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List Of Past Chinese Ethnic Groups

List of past Chinese ethnic groups

Any non clear-cut connection is denoted by a question mark (?) beside the equivalences. As many ethnic groups have appeared in history, this table is certainly not complete. The purpose of this page is to stimulate conversation and constructive arguments on connecting Eastern and Western knowledge of those ethnic groups.

Pinyin Romanization	Names in Chinese characters and Pronunciation	Approximate residence according to Chinese texts	Time of appearance in the history of China	Equivalence(s) in World history	Time of appearance outside China	Descendant(s)
Miao	苗 (miao2)	Various areas stretching from provinces (Hebei, Shanxi) north of the Huang He to Yunnan province	As early as 25th century B.C. to present	Miao	see Miao	Laotians, ethnic groups in China, America and Europe
Xiongnu, Xianyun	匈奴 (xiong1 nu2), 玁狁 (xian3 yun3)	Today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia and eastern portion of Xinjiang	6th century B.C. ? to late 1st century for Northern Xiongnu who migrated westward after that period. Southern Xiongnu remained active until mid 5th century then assimilated into Chinese	Huns	late 4th century to mid 6th century in Europe	No known descendants
Yuezhi	月氏 (Yue4 Zhi1)	Gansu, Xinjiang	6th century B.C. ? to 162 B.C., then driven out by Xiongnu.	Kushans, Tocharians?	mid 2nd century B.C. in Central Asia	No known descendants
Wuhuan	烏桓 (wu1 huan2)	western portions of Manchuria (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning provinces) and Inner Mongolia	4th century B.C. to late 3rd century, assimilated into Chinese	No known equivalence	N/A	No known descendants
Xianbei	鮮卑 (xian1 bei1)	Manchuria (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning provinces), Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. Moved into areas north of the Huang He as they founded a dynasty there.	4th century B.C. ? to mid 6th century, assimilated into Chinese	No known equivalence, possibly prototurks Tuoba (Tabgač?)	N/A	No known descendants
Qiang	羌 (qiang1)	Gansu, Qinghai, westren portion of Sichuan, eastern portion of Xinjiang and northeastern portion of Tibet	4th century B.C. ? to late 5th century, assimilated into Chinese	No known equivalence	N/A	as minorities in Sichuan
Di	氐 (di1)	Areas of neighboring borders of Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan and Shaanxi	8th century B.C. ? to mid 6th century, assimilated into Chinese	No known equivalence	N/A	as minorities in Sichuan
Jie	羯 (jie2)	Shanxi province	late 2nd century to mid 4th century, assimilated into Chinese	No known equivalence	N/A	No known descendants
Dingling, Gaoche, Shule	丁零 (ding1 ling2), 高車 (gao1 che1), 疏勒 (shu1 le4)	banks of Lake Baikal and on the borders of Today Mongolia and Russia then migrated to Shanxi province and Xinjiang region	1st century BC to late 5th century, assimilated into Chinese	?	?	some descendants still living by the lake ?
Rouran, Ruru,	柔然 (rou2 ran2), 蠕蠕 (ru2 ru2), 茹茹 (ru2 ru2)	Today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia and eastern portion of Xinjiang	early 3rd century to early 6th century	Avars?	late 6th century to early 9th century	descendants living in today Daghestan?
Tujue	突厥 (tu2 jue2)	Today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Xinjiang, eastern portion of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan	late 5th century to mid 10th century	Gokturks	mid 6th century to early 9th century	The western Turks migrated to modern-day Turkey while the eastern Turks assimiliated to the Uyghurs in Xinjiang
Huihe	回紇 (hui2 he2)	Today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia	early 7th century to mid 10th century	Uyghurs	early 9th century to present	largest ethnic group in Xinjiang region
Tubo	吐蕃(tu3 fan1) sometimes pronounced as 吐播 (tu3 bo1)	Today Tibet, Qinghai, western border of Sichuan, Gansu and Shaanxi and Southern border of Xinjiang	mid 6th century to present	Tibetans	early 6th century to present	Tibetans
Qidan	契丹 (qi4 dan1)	Today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Liaoning, northern border of Shanxi and Hebei and later in Xinjiang and eastern border of Kazakhstan	late 5th century to mid 13th century	Khitan	early 6th century to present	No known descendants
Xi	奚 (xi1)	more or less the same residence of the Khitans since regarded as two ethnic groups with one unique ancestry	mid 6th century to mid 12th century	No known equivalence	N/A	No known descendants
Shiwei	室韋 (shi4 wei2)	Today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, western Manchuria and southern Siberia	late 6th century - late 10th century	No known equivalence	N/A	conquered by Khitans, splinter groups and remnants re-emerged as Mongols
Menggu	蒙古 (meng2 gu3)	Today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, western Manchuria, southern Siberia, eastern and central Xinjiang before Genghis Khan	since late 8th century (?)	Mongol	late 12th century to present	Mongol
Dangxiang	党項 (dang3 xiang4)	Ningxia, Gansu, northern portions of Shanxi, southwestern portion of Mongolia, Southeastern portion of Xinjiang	mid 8th century to early 13th century	Tanguts	?	No known descendants
Mohe	靺鞨 (mo4 he2)	Manchuria and northern portion of Inner Mongolia, helped to establish Bohai	early 7th century to early 10th century.	Malgal	N/A	Jurchen (see entry below)
Nüzhen or Manzhouren	女真 (nü3 zhen1), 滿洲人 (man3 zhou1 ren2), 滿人 (man3 ren2)	Manchuria and northern portion of Inner Mongolia	early 10th century to present, established Jin Dynasty and Qing Dynasty	Jurchen, Mancho, Manchus or Manchurian	Since mid 17th century, first encountered by Russians	largest ethnic group in Dongbei region or Manchuria. Their culture has very much assimilated with the Chinese but some distinctive aspects still remain.

Pinyin

Pinyin (Chinese: 拼音, pīnyīn) literally means "join (together) sounds" (a less literal translation being "phoneticize", "spell" or "transcription") in Chinese and usually refers to Hànyǔ Pīnyīn (汉语拼音, literal meaning: "Han language pinyin"), which is a system of romanization (phonemic notation and transcription to Roman script) for Standard Mandarin. Pinyin was approved in 1958 and adopted in 1979 by the government in the People's Republic of China. It superseded older transcriptions like the Wade-Giles system (1859; modified 1912) or Bopomofo. Similar systems have been designed for other Chinese spoken variants and non-Han minority languages in the PRC. Since then, pinyin has been accepted by the Government of Singapore, the Library of Congress, the American Library Association, and most international institutions as the preferred transcription system for Mandarin. In 1979 the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) adopted pinyin as the standard romanization for modern Chinese. It is important to maintain the distinction that pinyin is a romanization and not an anglicization; that is, it is equally applicable for transcription into any language that uses a Roman alphabet, but that the precise pronunciation need not match that of any of these languages. For example, the sounds indicated in pinyin by b and p are distinguished from each other (by aspiration) in a manner different from that of both English (which has voicing and aspiration) and of French (which has voicing alone). Other letters, like j or q indicate a combination of sounds that do not correspond to any exact sound in English. Some of the transcriptions in pinyin such as the ang ending, do not correspond to English pronunciations, either. Pinyin has also become a useful tool for entering Chinese language text into computers.

