thinking Islamic philosopher, since he was well-trained in ancient Greek sciences although his approach to chemistry was rather naturalistic.Moreover he was well versed in the theory of music, as so many other Islamic scientists of that time.

Metaphysics

His ideas on metaphysics were also based on the works of the great Greeks: :"The metaphysical doctrine of al-Razi, insofar as it can be reconstructed, derives from his concept of the five eternal principles. God, for him, does not 'create' the world from nothing but rather arranges a universe out of pre-existing principles. His account of the soul features a mythic origin of the world in which God out of pity fashions a physical playground for the soul in response to its own desires; the soul, once fallen into the new realm God has made for it, requires God's further gift of intellect in order to find its way once more to salvation and freedom. In this scheme, intellect does not appear as a separate principle but is rather a later grace of God to the soul; the soul becomes intelligent, possessed of reason and therefore able to discern the relative value of the other four principles. Whereas the five principles are eternal, intellect as such is apparently not. Such a doctrine of intellect is sharply at odds with that of all of Razi's philosophical contemporaries, who are in general either adherents of some form of Neoplatonism or of Aristotelianism. The remaining three principles, space, matter and time, serve as the non-animate components of the natural world. Space is defined by the relationship between the individual particles of matter, or atoms, and the void that surrounds them. The greater the density of material atoms, the heavier and more solid the resulting object; conversely, the larger the portion of void, the lighter and less solid. Time and matter have both an absolute, unqualified form and a limited form. Thus there is an absolute matter - pure extent - that does not depend in any way on place, just as there is a time, in this sense, that is not defined or limited by motion. The absolute time of al-Razi is, like matter, infinite; it thus transcends the time which Aristotle confined to the measurement of motion. Razi, in the cases of both time and matter, knew well how he differed from Aristotle and also fully accepted and intended the consequences inherent in his anti-Peripatetic positions." (Paul E. Walker) It is quite evident that most of his thoughts were derived from the Islam, which is demonstrated clearly in his book: The Metaphysics.

Excerpt from The Philosophical Approach

:"(...) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200 books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and hekmat (wisdom). (...) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my medical responsibility and advice. (...) Those who have seen me know, that I did not into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science, people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print), moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection entitled Al Hawi. It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless, I've never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most curious what they have to say about my scientific achievement. If they consider my approach incorrect, they could present their views and state their points clearly, so that I may study them, and if I determined their views to be right, I would admit it. However, if I disagreed, I would discuss the matter to prove my standpoint. If this is not the case, and they merely disagree with my approach and way of life, I would appreciate they only use my written knowledge and stop interferring with my behaviour." :"In the "Philosophical Biography", as seen above, he defended his personal and philosophical life style. In this work he laid out a framework based on the idea that there is life after death full of happiness, not suffering. Rather than being self-indulgent, man should persue knowledge, utilise his intellect and apply justice in his life.
According to Al-Razi: "This is what our merciful Creator wants. The One to whom we pray for reward and whose punishment we fear."
In brief, man should be kind, gentle and just. Al-Razi believed that there is a close relationship between spiritual integrity and physical health. He did not implicate that the soul could avoid distress due to his fear of death. He simply states that this psychological state cannot be avoided completely unless the individual is convinced that, after death, the soul will lead a better life. This requires a thorough study of esoteric doctrines and/or religions. He focuses on the opinion of some people who think that the soul perishes when the body dies. Death is inevitable, therefore one should not pre-occupy the mind with it, because any person who continuously thinks about death will become distressed and think as if he is dying when he continuously ponders on that subject. Therefore, he should forget about it in order to avoid upsetting himself. When contemplating his destiny after death, a benevolent and good man who acts according to the ordinances of the Islamic Shari`ah, has afterall nothing to fear because it indicates that he will have comfort and permanent bliss in the Hereafter. The one who doubts the Shari`ah, may contemplate it, and if he dilligently does this, he will not deviate from the right path. If he falls short, Allah will excuse him and forgive his sins because it is not demanded of him to do something which he cannot achieve." (Dr. Muhammad Abdul-Hadi Abu Reidah)

Books on philosophy

This is a partial list of Razi's books on philosophy. Some books may have been copied or published under different titles.
- The Small Book on Theism
- Response to Abu'al'Qasem Braw
- The Greater Book on Theism
- Modern Philosophy
- Dar Roshan Sakhtane Eshtebaah
- Dar Enteghaade Mo'tazlian
- Delsoozi Bar Motekaleman
- Meydaneh Kherad
- Khasel
- Resaaleyeh Rahnamayeh Fehrest
- Ghasideyeh Ilaahi
- Dar Alet Afarineshe Darandegan
- Shakkook
- Naghseh Ketabe Tadbir
- Naghsnamehyeh Ferforius
- Do name be Hasanebne Moharebe Ghomi Notable books in English are:

- Spiritual Medicine
- The Philosophical Approach (Al Syrat al Falsafiah)
- The Metaphysics

Quotes from Rhazes

: Let your first thought be to strengthen your natural vitality. : Truth in medicine is an unattainable goal, and the art as described in books is far beneath the knowledge of an experienced and thoughtful physician. Asked if a philosopher can follow a prophetically revealed religion, al-Razi frankly replies: : How can anyone think philosophically while listening to old wives' tales founded on contradictions, which obdurate ignorance, and dogmatism? : Gentility of character, friendliness and purity of mind, are found in those who are capable of thinking profoundly on abstruse matters and scientific minutiae. : Man should hasten to protect himself from love before succumbing to it and cleanse his soul from it when he falls. : The self-admirer, generally, should not glorify himself nor be so conceited that he elevates himself above his counterparts. Neither should he belittle himself to such an extent that he becomes inferior to his own peers or to those who are inferior both to him and to his fellowmen in the eyes of others. If he follows this advice, he will be freed from self-admiration and feelings of inferiority, and people will call him one who truly knows himself. When questioned on the subject of 'envy', Razi answers: : It results from an accumulation of stinginess and avarice in the soul, being one of the diseases that cause serious harm to the soul.

Quotes on Rhazes

:"Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages." – George Sarton :"Rhazes remained up to the 17th century the indisputable authority of medicine." – The Islamic Encyclopaedia :"His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject." – The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (May 1970) :"In today's world we tend to see scientific advance as the product of great movements, massive grant-funded projects, and larger-than-life socio-economic forces. It is easy to forget, therefore, that many contributions stemmed from the individual efforts of scholars like Rhazes. Indeed, pharmacy can trace much of its historical foundations to the singular achievements of this ninth-century Persian scholar." — Michael E. Flannery See also: List of Persian scientists

References and further reading

- M. M. SHARIF , A History