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Dov S. Zakheim

Dov S. Zakheim

Dr. Dov S. Zakheim is a former political and economic adviser to the United States government. Zakheim earned his baccalaureate in government from Columbia University in 1970, and his doctorate in economics and politics at St. Antony's College, Oxford University. He has been an adjunct professor at the National War College, Yeshiva University, Columbia University and Trinity College (Connecticut), where he was presidential scholar. He is an ordained Orthodox Jewish rabbi. He served in various Department of Defense posts during the Reagan administration, including Deputy Undersecretary of Defense for Planning and Resources from 1985to 1987. In 2001, Zakheim was CEO of SPC International, a subsidiary of System Planning Corporation, as well as a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. He was then appointed to be comptroller/Chief Financial Officer of United States Department of Defense, Undersecretary of Defense from 2001 to 2004 under the George W. Bush administration, and served in this capacity until April 2004. He is currently a Vice President of Booz Allen Hamilton.

Publications

- co-author of Rebuilding America's Defences.
- Flight of the Lavi: Inside a U.S.-Israeli Crisis (Brassey's, 1996)
- Congress and National Security in the Post-Cold War Era (The Nixon Center, 1998)
- Toward a Fortress Europe? (Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2000)

External links

- [http://www.defenselink.mil/bios/zakheim_bio.html U.S. Department of Defense biography] Zakheim, Dov Zakheim, Dov Zakheim, Dov Zakheim, Dov Zakheim, Dov Zakheim, Dov

Columbia University

Columbia University is a private university in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as King's College and is the fifth oldest chartered institution of higher education in the United States. During these early years, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Gouverneur Morris, and Robert Livingston studied at Columbia. Three current United States Senators, sixteen current Chief Executives of Fortune 500 companies, and thirty-seven Nobel Prize winners have degrees from Columbia. Three of the eleven richest Americans have a degree from Columbia. In culture and the arts, Rodgers and Hammerstein, Lorenz Hart, Jacques Barzun, Lionel Trilling, Robert Nozick, Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and Paul Auster are among Columbia's alumni. The university is a member of the Ivy League. It is legally known as Columbia University in the City of New York, and is incorporated as Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York. Its undergraduate schools are Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (SEAS). A third school, the School of General Studies is for students whose undergraduate education was interrupted, and now wish to resume their studies. The university is also affiliated with Barnard College (an undergraduate liberal arts college for women and one of the Seven Sisters), Teachers College, Jewish Theological Seminary and Union Theological Seminary. The university's library system is among the world's largest, including currently 8.6 million bound volumes.

Campus

Due to former university president Seth Low's late-19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught in one location, most of Columbia's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in Morningside Heights. This campus was designed by acclaimed architects McKim, Mead, and White and is considered one of their greater successes. McKim, Mead, and White McKim, Mead, and White] Columbia's main campus occupies six blocks, 32 acres (132,000 m²), in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhattan. As Morningside Heights is bordered by Harlem and the Upper West Side, students have access to a variety of historic institutions in the immediate area, including Grant's Tomb, The Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, and several famous jazz clubs and soul food restaurants in the area. Health-related schools are located at the Columbia University Medical Center, about fifty blocks uptown. Columbia also owns the 26 acre Baker Field, which has the facilities for field sports, outdoor track, tennis, and rowing. This makes Columbia, by some accounts, the city's third-largest landowner after the Roman Catholic Church and the City itself, with holdings that include the fifty-story former General Electric Building at 570 Lexington Avenue (not to be confused with the current GE Building in Rockefeller Center), and 7300 apartments in Manhattan (used to house faculty, staff, and graduate students). There is a third campus on the west bank of the Hudson River, the 157 acre Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades, New York; and a fourth, 540 acres at the previous Harriman Estate, fifty miles north of New York City.

History

Founded as King's College on July 7 1754 under a royal charter granted by England's King George II, Columbia is the oldest institution of higher education in the state of New York and the sixth-oldest in the United States. Columbia has grown over time to comprise twenty schools and affiliated institutions. Controversy surrounded the founding of the new college in New York, as it was a thoroughly Anglican institution dominated by the influence of Crown officials in its governing body such as the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Crown Secretary for Plantations and Colonies. The fears of an Anglican episcopacy and Crown influence in America through King's College were confirmed by its vast wealth, far surpassing all other colonial colleges of the period. Until the American Revolution, King's College would remain a bastion of Loyalists. On the other hand, the College would produce the leading men of the Revolutionary generation.

Park Place and Rockefeller Center

In July 1754, Samuel Johnson (1696-1772; not to be confused with his near-contemporary Dr. Johnson, the British lexicographer, 1709-1784) held the first classes in a new school house adjoining Trinity Church, Wall Street, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan. There were eight students in the class. In 1767 King's College established the first American medical school to grant the MD degree. The American Revolutionary War brought the growth of the College to a halt, forcing a suspension of instruction in 1776 that lasted for eight years. Among the earliest students and trustees of King's College were John Jay, the first Chief Justice of the United States; Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury; Gouverneur Morris, the author of the final draft of the United States Constitution; and Robert R. Livingston, a member of the five-man committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence. In 1784, the college reopened as Columbia College, reflecting the patriotic fervor which had inspired the nation's quest for independence.Declaration of Independence In 1849, the College moved from Park Place, near the present site of City Hall, to 49th Street and Madison Avenue, where it remained for the next fifty years. During the last half of the nineteenth century, Columbia rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university. Columbia Law School was founded in 1858, and the country's first mining school, a precursor of today's Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, was established in 1864. Barnard College for women became affiliated with Columbia in 1889; the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons came under the aegis of the University in 1891, followed by Teachers College in 1893. The development of the Graduate Faculties in Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science established Columbia as one of the nation's earliest centers for graduate education. By the close of the nineteenth century, Columbia was the world's leading producer of academic doctorates and was universally recognized as America's top research university.