Pronunciation

The primary purpose of pinyin in Chinese schools is to teach Mandarin pronunciation. Many in the West are under the mistaken belief that pinyin is used to help children associate characters with spoken words which they already know, but this is incorrect as many Chinese do not use Mandarin at home, and therefore do not know the Mandarin pronunciation of words until they learn them in elementary school through the use of pinyin. Pinyin uses the Roman alphabet, hence the pronunciation is relatively straightforward for Westerners. A pitfall for English-speaking novices is, however, the unusual pronunciation x, q, c and z (and sometimes i) and the unvoiced pronunciation of d, b, g, j. More information on the pronunciation of all pinyin letters in terms of English approximations is given further below. The pronunciation of Chinese is generally given in terms of initials and finals, which represent the segmental phonemic portion of the language. Initials are initial consonants, while finals are all possible combinations of medials (semivowels coming before the vowel), the nucleus vowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant).

Initials

In each cell below, the first line indicates IPA, the second indicates pinyin. ^- and are interchangeable.

Finals

In each cell below, the first line indicates IPA, the second indicates pinyin for a standalone (no-initial) form, and the third indicates pinyin for a combination with an initial. Other than finals modified by an -r, which are omitted, the following is an exhaustive table of all possible finals. ¹ It is of interest to point out that the only syllable-final consonants in standard Mandarin are -n and -ng, and -r which is attached as a grammatical suffix. If you see a Chinese syllable ending with any other consonant, it is either a dialect (notably Cantonese), or a non-Pinyin Romanization system (where final consonants are used to indicate tones) is being used. ¹ /ər/ (而, 二, etc.) is written as er. For other finals formed by the suffix -r, pinyin does not use special orthography; one simply appends -r to the final that it is added to, without regard for any sound changes that may take place along the way. For information on sound changes related to final -r, please see Standard Mandarin.
² "ü" is written as "u" after j, q, or x.
³ "uo" is written as "o" after b, p, m, or f.
⁴ It is pronounced when it follows an initial, and pinyin reflects this difference.
In addition, ê is used to represent certain interjections.

Rules given in terms of English pronunciation

All rules given here in terms of English pronunciation are approximate.

Pronunciation of initials

Pronunciation of finals

The following is an exhaustive list of all finals, with or without final -r. To find the pronunciation of a final: #Look for the entire combination rather than the individual letters. For example, look for ian, not i + a + n. #For syllables starting with y- or w-, change the y- to i- and w- to u-, then take the i- and u- as part of the final. (E.g. yan -> ian, where "ian" is the final.) If this results in ii-, uu-, and iu-, change those to i-, u-, and ü- respectively. (E.g. yin -> in, wu -> u, yue -> üe) #If the initial is j-, q-, and x-, and the final starts with -u-, then change the -u- to -ü-.

Orthographic features

Pinyin differs from other romanizations in several aspects, such as:
- w is placed before syllables starting with u.
- y is placed before syllables starting with i and ü.
- ü is written as u when there is no ambiguity (such as ju, qu, and xu), but written as ü when there are corresponding u syllables (such as lü and nü)
- When preceded by a consonant, iou, uei, and uen are simplified as iu, ui, and un (which do not represent the actual pronunciation).
- Like zhuyin, what are actually pronounced as buo, puo, muo, and fuo are given a separate representation: bo, po, mo, and fo.
- The apostrophe (') is used before ɑ, o, and e to separate syllables in a word where ambiguity could arise, e.g., pi'ao (皮襖) vs. piao (票), and Xi'an (西安) vs. xian (先).
- Eh! alone is written as ê; elsewhere as e. Schwa is always written as e.
- zh, ch, and sh can be abbreviated as ẑ, ĉ, and ŝ. However, the shorthands are rarely used due to difficulty of entering them on computers.
- ng has the uncommon shorthand of ŋ.

Tones

ŋ The Pinyin system also incorporates suprasegmental phonemes to represent the four tones of Mandarin. Each tone is indicated by a diacritical mark above a non-medial vowel. Many books printed in China mix fonts, with vowels with tone marks rendered in a different font than the surrounding text, a practice that tends to give such Pinyin texts a typographically ungainly appearance. This style, most likely rooted in early technical limitations, has led many to believe that Pinyin's rules call for this practice and also for the use of "" (with no curl over the top) rather than the standard style of the letter "a" found in most fonts. The official rules of Hanyu Pinyin, however, specify no such practice. Note that tone marks can also appear on consonants in certain vowelless exclamations. # The first tone is represented by a macron (ˉ) added to the pinyin vowel: #:
# The second tone is denoted by an acute accent (ˊ): #:
# The third tone is symbolized by a caron (ˇ, also known as a reverse circumflex). Note, it is officially not a breve (˘, lacking a downward angle), although this misuse is somewhat common on the Internet. #:
# The fourth tone is represented by a grave accent (ˋ): #:
# The fifth or neutral tone is represented by a normal vowel without any accent mark: #:

:(In some cases, this is also written with a dot before the syllable; for example, ·ma.) Since most computer fonts do not contain the macron or caron accents, a common convention is to postfix the individual syllables with a digit representing their tone (e.g., "tóng" (tong with the rising tone) is written "tong2"). The digit is numbered as the order listed above, except the "fifth tone", which, in addition to being numbered 5, is also either not numbered or numbered zero, as in ma0 (吗/嗎, an interrogative marker). These tone marks normally are only used in Mandarin textbooks or in foreign learning texts, but they are essential for correct pronunciation of Mandarin syllables, as exemplified by the following classical example of five characters whose pronunciations differ only in their tones: The words are "mother", "hemp", "horse", "admonish" and a question particle, respectively.

Rules for placing the tone mark

The rules for determining on which vowel the tone mark appears are as follows: # If there is more than one vowel and the first vowel is i, u, or ü, then the tone mark appears on the second vowel. # In all other cases, the tone mark appears on the first vowel (y and w are not considered vowels for these rules.) The reasoning behind these rules is in the case of diphthongs and triphthongs, i, u, and ü (and their orthographic equivalents y and w when there is no initial consonant) are considered medial glides rather than part of the syllable nucleus in Chinese phonology. The rules ensure that the tone mark always appears on the nucleus of a syllable.

Miscellanea

An umlaut is placed over the letter u when it occurs after the initials l and n in order to represent the sound [y]. This is necessary in order to distinguish the front high rounded vowel in lü (e.g. 驴/驢 donkey) from the back high rounded vowel in lu (e.g. 炉/爐 oven). Tonal markers are added on top of the umlaut, as in lǘ. However, the ü is not used in other contexts where it represents a front high rounded vowel, namely after the letters j, q, x and y. For example, the sound of the word 鱼/魚 (fish) is transcribed in pinyin simply as yú, not as yǘ. This practice is opposed to Wade-Giles, which always uses ü, and Tongyong Pinyin, which always uses yu. Whereas Wade-Giles needs to use the umlaut to distinguish between chü (pinyin ju) and chu (pinyin zhu), this ambiguity cannot arise with pinyin, so the more convenient form ju is used instead of jü. Genuine ambiguities only happen with nu/nü and lu/lü, which are then distinguished by an umlaut diacritic. Many fonts or output methods do not support an umlaut for ü or cannot place tone marks on top of ü. Likewise, using ü in input methods is difficult because it is not present as a simple key on many keyboard layouts. For these reasons v is sometimes used instead by convention. Occasionally, uu (double u) or U (capital u) is used in its place. See also:
- Postal System Pinyin (unrelated)
- Combining diacritic marks Unicode #U0300

Pinyin in Taiwan

The Republic of China on Taiwan is in the process of adopting a modified version of pinyin (currently Tongyong Pinyin). For elementary education it has used zhuyin (also known as bopomofo), and for romanization there is no standard system in general use in Taiwan despite many efforts to standardize on one system. In the late-1990s, the government of Taiwan formally decided to move from zhuyin to pinyin. This has triggered a very heated discussion of which pinyin system to use: hanyu pinyin of People's Republic of China or some other system. Much of the controversy centers on issues of national identity because of political interests. Proponents for adopting pinyin maintain that it is an international standard that is already used throughout the world. Proponents for adopting a new system maintain that Taiwan should have its own identity and culture separate from the People's Republic of China. A new system Tongyong Pinyin was created in Taiwan in 1998. Tongyong Pinyin is mostly similar to Hanyu Pinyin with a number of changes in the letters and digraphs representing certain sounds. In October 2002, the ROC government adopted Tongyong Pinyin through an administrative order that local governments can override. Localities with governments controlled by the Kuomintang, most notably Taipei City, have overridden the order and converted to Hanyu Pinyin (although with a slightly different capitialization convention than the Mainland). As a result, English signs have inconsistent romanization in Taiwan, with many places using Tongyong Pinyin but some using Hanyu Pinyin, and still others not yet having had the resources to replace older Wade-Giles or MPS2 signage. This has resulted in the odd situation in Taipei City in which inconsistent pinyin are shown in freeway directions, with freeway signs, which are under the control of the national government, using one pinyin, but surface street signs, which are under the control of the city government, using the other. As of 2003, no form of pinyin is used in elementary education on Taiwan to teach pronunciation. Although the ROC government has stated the desire to use romanization rather than zhuyin in education, the lack of agreement on which form of pinyin to use and the huge logistical challenge of teacher training has stalled these efforts.

Other languages

Pinyin-like systems have been devised for other variants of Chinese. Guangdong Romanization is a set of romanizations devised by the government of Guangdong province for Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka (Moiyen dialect), and Hainanese. All of these are designed to use letters in a similar way to Pinyin. In addition, in accordance to the "Regulation of Phonetic Transcription in Hanyu Pinyin Letters of Place Names in Minority Nationality Languages" (《少数民族语地名汉语拼音字母音译转写法》) promulgated in 1976, place names in non-Chinese languages like Mongol, Uyghur, and Tibetan are also officially transcribed using Pinyin. The pinyin letters (26 Roman letters, ü, and ê) are used to approximate the non-Chinese language in question as closely as possible. This results in spellings that are different from both the customary spelling of the place name, and the Pinyin spelling of the name in Chinese:

Controversy

Debate continues about the actual suitability of pinyin as a Chinese romanization method. This argument revolves around pinyin's unconventional use of Roman letters, of which the phonological values of some phonemes are quite different from that of most languages utilizing the Roman alphabet. Some sinologists praise this as pinyin's flexibility in that it allows the entire Roman alphabet to be adapted to the Chinese sound system (compared to Wade-Giles, which leaves out or underuses many letters). Others point out that pinyin letter values are so unconventional that for a person unfamiliar with Chinese, they result in a larger number of mispronunciations when compared to Wade-Giles. However, as not only the PRC but by now most institutions and publications have adopted it, the debate seems increasingly obsolete. Pinyin, like all systems of romanization, has certain limitations that users should be aware of:
- Like the spelling systems of any other language, pinyin does not represent English pronunciation and should not be pronounced according to English conventions. Readers are advised to learn pinyin phonetic conventions, bearing in mind that many sounds have no equivalents in English.
- Chinese characters can indicate semantic cues. But since pinyin is based on the sounds of Mandarin alone, these semantic cues are no longer preserved. For speakers of other Chinese spoken variants, it becomes unsuitable for use in reading and writing because these sounds do not necessarily correspond to their speech.
- The phonotactics of spoken Mandarin dictate a relatively small set of possible syllables and there is a potential for homonyms. Because of this, pinyin can be ambiguous, especially when transcribing Standard Written Chinese, which uses formal constructions not often found in speech. However, this should not be an issue in the transcription of normal spoken Mandarin conversation since speakers would not use such ambiguous constructions in speech. Computer systems long provided the most convincing argument in favor of pinyin; early computers were able to display nothing but 7-bit ASCII (essentially the 26 letters, the 10 digits, and a handful of punctuation marks). Most contemporary computer systems are now able to readily display characters from not only Chinese, but from many other writing systems as well. In addition, multiple input method editors exist that use standard keyboards to type them (pinyin being one such method). Now, PDAs and digitizing tablets allow users to write characters with a stylus, which can then be stored and edited like any text. Thus, this justification is no longer as strong as it used to be. Nonetheless, pinyin has gained wide acceptance, and supporters believe it is useful for students of Chinese as a second language.

Reference

Yin Binyong 尹斌庸, Mary Felley: Chinese Romanization. Pronunciation and Orthography (Hanyu pinyin he zhengcifa 汉语拼音和正词法; Sinolingua, Beijing 1990), ISBN 7-80052-148-6 / ISBN 0-8351-1930-0.