Morningside Heights

In 1896, the trustees officially authorized the use of yet another new name, Columbia University, and today the institution is officially known as "Columbia University in the City of New York." At the same time the campus was moved again from 49th Street to a more spacious campus in the Morningside Heights area of Manhattan. Manhattan University president Seth Low moved Columbia out of the area that was to become Rockefeller Center to its present location in Morningside Heights. Under the leadership of Low's successor, Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia rapidly became the nation's major institution for research, setting the "multiversity" model that later universities would adopt. On the Morningside Heights campus, Columbia centralized on a single campus the College, the School of Law, the Graduate Faculties, the School of Mines (predecessor of the Engineering School), and the College of Physicians & Surgeons. Butler went on to serve as president of Columbia for over four decades and became a giant in American public life (as one-time vice presidential candidate and a Nobel Laureate). His introduction of "downtown" business practices in university administration led to innovations in internal reforms such as the centralization of academic affairs, the direct appointment of registrars, deans, provosts, and secretaries, as well as the formation of a professionalzed university bureaucracy, unprecedented among American universities at the time. In 1902, New York newspaper magnate Joseph Pulitzer donated a substantial sum to the University for the founding of a school to teach journalism. The result was the 1912 opening of the Graduate School of Journalism-- the only journalism school in the Ivy League. The school is the administrator of the Pulitzer Prize and the duPont-Columbia Award in broadcast journalism. duPont-Columbia Award Columbia Business School was added in the early 20th century. During the first half of the 20th Century Columbia and Harvard had the largest endowments in the country. By the late 1930s, a Columbia student could study with the likes of Jacques Barzun, Paul Lazarsfeld, Mark Van Doren, Lionel Trilling, and I. I. Rabi. The University's graduates during this time were equally accomplished - for example, two alumni of Columbia's Law School, Charles Evans Hughes and Harlan Fiske Stone (who also held the position of Law School dean), served successively as Chief Justices of the United States. In the '50s, Dwight Eisenhower served as Columbia's president before becoming the President of the United States. Research into the atom by faculty members I. I. Rabi, Enrico Fermi and Polykarp Kusch placed Columbia's Physics Department in the international spotlight in the 1940s after the first nuclear pile was built to start what would become the Manhattan Project. In 1893 the Columbia University Press was founded in order to "promote the study of economic, historical, literary, scientific and other subjects; and to promote and encourage the publication of literary works embodying original research in such subjects." Among its publications are The Columbia Encyclopedia, first published in 1935, and The Columbia Lippincott Gazetteer of the World, first published in 1952.

Student demonstrations

Students protested in 1968 over the issue of whether Columbia would build its gymnasium in neighboring Morningside Park; this was seen by the protestors to be an act of aggression aimed at the Black residents of neighboring Harlem. A second issue sparking the 1968 student protest was the Columbia Administration's failure to resign its institutional membership in the Pentagon's weapons research think-tank, the Institute for Defense Analyses [IDA].

Employment

Due to its connections with various state agencies and many affiliated institutions along with Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, it is by some estimates, the largest employer in New York City. Taken by itself, without its affiliated institutions, it is at most the third-largest employer (the University's own estimate) and at a minimum, the twelfth-largest.

Publications

Major publications include the Columbia Daily Spectator,^{[http://www.columbiaspectator.com/]} the nation's second-oldest student newspaper; CTV,^{[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ctv/]} the nation's second oldest student television station; The Fed,^{[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/thefed]} an alternative humor paper; the Jester, a now-dormant campus humor magazine established in 1899 and edited at one point by Allen Ginsberg; the Columbia Review, the nation's oldest college literary magazine; the Blue & White,^{[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/bw/]} a literary magazine established in 1892; the Collection, an undergraduate literary magazine; and the Journal of Politics & Society^{,[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/helvidius/]} the nation's leading journal of advanced undergraduate research in the social sciences, published by the Helvidius Group. Columbia also has an online arts and literary web magazine The Mobius Strip.^{[http://www.mobiusmag.com/]} This year, a group of undergraduates also started AdHoc, an undergraduate magazine that grapples with progressive issues on campus. Allen Ginsberg

Athletics

While Columbia is no longer an athletics powerhouse, sports at Columbia have a long tradition. Crew was Columbia's first sport. The Columbia football team is one of the nation's oldest and won the Rose Bowl in 1934. Its wrestling team is the nation's oldest. Due to space constraints, most of Columbia's outdoor athletic teams practice and compete uptown at Baker Field in Inwood, Manhattan. Some of the rowing teams use the Orchard Beach Lagoon as their home course. Home meets for cross country running are held at Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx. Columbia has been home to some famous athletes - Lou Gehrig played baseball while he was a student at Columbia and Sid Luckman played football. Columbia's fencing team in the late 20th century was one of the nation's most successful, with NCAA team championships in 1987, 1988, 1989, 1992 and 1993. In recent years, the women's cross country team has held the Heptagonal Championship title. In 2004, both the men's and women's teams won the race. The university's recent notoriety in sports, however, lies with its football team which set an NCAA record of most consecutive football games without a win. After a losing 44 games, it broke the streak by beating Princeton at Columbia's homecoming game in 1988. Yet, Columbia is among the top 20 universities in terms of its number of NCAA Division I varsity sports offerings. For a listing of organizations, see the article Clubs and Organizations of Columbia University.

Graduate Employee Unionization

In the Fall of 2000, a group of graduate teaching assistants, upset over conditions, decided to form a union, Graduate Student Employees United. They affiliated with UAW Local 2110. These workers expressed outrage over low wages, inadequate health care, inconsistent duties, and lack of voice in their workplace. By March 2001 a majority of teaching assistants at Columbia had signed cards calling for union recognition. Following months of opposition by Columbia administrators, the National Labor Relations Board granted teaching and research assistants a federally supervised election on the question of unionization. Immediately following this election, the university administration appealed, causing the ballots to be impounded. In July 2004, the NLRB reversed earlier precedent and ruled that graduate employees do not have a right to form unions under federal labor law. Consequently, the uncounted ballots have been destroyed. Pro-union graduate employees have sought to pressure Columbia's administration to recognize their union in other ways. They have struck their work three times. In April 2002, they held a one-day strike calling for the NLRB-supervised election ballots to be counted. In April 2004, an indefinite strike lasted four weeks and disrupted numerous classes and finals at Columbia. In April 2005, a one week strike led to a small number of class cancellations and disruptions.

Institutional Alliances

National Labor Relations Board Columbia has formal educational ties to the Juilliard School of Music, the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, and to Oxford, Cambridge, and the London School of Economics in England as well as the Sciences Po in France. It operates [http://www.nevis.columbia.edu/brief-introduction.html Nevis Laboratories] in Irvington, New York, the Arden House Conference Center in Harriman, New York, the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades, New York, and Reid Hall, an academic facility in Paris. In addition to its academic ties, the school also maintains relationships with The Metropolitan Museum, The Museum of Modern Art, The Whitney Museum, The Museum of Natural History and other major museums throughout New York City, allowing students free or discounted access.

Columbia Alliance with London School of Economics

Columbia recently formalized a major institutional alliance with the London School of Economics, or the LSE, which has been burgeoning for years. The alliance developed as a result of the good working relationship between the two institutions built up through their partnership in establishing Fathom, a center for online knowledge and learning from the world's leading universities, libraries, museums and research institutes. Columbia Business School and LSE are also collaborators in UNext.com, a privately held company dedicated to the development and delivery of business education and training via the Internet. So far, the alliance has achieved three joint Masters degree programs in public policy and environmental studies, including a Master of Public Administration, a Master of Public Policy, and Master of Science, two joint law degree programs, a joint Master of Laws (LLM) and Bachelor of Laws (LLB), at least five joint research projects, one joint research centre, and an endowment through joint fundraising to provide scholarships for students to enroll or participate in the research performed by the Columbia-LSE affiliation.

Columbia Alliance with Sciences Po

Columbia also recently formalized a major institutional alliance with the Sciences Po, the most prestigious social science school in the French-speaking world. The purpose of the partnership is to foster greater academic collaboration between the students, faculty, and research centers of each institution. This specific alliance has resulted in myriad joint international policy-focused conferences held in Paris and New York throughout the year. As well, the alliance has produced a joint Master of Public Policy and Master of Public Affairs with the School of International and Political Affairs, and a joint law degree.

Global Public Policy Network

One of the most significant results of Columbia's alliance with LSE and Sciences Po has been the launch of the Global Public Policy Network, or GPPN. The program was launched by representatives from all three schools on 20 September 2005 at Peking University in Beijing, China. The network is meant to foster an academic research and policy dialogue among three of the world's leading public affairs schools to address pressing global problems. The Network will eventually expand to include about ten public policy graduate schsools in key world cities, sponsoring collaborative public policy research and student and faculty exchanges, as well as offering dual degrees in graduate professional programs.