External links

Auto-converters

- [http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/annotation.html Chinese characters to Pinyin (with tone marks and English meaning)]
- [http://www.pinyin.info/unicode/marks3.html Pinyin with tone numbers to Pinyin with tone marks] (can handle 5 for neutral tone)
- [http://www.foolsworkshop.com/ptou/index.html Pinyin with tone numbers to Pinyin with tone marks]
- [http://www.rikai.com/perl/HomePage.pl?Language=Zh Rikai.com] A web-mediator that adds mouseover pinyin readings to Chinese web-pages.
- [http://www.mandarintools.com/dimsum.html DimSum Chinese Reading Assistant] Add pinyin (or bopomofo, etc.) to text, web pages, or RTF files. Includes dictionary, flashcards.

Other

- [http://www.pinyin.info/ Pinyin.info] — very complete explanation of Unicode pinyin.
- [http://www.pinyin.info/unicode/unicode_test.html Pinyin info Unicode testpage]
- [http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/read.shtml Read/Write using Unicode]
- [http://research.chtsai.org/papers/pinyin-comparison.html Tongyong and Hanyu Pinyin]
- [http://www.sinosplice.com/lang/pronunciation.html Sinosplice - Pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese]
- [http://www.fdicts.com/dictlist1.php?k1=126 Fdicts] Simplified Chinese Dictionary
- [http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php MDBG free online Chinese-English dictionary]
- [http://www.mandarintools.com/pyconverter.html Chinese Romanization Converter] - Convert between Hanyu Pinyin, Wade-Giles, Gwoyeu Romatzyh, and other common Romanization systems. Category:Chinese language romanization Category:Latin-derived alphabets Category:Mandarin terms ko:병음 ja:ピン音 th:พินอิน

Miao

The Hmong, also known as Miao (Chinese: 苗: Miáo; Vietnamese: Mèo or H'Mông; Thai: แม้ว (Maew) or ม้ง (Mong)), are an Asian ethnic group speaking the Hmong language, whose homeland is in the mountainous regions of southern China (especially Guizhou) that cross into northern Southeast Asia (northern Vietnam and Laos). The term "Miao" is often considered offensive (it means "bizarre"). Today, they form the fifth largest of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.

Nomenclature: Miao and Hmong

Two terms, Miao and Hmong (or H'mong in Vietnam), are both currently used to refer to one of the aboriginal peoples of China. They live mainly in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi and Hubei. According to the 2000 census, the number of 'Miao' in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. Outside China they live in Thailand, Laos (where they are known as Lao Soung), Vietnam and Myanmar due to migrations starting in the 18th century, and also in the United States, French Guiana, France and Australia as a result of recent migrations in the aftermath of the Indochina and Vietnam wars between 1949 and 1975. Altogether there are approximately 8 million speakers of Miao languages. This language family, which consists of 3 languages and 30-40 mutually and highly intelligible dialects, belongs, together with the Bunu language, to the Miao branch of the Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) language family. Western researchers treat the terminological problems in a non-uniform way. Early writers used Chinese-based names in various transcriptions: Miao, Miao-tse, Miao-tsze, Meau, Meo, mo, miao-tseu etc., but due to the influence of the Hmong of Laos (a sub-group of the Miao people) some contemporary researchers have adopted another terminology. The Hmongs themselves use various self-designations and the Chinese traditionally classified them according to the most characteristic colour of the women's clothes. The list below contains the self-designations, the colour designations and the main regions inhabited by the four major groups of Hmongs in China: language family
- Ghao Xong; Red Miao; west Hunan.
- Hmu, Gha Ne (Ka Nao); Black Miao; southeast Guizhou.
- A Hmao; Big Flowery Miao; northwest Guizhou and northeast Yunnan.
- Hmong; White Miao, Green (Blue) Miao, Small Flowery Miao; south Sichuan, west Guizhou and south Yunnan. Only the fourth group uses the term Hmong. Furthermore, only the Hmong (and some Hmu) have speakers living outside China. It is the non-Chinese Hmong who advocate that the term Hmong be used not only for designating their dialect group, but also for the other groups living in China. They generally claim that the word Miao is a derogatory term which should not be used at all. Instead the term Hmong is to be used to designate all groups of the people. However this can also be a result of confusing denotation with connotation. The Chinese expeditioners and invaders gave to the Hmong the appelation "Miao", which later became "Meo" and "Man". The latter term means the southern "barbarian". The word 'miao' has been taken over by other peoples in Southeast Asia, Vietnamese, Lao, Thai etc. in the form Meo. Though many of the speakers of those languages (and of Chinese) undoubtedly consider the Miao to be barbarians, this by no means proves that the word itself has that denotation. It is, of course, also possible that the speakers of Lao, Thai and Vietnamese, who have taken over the word 'miao' from Chinese, have lost the original meaning "seedling" and use it only to designate a people whom they consider to be barbarian. If pronounced with the wrong tone in Thai or a high tone in Cantonese the word means "cat" (which is possibly of onomatopoeic origin). Also, the literal Vietnamese translation for Mèo is "cat". This might explain the strong resentment against the term 'miao' among the Hmong groups in southeast Asia. In China, however, the situation is different for two main reasons. The Miao groups have different self-designations and only a small proportion use the word Hmong. The rest have no feeling that Hmong is in any way preferable to Miao as a common designator. Since the official classification of the minorities in the 1950s some minority groups have complained about the word used in Chinese to designate them and have asked for the government to change the official usage. The Miao groups of China have, according to a 1992 article in the Thai-Yunnan Project Newsletter [TYPN 1992], voiced no such concern. The second reason is purely pragmatic: it is impossible to introduce the word 'hmong' into Chinese as this syllable does not exist in the Chinese language. As a matter of fact, this is also the case for the English language, as few speakers are able to pronounce an unvoiced nasal. However, in English, unlike Chinese, it is at least possible to write the word Hmong. The Hmong write their name for themselves Hmoob. Doubling a vowel indicates that it is nasal, and several consonants are used at the ends of syllables to denote tones. Thus "America" is written Asmeslivkas in Hmong. The term Hmong was proposed as the designation of the Miao groups speaking the Hmong dialect in China and for the Miao outside China. This usage is by now well established in Western literature. Many persons have already been confused by the present terminological state and see no connection between the Hmong and the Miao. Perhaps not much can be done about this now but hopefully some people will understand the relation between the words Miao and Hmong better, if they are used in a more logical way.

Demographics

:Note: The Miao areas of Sichuan province became part of the newly created Chongqing Municipality in 1997. Most Hmong currently live in China. Miao population growth in China:
- 1953: 2,510,000
- 1964: 2,780,000
- 1982: 5,030,000
- 1990: 7,390,000 3,600,000 Miao, about half of the entire Chinese Miao population, were in Guizhou in 1990. The Guizhou Miao and those in the following six province make up over 98% of all Chinese Miao:
- Hunan: 1,550,000
- Yunnan: 890,000
- Sichuan: 530,000
- Guangxi: 420,000
- Hubei: 200,000
- Hainan: 50,000 In the above provinces, there are 6 Miao autonomous prefectures (shared officially with one other ethnic minority):
- Qiandongnan Miao and Tong Autonomous Prefecture (黔东南 : Qiándōngnán), Guizhou
- Qiannan Buyi and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (黔南 : Qiánnán), Guizhou
- Qianxinan Buyi abd Miao Autonomous Prefecture (黔西南 : Qiánxīnán), Guizhou
- Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (湘西 : Xiāngxī), Hunan
- Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (文山 : Wénshān), Yunnan
- Enshi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (恩施 : Ēnshī), Hubei There are in addition 23 Miao autonomous counties:
- Hunan: Mayang (麻阳 : Máyáng), Jingzhou (靖州 : Jīngzhōu), and Chengbu (城步 : Chéngbù)
- Guizhou: Songtao (松桃 : Sōngtáo), Yingjiang (印江 : Yìnjiāng), Wuchuan (务川 : Wùchuān), Daozhen (道真 : Dǎozhēn), Zhenning (镇宁 : Zhènníng), Ziyun (紫云 : Zǐyún), Guanling (关岭 : Guānlíng), and Weining (威宁 : Wēiníng)
- Yunnan: Pingbian (屏边 : Píngbiān), Jinping (金平 : Jīnpíng), and Luquan (禄劝 : Lùquàn)
- Sichuan: Xiushan (秀山 : Xiùshān), Youyang (酉阳 : Yǒuyáng), Qianjiang (黔江 : Qiánjiāng), and Pengshui (彭水 : Péngshuǐ)
- Guangxi: Rongshui (融水 : Róngshuǐ), Longsheng (龙胜 : Lóngshēng), and Longlin (隆林 : Lōnglín)
- Hainan: Qiong (琼中 : Qióngzhōng) and Baoting (保亭 : Bǎotíng) Most Miao reside in hills or on mountains, such as
- Wuling Mountain by the Qianxiang River (湘黔川边的武陵山 : Xiāngqián Chuān Biān Dí Wǔlíng Shān)
- Miao Mountain (苗岭 : Miáo Líng), Qiandongnan
- Yueliang Mountain (月亮山 : Yuèliàng Shān), Qiandongnan
- Greater and Lesser Ma Mountain (大小麻山 : Dà Xiǎo Má Shān), Qiannan
- Greater Miao Mountain (大苗山 : Dà Miáo Shān), Guangxi
- Wumeng Mountain by the Tianqian River (滇黔川边的乌蒙山 : Tiánqián Chuān Biān Dí Wūmēng Shān) Several thousands of Miao left their homeland move to larger cities like Guangzhou and Beijing. There are also 2,000,000 Miao, especially in Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and on other continents. 124,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes.

History

Early history

The Hmong people have a recollected history that stretches back, perhaps to the last Ice Age. The Hmong's early history can be traced back according to their oral history and burial rituals. In oral history, Hmong legend recalls the Hmong people coming from a place of extreme cold, where it was dark for 6 months and light for 6 months. From this place, they entered into China by way of a hunting expedition. A hunter and his dog hunted for several days after a wild animal in the snow. The hunter ran out of food and came back for several days without his dog to prepare for and continue the hunt. When the hunter set out again, the dog had already followed him back. The hunter petted his dog and found some new and different seeds on the fur. Then, Hmong people thought the known world was already explored, but the new and different seeds led Hmong people into China. A second place that describes where Hmong people came from occurs in their "Showing the Way" burial ritual. In this ritual, the deceased is instructed to go back to the ancestors. It is believed that the ancestors have died and left this world to return to their place of origin, which is, again, the place of extreme cold. The last Ice Age ended about 10,000 years ago, and coincided with the rise of modern man. The conditions described by Hmong people's oral history and "Showing the Way" certainly resembles a world of monotonous ice and snow, conditions that were last seen during the end of the last Ice Age.