Awards and honors

Until 2005, 73 Columbians have been honored with Nobel Prizes for their work in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, peace, and economics. For a complete list, see[http://c250.columbia.edu/c250_celebrates/nobel_laureates/by_year.html] Other awards won by current and former faculty include:
- MacArthur Foundation Award: 19
- National Medal of Science: 7
- National Academy of Sciences: 35
- American Academy of Arts and Sciences: 129 [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/opir/facts.html?faculty]

Schools and enrollment

As of autumn of 2003, there were 21,805 students at Columbia University, not including students at affiliates such as Barnard College or Teachers College, Columbia University. This total is broken down as follows. 5,530 students were enrolled in undergraduate programs:
- Columbia College: 4,170
- Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (undergraduate): 1,360 5,964 were enrolled in graduate programs:
- School of the Arts: 762
- Graduate School of Arts & Sciences
- Enrollment includes approximately 142 students studying in order to receive liberal studies M.A. degrees, and another 3,846 studients studying either to receive doctorate or masters degrees.
- School of International and Public Affairs: 1,214 6,324 were in professional programs:
- Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation: 582
- School of Business: 1,933
- Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (graduate): 1,048
- Graduate School of Journalism: 339
- Columbia University School of Law: 1,486
- School of Social Work: 936 2,565 were enrolled in programs at Health Sciences:
- College of Physicians and Surgeons
- Medicine: 634
- Institute of Human Nutrition: 32
- Occupational Therapy: 122
- Psych. Training & Research: 31
- Physical Therapy: 75
- School of Nursing: 357
- Mailman School of Public Health: 738
- School of Dental and Oral Surgery
- Dental and Oral Surgery: 330
- Graduate Dental: 84

Timeline

1754 Royal Charter establishes King's College under King George II of England. 1784 Renamed Columbia College by New York State Legislature. 1810 Final revisions are made to the Charter under which the University operates today. 1849 College moves from Park Place, near present City Hall, to 49th and Madison. 1864 Formal establishment of the Columbia College School of Mines. 1887 New York School for the Training of Teachers, later renamed (Teachers College, Columbia University) founded to provide training for teachers. 1889 Barnard College founded as Columbia's sister school, to provide an education for women. 1896 Trustees formally designate Columbia as a university. 1897 The University moves from 49th and Madison to its present site in Morningside Heights. 1928 Opening of the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, the first such center to combine teaching, research, and patient care. 1947 Nevis Laboratories was founded in Irvington, New York, offering facilities for experimental physics research. 1949 The Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, a research center dedicated to understanding planet Earth, opened in Palisades, New York. 1954 Columbia's Bicentennial Celebration. 1955 Columbia's FBH Hall opens. 1983 The first Columbia College class to include women arrives on campus in September. Columbia becomes the last Ivy League school to be co-educational. After extensive negotiations, Barnard College chooses to remain largely independent under an [http://www.barnard.edu/about/columbia.html affiliation agreement] that remains in effect today. from [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/opir/facts.html?timeline 2004 Facts]

In film, television and the arts

Movies featuring scenes shot on Morningside campus include:
- Altered States
- Anger Management
- Awakenings
- Black and White
- Crimes and Misdemeanors
- Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind
- Everyone Says I Love You
- Ghostbusters
- Ghostbusters II
- Hannah and Her Sisters
- Hitch
- K-PAX
- Kinsey
- The Last First Kiss
- The Mirror Has Two Faces
- Malcolm X
- Manhattan
- Mona Lisa Smile
- New York Minute
- Porn 'n Chicken
- P.S.
- Spider-Man
- Spider-Man 2
- The Sopranos
- Thirteen Conversations About One Thing Movies or shows with significant portrayals of Columbia alumni or students:
- The Graduate - Dustin Hoffman plays a graduate
- Finding Forrester
- Igby Goes Down
- The Pride of the Yankees
- Quiz Show - Assistant professor, and son of famous professor Mark Van Doren, Charles Van Doren becomes involved in a fixed quiz show.
- The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants - Eric, Mike Vogel, is a student at Columbia Currently shooting on or around the University's campus:
- The Producers: The Movie Musical

External links

- [http://www.columbia.edu/ Columbia's homepage]
- [http://www.college.columbia.edu/ Columbia College] - undergraduate school of arts and science
- [http://www.engineering.columbia.edu/ Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science] - undergraduate and graduate engineering school
- [http://www.barnard.edu/ Barnard College]
- [http://www.gs.columbia.edu/ Columbia School of General Studies]
- [http://www.columbiaspectator.com/ Columbia Daily Spectator] - second oldest student newspaper in the nation
- [http://www.culpa.info/ CULPA: Columbia Underground Listing (of) Professor Ability]
- [http://cusj.columbia.edu/ The Columbia Undergraduate Science Journal]
- [http://www.law.columbia.edu/ Columbia Law School]
- [http://www.jrn.columbia.edu/ Columbia Graduate School of Journalism]
- [http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ Columbia Teachers College]
- [http://www.uts.columbia.edu/ Union Theological Seminary]
- [http://www.jtsa.edu/ Jewish Theological Seminary]
- [http://www.sipa.columbia.edu/ School of International and Public Affairs]
- [http://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/ Columbia Graduate School of Business]
- [http://www.arch.columbia.edu/ Graduate School of Architecture Planning and Preservation]
- [http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/stand_columbia/f.html Timeline] Category:Ivy League Category:Association of American Universities Category:Universities and colleges in New York City Category:Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools Category:Colonial colleges Category:Film schools Category:Nursing schools in the US ko:컬럼비아 대학교 ja:コロンビア大学

St Antony's College, Oxford

St Antony's College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom. St Antony's is the most international of the seven graduate colleges of the University of Oxford, specialising in international relations, economics, politics, and history of particular parts of the world – Europe, Russia and the former Soviet states, the Middle East, Africa, Japan, China, South and South East Asia, and Latin America.

History

St Antony's was founded in 1950 as the result of the gift of Antonin Besse of Aden, a merchant of French descent. Its role was "to be a centre of advanced study and research in the fields of modern international history, philosophy, economics and politics and to provide an international centre within the University where graduate students from all over the world can live and work together in close contact with senior members of the University who are specialists in their fields". The College opened its doors to its first students in Michaelmas Term 1950 and received its Royal Charter in 1953. A Supplementary Charter in 1962 was granted to allow the College to admit women as well as men and in 1963 the College was made a full member of the University. The first Warden of the College was Sir William Deakin (1950–1968), a young Oxford academic who in the Second World War became an adventurous soldier and aide to Winston Churchill. He won Antonin Besse's confidence and played the key role in turning his vision into the centre of excellence that St Antony's has become. Sir Raymond Carr (1968–1987), a distinguished historian of Spain, expanded the College and its regional coverage and opened its doors to visiting scholars from all over the world. Sir Ralf Dahrendorf (later Lord) (1987–1997) came to St Antony's after a distinguished career as a social theorist and politician in Germany, a European Commissioner and Director of the London School of Economics. He further enlarged the College and developed its role as a source of policy advice. The present Warden, Sir Marrack Goulding (1997–), served in the British Diplomatic Service for 26 years before becoming an Under Secretary-General at the United Nations. His appointment underlined the international nature of the College and its links with government and business. Currently, the College is home to several renowned Fellows, including:
- Robert Service (historian), noted historian of the USSR and biographer of Lenin and Stalin, and
- Timothy Garton Ash, respected journalist and author on European matters

Notable alumni

- Anne Applebaum (Washington Post journalist, Pulitzer prize winner)
- Bridget Kendall (BBC diplomatic correspondent)
- Thomas Friedman (New York Times columnist)
- Gary Hart (U.S. Senator, 1974-1987)
- Alvaro Uribe Velez (President of Colombia, 2002-2006)
- Dov S. Zakheim (U.S. Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller) and Chief Financial Officer) :See also Former students of St Antony's College.

External link

- [http://www.sant.ox.ac.uk/ Official website] Category:Colleges of the University of Oxford

Oxford University

The University of Oxford, located in the city of Oxford, England, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university traces its roots back to at least the end of the 11th century, although the exact date of foundation remains unclear. According to legend, after riots between scholars and townsfolk broke out in 1209, some of the academics at Oxford fled north-east to the town of Cambridge, where the University of Cambridge was founded. The two universities have since had a long history of competition with each other, and are widely seen as the most prestigious universities in the United Kingdom (see Oxbridge rivalry). Oxford has recently topped two university-ranking league tables produced by British newspapers: it came first according to The Guardian and, for the fourth consecutive year, in The Times table. Although widely contested (as with most league tables) on the basis of their ranking criteria, recent international tables produced by Shanghai Jiao Tong University rated Oxford tenth[http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2005/ARWU2005_Top100.htm] in the world. Oxford is a member of the Russell Group of research-led British universities, the Coimbra Group (a network of leading European universities), the LERU (League of European Research Universities), and is also a core member of the Europaeum.

History

Europaeum The date of the University's foundation is unknown, and indeed it may not have been a single event, but there is evidence of teaching there as early as 1096. When Henry II of England forbade English students to study at the University of Paris in 1167, Oxford began to grow very quickly. The foundation of the first halls of residence, which later became colleges, dates from this period. Rioting in 1209 led many scholars to leave Oxford for other parts of the country, leading to the establishment of a university in Cambridge. On June 20 1214, a charter of liberties was granted to the University by Nicholas de Romanis, the papal legate, which authorised the appointment of a chancellor of the University. Riots between townsmen and scholars ("town and gown") were common until the St Scholastica Day riot in 1355 led to the king confirming the supremacy of the University over the town. In 1555 - 6 the Protestant Oxford Martyrs, Latimer, Ridley and Cranmer were burned at Oxford. The University's status was formally confirmed by an Act for the Incorporation of Both Universities in 1571, in which the University's formal title is given as The Chancellor, Masters and Scholars of the University of Oxford. In 1603 the University granted the right to appoint two Members of Parliament, a right which lasted until the abolition of university constituencies in 1949. The comprehensive set of statutes, known as the Laudian Code, was drawn up by Archbishop William Laud in 1636 and ratified by Charles I. The University supported the king during the English Civil War, and was the site of his court and parliament, but clashed with his grandson, the Roman Catholic James II, who was later overthrown in the Glorious Revolution. In the 1830s the University was the site of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England. A Royal Commission to reform the University was appointed in 1850 and its proposals, accepted by Parliament, revolutionised the medieval workings of the University, until then still governed by the code of 1636. Later royal commissions were appointed in 1872 and 1919. In 1871 the Universities Tests Act opened the University to Dissenters and Roman Catholics. The first women's halls were established in 1878, and women were admitted to degrees in 1920.