Contact with the Han Chinese

In China, the first recorded Hmong kingdom was called Jiuli, and its ruler or rulers, had the title Chiyou (in Chinese) or Txiv Yawg (in Hmong). Chiyou means father-grandfather, and is a title equal to, but no less than, emperor. Chiyous ancestors are thought to be the Liangzhu people. Jiuli was said to have jurisdiction over nine tribes and 81 clans.
History according to Chinese legend
According to Chinese legend, the people under Chiyou (Chinese: 蚩尤 pinyin: Chīyoú) were defeated at Zhuolu (Chinese: 涿鹿 pinyin: Zhuōlù, a defunct prefecture on the border of present provinces of Hebei and Liaoning) by the military unification of Huang Di (Chinese: 黃帝 pinyin: Huángdì) and Yandi, leaders of the Huaxia (Chinese: 華夏 pinyin: Huáxià) tribe as they struggled for supremacy of the Huang He valley. The compass was believed to be the crucial reason of Huaxia's victory. The battle, believed to be taken place in the 26th century BC, was fought under heavy fog as Huaxia was able to match against the ancestors of the Hmong with the compass After the loss, the original tribe split into two smaller splinter tribes, the Miao and the Li (Chinese: 黎 pinyin: lí). Miao continuously moving southwest and Li southeast as the Huaxia race, now known as Han Chinese race, expanding southwards. During the course of Chinese history, they were regarded as "barbarians" by the increasingly technologically and culturally advanced Han Chinese. Some fragments of the races were assimilated into the Chinese during Zhou Dynasty. Yet, in other versions of post-Jiuli, the people of Jiuli fragmented in 3 different directions. It is said Chiyou had 3 sons, and after the fall of Jiuli, his oldest son led some people south, his middle son led some people north, and his youngest son remained in Zhuolu and assimilated into the Huaxia culture. Those who were led to the south established the San-Miao nation. Perhaps due to this splitting into multiple groups, many Far Eastern people regard Chiyou as their ancestors, and by the same token, many question the ethnicity of Chiyou as exclusively Hmong or otherwise. In some circles of thought, the Koreans also regard Chiyou as an ethnic ancestor. Furthermore, under the present ethnic unification policy of the PRC, Chiyou is now also regarded as one of China's forefathers alongside the ethnic Han ancestors, Huangdi and Yandi.
Qin and Han dynasties
The term Miao was first used by the Han Chinese in pre-Qin times, i.e. before 221 BC, for designating non-Han Chinese groups in the south. It was often used in the combinations "nanmiao", "miaomin", "youmiao" and "sanmiao" (三苗 Sānmiáo). At that time the people lived in the Chang Jiang valley, but later they were forced by the Han Chinese to move further southwards. As most territories of the Six dynasty located south of the river, bringing the Miao into submission was a major concern for stability of those dynasties. With the Wu Hu ravaging areas north of the river, large scale migration of Chinese to the south accelerated the assimilation of Miao into Han Chinese.
Tang Dynasty
Thus beginning in Tang Dynasty, the Miao ceased as a major non-Han Chinese group except in the province of Yunnan where six zhaos (Chinese: 詔 meaning "state") of Miao resided there. Some scholars argued that the six zhaos were groups of the Yi people. The southernmost, known as Meng-she-zhao (蒙舍詔 Méngshězhào) or Nan-zhao (南詔 Nánzhào) united all six zhaos and found an independent state during early 8th century with treacherous help from Tang Dynasty. The title of the head of state was Nan-zhao Wang (南詔王 Nánzhàowáng), meaning the King of Nanzhao. Uneasiness of the increasing threat from Tubo (today Tibet) encouraged the Chinese dynasty to establish a friendly regime neighboring both countries. Tang also deployed a military district, Jiannan Jie-Du (劍南節度 Jiànnán Jiédǔ) located in today southern Sichuan Province and bordering Nanzhao.
Nanzhao
During the first ten peaceful years in 8th century, Nanzhao regularly paid tributes through the head of military district (Jiannan Jie-Du-Shi (劍南節度使 Jiànnán Jiédǔshǐ)) to the Han Chinese dynasty. As the Tang Dynasty deteriorating during mid 8th century, the district was gaining more independent authority from the Tang dynastic government. They demanded more tributes from Nanzhao to develop sizable forces against the dynasty. Some district heads even intimidated the peoples of Nanzhao. The rulers of Nanzhao were Tibeto-Burman speakers, but it is possible the population included some ancestors of the present-day Hmong. A famous example was a rejected demand to spend a night with the queen, the only wife of the Nanzhao King. All intimidations and unfair tributes led to the outbreak of Nanzhao rebellion during the Tianbao era (742-756) of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang China. Before marching against the district legion, the Nanzhao King ordered a stone inscription of the reasons of rebellion. The monument remained erected and can still be seen today (location?). The Tang Dynasty could have easily defeated Nanzhao troops but struggles of power among generals of the district letting Nanzhao surge deeply into Tang's territory, almost reaching Chengdu, location of the district headquarters. Appointment of incompetent heads was also a factor. The most famous one was Yang Guozhong, brother of Lady Yang, the beloved concubine of the emperor. Although the rebellion was eventually squashed, the dynasty wasted precious resources which could have been used securing the northern border, ushering in the much more disastrous Anshi Rebellion. Anshi Rebellion During the later years of the Tang dynasty, Nanzhao had the upper hand on its relations with Tang and Tibet as both countries tried to ally with Nanzhao, thus isolating the enemy. Nanzhao fully exploited the situation and rose as a major power in Southeast Asia. During its zenith of power, northern parts of Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and Burma, Guangxi and eastern portion of Guangdong, southwestern portion of Sichuan, Guizhou and the whole province of Yunnan were all under its control. Chengdu and Hanoi were each sacked twice. After the fall of the latter in late 9th century, Chinese dynasties never recovered the city until Ming Dynasty in the 15th century. Tang Dynasty gradually increased numbers of military district bordering Nanzhao and consequently the insurgences of Pang Xun was the first of the rebellions leading to the fall of Tang. Nanzhao, under the influence of Tang for a century (8th century to 9th century), was gradually adopting the Chinese culture and at the same time disintegrated as struggles of power among various rival clans. Eventually the Duan (段 duan4) clan won and found the Da Li Kingdom which lasted until the submission to the Mongols. During Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty the term "nanman" (南蠻 Nánmán means the southern non-Chinese people) was used. However, the name "miao" to describe some of these southern people reappeared in Fan Chuo's book on the southern tribes, Manshu (862 A.D.).
Ming and Qing dynasties
During the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1911) 'miao' and 'man' were both used, the second possibly to designate the Yao (傜 Yáo) people. The Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties could neither fully assimilate nor control the aboriginal people. As a result, the policy of "using barbarians to rule barbarians" (yiyi zhiyi) was employed. Furthermore, a counterpart wall to the Great Wall in the south was erected to protect and divide the Chinese from the 'southern barbarians'. Politically and militarily, the Hmong continued to be a stone in the shoe of the Chinese empire. The Hmong were more than a match against the Chinese since the latter's military was stretched across China defending against northern invaders. The Chinese had to fall back on political means to ensnare Hmong people, they created multiple competing positions of substantial prestige for Hmong people to participate and assimilate into the Chinese government system. During the Ming and Qing times, the official position of Kaitong was created in Indochina. The Hmong would employ the use of the Kiatong government structure until the 1900s when they entered into French colonial politics in Indochina.
Hmong in Laos
In 1960, many Hmong in Laos were recruited by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency as part of a plan more to fight for and defend Laos against the massive and disciplined North Vietnamese Army (NVA) than the Communist Pathet Lao movement in that country. Pathet Lao activity was used to dress up and cover NVA invasion into Laos. In fact, ethnic Lao troops from the Royal Lao Government and Pathet Lao participated marginally in the fighting, as most of the battles were between the CIA-backed Hmong and NVA. About an equal number of Hmong, however, were recruited by the communist Pathet Lao to fight against the Royal Lao Government and the CIA. General Vang Pao was the ethnic Hmong soldier handpicked by the CIA to lead the northern Military Region II (MR2) defense against NVA incursion. General Vang Pao's headquarters was in Long Cheng, also known as Lima Site 20 Alternate (LS 20A). At the height of its activity, Long Cheng became the second largest city in Laos, estimated at 300,000, with 200,000 ethnic Hmong and 100,000 people of other ethnic background. Long Cheng was a micro-nation operation as it had its own bank, airport, school system, military units, officials, and many other facilities and services. Before the end of the Secret War, Long Cheng would fall in and out of General Vang Pao's control. Vang Pao The Secret War happened around the same time that the United States was officially involved in the Vietnam War across the border. Ultimately, the U.S. withdrew from Vietnam and also evacuated General Vang Pao into Thailand. Many people in Laos who had assisted the U.S. in the Secret War found themselves in an unwelcome environment. An estimated 300,000 Hmong fled to neighboring Thailand, eventually forming refugee camps. For some Hmong who stayed behind, fierce fighting continued to rage on under the Chao Fa group. The Chao Fa fighters had ambitious goals, including establishing a sovereign nation for Hmong people. However, due to a lack of financial and military support, Chao Fa has been forced to re-examine their goals as their soldiers are hunted and often resort to eating tree roots. During the 1990s, the United Nations, with general support from the Clinton Administration, began to forcibly return many Hmong refugees to Laos. The decision to do so was controversial, with many Hmong alleging that they were persecuted by the Laotian regime upon their return. The forced return of the Hmong was staunchly opposed by many American conservatives and human rights activists. In a 1995 National Review article, for instance, Michael Johns labeled the decision to return Hmong veterans to Laos a "betrayal"[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n20_v47/ai_17443642]. Pressure built on the Clinton administration to alter its repatriation policy and, in a significant political victory for the Hmong, most Hmong refugees were subsequently resettled to other countries, with many moving to the United States. The last major resettlement of about 15,000 Hmong from the Wat Tham Krabok camp began in 2004. A significant population of H'mong still follow a traditional lifestyle in North Western Vietnam. The start of mass tourism to these regions in the 1990s has introduced many H'mong to western lifestyles, and the traditional dress of the H'mong people is gradually disappearing. Some Creationists believe the Miautso (Hmong) people are decendants of the Bible patriarchs, because the names of the Miautso kings in the lineage sound very similar to the names of the biblical kings, and in the same order. For example : Se-teh = Seth, Lama = Lamech, Nuah = Noah, etc.
Hmong in the United States
Main article: Hmong American In the United States, many Hmong war refugees of Laotian persecution and the Vietnam War fled to America. Beginning in December, 1975, the first Hmong refugees arrived in the U.S., mainly from Thailand; however, only 3,466 were granted asylum at this time under the Refugee Assistance Act of 1975. In May, 1976 another 11,000 were allowed to enter the United States, and by 1978 some 30,000 Hmong had immigrated. This first wave was made up predominantly of men directly associated with General Vang Pao's secret army. It was not until the passage of the Refugee Act of 1980 that families were able to come to America, becoming the second-wave Hmong immigrants. Today, approximately 270,000 Hmong reside in the United States, the majority of whom live in California, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Fresno, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Madison and Milwaukee have especially high concentrations of Hmong. The 2000 U.S. Census reveals that only 40% of all Hmong above 24 years of age have ever graduated from high school. About 7% of Hmong have a bachelor's degree or higher. These high rates of unequal educational opportunities are due to the fact that many Hmongs are primarily agriculturalists who have little or no access to education in the hills of Laos. Also, almost 40% of all Hmong families are under the poverty level. Although they remain one of the poorest Asian ethnic groups in the U.S., many second-generation children have performed well in schools as compared to other low-income ethnic groups. Hmong-American children born in the United States usually have much better access to education than their parents and thus have better economic opportunities than their parents would have had in Laos. Though Hmongs often tend to work in low-income jobs, many have moved on to be professionals. In many of the large cities where Hmong-Americans live and work, tensions have risen up among Hmongs and neighboring ethnic groups. Hmongs have often been targets of discrimination, mainly because of job competition and stereotyping of Hmongs as welfare dependents. Many of their persecutors justified their actions by claiming that they unnecessarily take jobs, welfare money, and other services away from long-time residents. [http://www.jefflindsay.com/Hmong_tragedy.html] Even though most Hmong families speak a language other than English at home, many Hmong Americans are rapidly blending into mainstream American society, and many young people are losing their culture and ethnic identity at a fast pace. Because of this, the Hmong community has set up associations and media that encourage Hmongs to keep their language and culture.
See also