Organisation

Oxford is a collegiate university, consisting of the University's central facilities, such as departments and faculties, libraries and science facilities, and 39 colleges and 7 Permanent Private Halls (PPHs). All teaching staff and degree students must belong to one of the colleges (or PPHs). These colleges are not only houses of residence, but have substantial responsibility for the teaching of undergraduates and postgraduates. Some colleges only accept postgraduate students. Only one of the colleges, St Hilda's, remains single-sex, accepting only women (though several of the religious PPHs are male-only). Oxford's collegiate system springs from the fact that the University came into existence through the gradual agglomeration of independent institutions in the city of Oxford. : See also: Colleges of Oxford University, and a list of Cambridge sister colleges. Image:brasnose.JPG
Brasenose College in the 1670s As well as the collegiate level of organisation, the University is subdivided into departments on a subject basis, much like most other universities. Departments take a major role in graduate education and an increasing role in undergraduate education, providing lectures and classes and organising examinations. Departments are also a centre of research, funded by outside bodies including major research councils; while colleges have an interest in research, few are subject-specialized in organisa

National War College

The National War College (NWC) of the United States is a school in the National Defense University. It is located in Theodore Roosevelt Hall in Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C., the oldest Army post still active today. It was officially established on July 1, 1946 as an upgraded replacement for the Army-Navy Staff College, which operated from June 1943 to July 1946. According to Lieutenant General Leonard T. Gerow, President of the Board which recommended its formation, "The College is concerned with grand strategy and the utilization of the national resources necessary to implement that strategy... Its graduates will exercise a great influence on the formulation of national and foreign policy in both peace and war...." Most mid-level and senior military officers take a course of study at the War College in preparation for higher staff and command positions. See also: Naval War College

External links

- [http://www.ndu.edu/nwc/ National War College homepage] Category:United States military academies Category:Universities and colleges in Washington, DC Category:Staff Colleges

Columbia University

Campus

History

Park Place and Rockefeller Center

Morningside Heights

Student demonstrations

Employment

Publications

Athletics

Graduate Employee Unionization

Institutional Alliances

Columbia Alliance with London School of Economics

Columbia Alliance with Sciences Po

Global Public Policy Network

Awards and honors

Schools and enrollment

Timeline

In film, television and the arts

External links

Orthodox Judaism

Orthodox Judaism is the stream of Judaism which adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized in the Talmud ("The Oral Law") and later codified in the Shulkhan Arukh ("Code of Jewish Law"). It is governed by these works and the Rabbinical commentary of the last 1,000+ years. Orthodox Judaism is characterized by:
- The belief that the Torah (i.e. the Pentateuch) and its pertaining laws are "Divine": Transmitted by God to Moses who then wrote it down, and cannot be changed by any humans.
- God has made an exclusive unbreakable covenant with the Children of Israel, the ancestors of the Jewish people, to be governed by the Torah.
- The belief that there is also an oral law in Judaism, embodied mainly in the Talmud and Aggadah, which is intrinsically and inherently entwined with the written law of the Torah.
- Adherence to Halakha (code/s of Jewish law), as codified mainly in the Shulkhan Arukh, as an expression of both the written and oral laws.
- Judging the world outside, at any point in history and time, by the principles and guidance of what is presented and taught in the Torah/Talmud/Aggadah/Halakha primarily through the viewpoint of rabbis and their rabbinical literature.
- The centrality of yeshivas as schools of Talmudic study and learning.
- A traditional teaching and acceptance of the Jewish principles of faith by all Jews.

Subgroups

Orthodox Judaism's central belief is that the Torah, including both the Written Law and the Oral Law, was given directly from God to Moses and can never be altered or rejected in any way. Resultantly, all Jews are required to live in accordance with the Commandments and Jewish law. While belief in the divinity of the Torah and the right of the Sages and Rabbis to fully interpret and apply it is the primary unifying tenet of Orthodox Judaism, Orthodox Jews can be classified into several subgroups. These groups maintain significant social differences, and differences in understanding halakha due to their varying "attitudes" to various issues. The greatest differences are over: #the degree to which an Orthodox Jew should integrate and/or disengage from modern secular society; #the relative value of Torah study versus secular studies or other pursuits; #the importance of a central spiritual guide in areas outside of Halakhic decision; #the importance of maintaining non-Halakhic customs, such as dress, language, and music; #the relationship of the modern state of Israel to Judaism; #the role of women in (religious) society. Broadly, the subgroups of Orthodoxy comprise Modern Orthodox Judaism, Haredi Judaism, and Hasidic Judaism. Modern Orthodoxy advocates increased integration with non-Jewish society, and regards secular knowledge as inherently valuable. Religious Zionism, characterized by belief in the importance of the modern state of Israel to Judaism, often intersects with Modern Orthodoxy. Haredi Judaism advocates segregation from non-Jewish culture, although not from non-Jewish society entirely. It is characterized by its focus on community wide Torah study (in contrast with Modern Orthodoxy, which decentralizes the role of Torah study for lay people). Hasidic Judaism places great emphasis on all Jewish traditions, including the mystical, and, generally, prefers separation from all non-Jewish society. Haredi and Hasidic Judaism are at best ambivalent about the modern state of Israel. Since there is no one unifying Orthodox body, there is no one official statement of principles of faith. Rather, each Orthodox group claims to be a non-exclusive heir to the received tradition of Jewish theology, usually affirming a literal acceptance of Maimonides's 13 principles as the only acceptable position. Some within Modern Orthodoxy take the more liberal position that these principles only represent one particular formulation of Jewish principles of faith, and that others are possible. Practices are largely standardised amongst the groups. For example, Sephardic Orthodox Jews base most of their practices on the Shulkhan Arukh, the 16th century legal index written by Rabbi Yosef Karo; Ashkenazic Orthodox Jews base most of their practices on the Rema, the gloss on this work by Rabbi Moses Isserles. In the postwar period, the Mishnah Berurah (a commentary on the Orach Chayim section) has become the authoritative halakhic guide for much of Orthodox Ashkenazic Jewry; Kaf HaChaim and Ben Ish Chai fill a similar role in Sephardi communities.

Origin and definition of the name "Orthodox"

While many Orthodox Jews accept the label "Orthodox", others reject and criticize it because it was never traditionally applied to Jews in ancient times or the Middle Ages. Many Orthodox Jews prefer to call their faith Torah Judaism. The word "orthodox" itself is derived from the Greek orthos meaning "straight" and doxa meaning "opinion". Use of the "Orthodox" label seems to have begun towards the beginning of the 19th century. Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch wrote in 1854 that: :...it was not "Orthodox" Jews who introduced the word "orthodox" into Jewish discussion. It was the modern "progressive" Jews who first applied the name to "old, " "backward" Jews as a derogatory term. This name was... resented by "old" Jews. And rightfully so... Others, however, say that Rabbi Isaac Leeser was the first to use the term in the US in his journal "The Occident," whose target audience was the more "traditional" or Orthodox Jew.

The development of Orthodoxy

Orthodoxy is not a single movement or school of thought. There is no single rabbinic body to which all its rabbis are expected to belong, or any one organization representing its member congregations. In the United States at the present time, there are a number of Orthodox congregational organizations such as, for example, Agudath Israel, the Orthodox Union, and the National Council of Young Israel -- none of which can claim to represent even a majority of all Orthodox congregations. What the exact forms of Judaism were during the times of Moses or during the eras of the Mishnah and Talmud cannot be exactly known today in all its details, but Orthodox Jews maintain that contemporary Orthodox Judaism maintains the same basic philosophy and legalistic framework that existed throughout Jewish history -- whereas the other denominations depart from it. It may be said that Orthodox Judaism, as it exists today, is an outgrowth that stretches from the time of Moses, to the time of the Mishnah and Talmud, through the oral law, and rabbinic literature ongoing until the present time. In the early 1800s, elements within German Jewry sought to reform Jewish belief and practice in response to The Age of Enlightenment and the emancipation. In light of modern scholarship, they denied divine authorship of the Torah, declared only those biblical laws concerning ethics to be binding, and stated that the rest of halakha (Jewish law) need no longer be viewed as normative (see Reform Judaism). At the same time, there were those German Jews who actively maintained their traditions and adherence to Jewish law while simultaneously engaging with a post-Enlightenment society. This camp was best represented by the work and thought of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch. Hirsch worked to reconcile traditional Judaism with the social realities of the modern age, which he termed "Torah im Derech Eretz". While insisting on strict adherence to Jewish beliefs and practices, he encouraged secular studies, including history and modern philosophy; he also encouraged limited integration into the non-Jewish community. This form of Judaism was termed "neo-Orthodoxy", which gave rise to the various forms of Modern Orthodox Judaism. Modern Orthodoxy is considered traditional by most Jews today, but within the Orthodox community groups to its right consider it of questionable validity, and hold that Hirsch's views are not the same as modern day Modern Orthodoxy. In the twentieth century, a large segment of the Orthodox population (notably as represented by World Agudath Israel movement formally established in 1912) disagreed, and took a stricter approach. For a few of them, the motto "Anything new is forbidden by Torah" was appealing, but they too followed various routes of observance and practice. The leading rabbis of Orthodoxy viewed innovations and modifications within Jewish law and customs with extreme care and caution. Some today refer to this form of Judaism a "Haredi Judaism", or (controversially) "Ultra-Orthodox Judaism". Unfortunately, in some circles, the label "Haredi" has taken on pejorative meanings as with "Orthodox" and certainly as in the case of "ultra-Orthodox". The various approaches have proved resilient. It is estimated that presently there are more Jews studying in yeshivot (Talmudical schools) and Kollelim (post-graduate Talmudical colleges for married students) than at any other time in history. In 1915 Yeshiva College (later Yeshiva University) and its Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Rabbinical Seminary was established in New York City for training in a Modern Orthodox milieu. Eventually a school branch was established in Los Angeles, CA. A number of other smaller but influential Orthodox seminaries, mostly Haredi, were also established throughout the country, most notably in New York City, Baltimore, and Chicago. The Haredi yeshiva in Lakewood, New Jersey is the largest institution of its kind.