- Tribes in Chinese history
- Chinese history
- Languages of China
- Hmong American
References

-
- [TYPN 1992] The section on nomenclature draws heavily on Thai-Yunnan Project Newsletter, Number 17, June 1992, Department of Anthropology, Australian National University. Material from that newsletter may be freely reproduced with due acknowledgement. W.R. Geddes. Migrants of the Mountains : The Cultural Ecology of the Blue Miao (Hmong Njua) of Thailand. Oxford. The Clarendon Press. 1976.
Earlier books

- Edkins, The Miau-tsi Tribes, (Foochow, 1870)
- Henry, Lingnam, (London, 1886)
- Bourne, Journey in Southwest China, (London, 1888)
- A. H. Keaw, Man: Past and Present, (Cambridge, 1900)
- Merritt, Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret Wars for Laos, 1942-1992, (Indiana, 1999)
External links

- [http://www.hilltribe.org/hmong/hmong-beliefs.html The Virtual Hilltribe Museum]
- [http://hmongstudies.learnabouthmong.org/index.html Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center]
- [http://www.atrax.net.au/userdir/yeulee/History/Minority%20Policies%20and%20the%20Hmong%20in%20Laos.html Minority Policies and the Hmong in Laos]
- [http://www.jefflindsay.com/Hmong_tragedy.html Hmongs in America]
- [http://www.hmongtimes.com/ The Hmong Times]
- [http://www.laofamily.org/ Lao Family Community]
- [http://www.hmong.org/ Hmong American Partnership]
- [http://www.hmongtimes.com/displaynews.asp?ID=396 The Hmong in French Guiana]
- [http://www.hmongcenter.org/tradhmonrel.html Traditional Hmong religion]
- [http://ww2.saturn.stpaul.k12.mn.us/Hmong/sathmong.html Hmong-English dictionary] ko:먀오족 ja:ミャオ族

Shanxi

:Not to be confused with the neighboring province of Shaanxi Shanxi (; Postal System Pinyin: Shansi) is a northern province of the People's Republic of China. Its one-character abbreviation is Jin (晋 pinyin jìn), after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period. Shanxi has an area of 150,000 km² and a population of 32.97 million. Shanxi's name literally means "mountains' west", which refers to the province's location west of the Taihang Mountains. Shanxi borders Hebei to the east, Henan to the south, Shaanxi to the west, and Inner Mongolia to the north. The capital of Shanxi is Taiyuan.

History

Shanxi was the location of the powerful state of Jin during the Spring and Autumn Period (722 BC - 403 BC), which underwent a three-way split into the states of Han, Zhao and Wei in 403 BC, the traditional date taken as the start of the Warring States Period (403 BC - 221 BC). By 221 BC all of these states had fallen to the state of Qin, which established the Qin Dynasty (221 BC - 206 BC). The Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD) ruled Shanxi as the province (zhou) of Bingzhou (并州 Bìng Zhōu). During the barbarian invasions of the Sixteen Kingdoms period (304 - 439, Shanxi was hotly disputed along with the rest of North China, and present-day Datong served for a time as the capital of the Northern Wei (386 - 534), a Xianbei kingdom that went on to rule nearly all of North China. During the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907) and after, the area was called Hédōng (河東), or "east of the (Yellow) river". During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907 - 960) Shanxi came under the Northern Han, the only one of the ten kingdoms in North China. Shanxi was formally established with its present name and approximate borders by the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644). For centuries Shanxi was a center of trade and banking, and the term "Shanxi merchant" (晋商 jìnshāng) was once synonymous with wealth; the well-preserved city of Pingyao, in Shanxi, also shows many signs of its former dominance as a center of trade and banking. In modern times, however, Shanxi has fared far less well. Today it depends on coal and is one of the poorer provinces (by both GDP and GDP per capita) of China.

Geography

Shanxi is located on a plateau, which is in turn made up of higher ground to the east (Taihang mountains) and the west (Lüliang mountains), and a series of valleys in the center through which the Fen River flows. The highest peak is Mount Wutai (Wutai Shan) at an altitude of 3058 m. The Fen and Qin rivers, tributaries of Huang He (or the Yellow River), drain much of the province; the north is drained by tributaries of the Hai River, such as Sanggan and Hutuo rivers. Shanxi has a continental monsoon climate, and is rather arid. Annual precipitation averages around 350-700 mm. There is very little precipitation in winter and spring. Major cities:
- Taiyuan
- Datong
- Changzhi
- Yangquan

Administrative divisions

Shanxi is divided into 11 prefecture-level divisions, all of them prefecture-level cities:
- Taiyuan (Simplified Chinese: 太原市, Hanyu Pinyin: Tàiyuán Shì)
- Datong (大同市 Dàtóng Shì)
- Yangquan (阳泉市 Yángquán Shì)
- Changzhi (长治市 Chángzhì Shì)
- Jincheng (晋城市 Jìnchéng Shì)
- Shuozhou (朔州市 Shuòzhōu Shì)
- Jinzhong (晋中市 Jìnzhōng Shì)
- Yuncheng (运城市 Yùnchéng Shì)
- Xinzhou (忻州市 Xīnzhōu Shì)
- Linfen (临汾市 Línfén Shì)
- Luliang (吕梁市 Lǚliáng Shì) The 11 prefecture-level divisions of Shanxi are subdivided into 119 county-level divisions (23 districts, 11 county-level cities, and 85 counties). Those are in turn divided into 1388 township-level divisions (561 towns, 634 townships, and 193 subdistricts). See List of administrative divisions of Shanxi for a complete list of county-level divisions.

Economy

Shanxi depends mostly on agriculture, mainly the cultivation of wheat, but also corn and sorghum. Shanxi is very rich in natural resources, including coal and bauxite. Shanxi has, in fact, one third of China's coal, and this has made Shanxi a leading producer of coal within China. Industry in Shanxi is mostly centered around coal, power generation, metal refining, and other heavy industries. In 2003, Shanxi had a gross domestic product of 245.7 billion RMB, and a per capita income of 7468 RMB. By market exchange rates, these convert to US$29.6 billion and US$990 respectively.

Demographics

The population is mostly Han Chinese with minorities of Hui Chinese, Mongols, and Manchus.

Culture

People in most regions of Shanxi speak dialects of Jin, a subdivision of Chinese. People in the southwest speak dialects of Mandarin. (Jin is sometimes classified as a subdivision of Mandarin. For more information, see Chinese spoken language.) Vinegar is a very important part of Shanxi cuisine. Popular forms of traditional entertainment include Shanxi Opera (Jinju), Puju, Beilu Bangzi, Shangdang Bangzi and Shanxi Yangge.

Tourism

Shanxi Yangge] In addition to the major cities there are also the following sights: Ancient City of Pingyao is a town and a World Heritage Site near Taiyuan noted for its preservation of many features of northern Han Chinese culture, architecture, and way of life during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Yungang Grottoes, a World Heritage Site in Datong consist of 252 caves noted for their collection of 5th and 6th century Buddhist cave art. Mount Wutai (Wutai Shan) is the highest point in the province. It is known as the residence of the bodhisattva Manjusri, and as a result is also a major Buddhist pilgrimage destination, with many temples and natural sights. Mount Hengshan (Heng Shan), in Hunyuan County, is one of the Wu Yue (Five Great Peaks) of China, and is also a major Taoist site. Dazhai is a village in Xiyang County. Situated in hilly, difficult terrain, it was a holy site during the Cultural Revolution, when it was set out to the entire nation as exemplary of the hardiness of the proletariat, especially peasants.

Miscellaneous topics

Major colleges and universities in Shanxi include:
- Changzhi College (长治学院)
- Changzhi Medical College (长治医学院)
- Datong University (山西大同大学)
- Jinzhong College (晋中学院)
- North China University of Science and Technology (华北工学院)
- Shanxi Agricultural University (山西农业大学)
- Shanxi College of Traditional Chinese Medicine (山西中医学院)
- Shanxi Medical University (山西医科大学)
- Shanxi Teachers University (山西师范大学)
- Shanxi University (山西大学)
- Shanxi University of Finance and Economics (山西财经大学)
- College Attached to North China University of Science and Technology (华北工学院分校)
- Taiyuan Normal University (太原师范学院)
- Taiyuan University of Science and Technology (太原科技大学)
- Taiyuan University of Technology (太原理工大学)
- Xinzhou Teachers University (忻州师范学院)
- Yuncheng University (运城学院) All of the above universities are under the authority of the provincial government. Institutions not offering full-time bachelor programs are not listed.

External links

- http://www.shanxi.gov.cn
- [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/43602.htm China Internet Information Center]
- [http://www.muztagh.com/images/map/map-of-shanxi-large.jpg Large map of Shanxi] Category:Provinces of the People's Republic of China ko:산시 성 (산서성) ja:山西省

25th century BC

(26th century BC - 25th century BC - 24th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) ----

Events

- 2900 - 2334 BC -- Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period
- 2494 BC -- End of Fourth Dynasty, start of Fifth Dynasty in Egypt. Pharaoh Shepseskaf died. Pharaoh Userkaf started to reign.
- 2450 BC - End of the Early Dynastic IIIa Period and beginning of the Early Dynastic IIIb Period in Mesopotamia.

Significant persons

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

- Harappan civilisation, at its peak, covered an area of around 480,000 km². Its heartland lay in the Indus river valley in Pakistan, but settlements spread as far as the Makran coast, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, eastern Punjab, Kutch and Saurashtra. They included cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, Dholavira, ports like Lothal, Sutkagen-dor and Sotka-koh and numerous villages as well. Category:25th century BC ja:紀元前25世紀