Beliefs

Orthodox Judaism is composed of different groups with intertwining beliefs, practices and theologies, and in their broad patterns, the Orthodox movements are very similar. Orthodoxy collectively considers itself the only true heir to the Jewish tradition. Most of Orthodoxy considers all other Jewish movements to be unacceptable deviations from tradition. Most Orthodox groups characterize non-Orthodox forms of Judaism as heresy; see the article on Relationships between Jewish religious movements. Orthodox Judaism affirms monotheism, the belief in one God. Among the beliefs affirmed are: Maimonidean rationalism; Kabbalistic mysticism; Hasidic panentheism. A few affirm limited theism (the theology elucidated by Gersonides in "The Wars of the Lord".) Orthodox Judaism maintains the traditional understanding of Jewish identity. A Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition. Orthodoxy thus rejects patrilineal descent. Similarly, Orthodoxy does not allow intermarriage. Intermarriage is seen as a deliberate rejection of Judaism, and an intermarried person is effectively cut off from most of the Orthodox community. However, some Chabad Lubavitch and Modern Orthodox Jews do reach out to intermarried Jews.

Beliefs about Jewish law and tradition

Orthodox Judaism holds that on Mount Sinai the Written Law was transmitted along with an Oral Law. The words of the Torah (Pentateuch) were spoken to Moses by God; the laws contained in this Written Torah, the Mitzvot, were given along with detailed explanations (the oral tradition) as to how to apply and interpret them. Furthermore, The Oral law includes principles designed to create new rules. The Oral law is held to be transmitted with an incredibly high degree of accuracy. According to Orthodox Judaism, Jewish Law today is based on the commandments in the Torah, as viewed through the discussions and debates contained in classical rabbinic literature, especially the Mishnah and the Talmud. Orthodox Judaism thus holds that the Halakha ("Jewish law") represents the "will of God", either directly, or as closely to directly as possible. If the laws are not the word of God per se, they are nonetheless derived from the literal word of God in the Torah, using a set of rules also revealed by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, and have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care. If some of the details of Jewish Law may have been lost over the millennia, they were reconstructed in accordance with internally consistent rules; see The thirteen rules by which Jewish law was derived. In this world view, the Mishnaic and Talmudic rabbis are closer to the Divine revelation; by corollary, one must be extremely conservative in changing or adapting Jewish law. Furthermore, Orthodox Judaism holds that, given Jewish law's Divine origin, no underlying principle may be compromised in accounting for changing political, social or economic conditions; in this sense, "creativity" and development in Jewish law is held to have been limited. Thus, Orthodox Jews study the Talmud in depth, but Talmudic legal methodology is rarely used to alter Jewish law as codified in later compendia. Orthodox Jews will also study the Talmud for its own sake; this is considered to be the greatest mitzvah of all; see Torah study. As above, it is held virtually as a principle of belief among many Orthodox Jews that halakha ("Jewish law") never changes. Haredi Judaism thus views higher criticism of the Talmud as inappropriate, and almost certainly heretical. At the same time, many within Modern Orthodox Judaism do not have a problem with historical scholarship in this area. See the entry on Higher criticism of the Talmud.

Orthodox organizations and groups

The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America, more commonly known as the Orthodox Union, or more simply as the "OU", and the Rabbinical Council of America, "RCA" are organizations which represent Modern Orthodox Judaism, a large segment of Orthodoxy in America, Canada and England. These groups should not be confused with the similarly named Union of Orthodox Rabbis (described below). The National Council of Young Israel, and the Council of Young Israel Rabbis are smaller groups that were originally founded as Modern Orthodox organizations, but which have since moved closer to Haredi Judaism's positions. Its current leadership disavows the use of the term "Modern Orthodoxy" altogether, and most will not attend official meetings of the RCA or OU. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel was originally founded with the intention of representing all of Judaism within the State of Israel, and has two chief rabbis: One is Ashkenazic (of the East European and Russian Jewish tradition) and one is Sephardic (of the Spanish, North African and middle-eastern Jewish tradition.) The rabbinate has never been accepted by most Israeli Haredi groups. Since the 1960s the Chief rabbinate of Israel has moved somewhat closer to the positions of Haredi Judaism. [http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/gov/relaffs.html Chief Rabbinate of Israel] Chabad Lubavitch is a vast international educational, outreach, community-building movement of Hasidic Judaism. In over 40 years, about 5,000 young men who are all accompanied by equally motivated spouses with typically large families, all of whom aim to fulfill their mandate of Jewish outreach, education, and revival. They look for and recruit people who want to join them, and they are the originators of, and major players in, the Teshuva movement, which encourages Jews alienated from their religion to become more Jewishly aware and religiously observant. Agudath Israel of America (also: Agudat Yisrael or Agudas Yisroel) is a large and influential Haredi group in America. Its roots go back to the establishment of the original founding of the Agudath Israel movement in 1912 in Kattowitz Poland. The American Agudath Israel was founded in 1939. There is an Agudat Israel (Hasidic) in Israel, and also Degel HaTorah (non-Hasidic "Lithuanian"), as well as an Agudath Israel of Europe in Europe. These groups are loosely affiliated through the World Agudath Israel, which from time to time holds a major gathering in Israel called a knessiah gathering. Agudah unites many rabbinic leaders from the Hasidic Judaism wing with those of the non-Hasidic "Yeshiva" world. In Israel it shares a similar agenda with the Sephardic Shas political party. [http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Aguddah.html Agudath Yisrael], [http://www.shemayisrael.com/chareidi/archives5761/behar/adinner.htm More on Agudath Yisrael]. The Agudath HaRabonim (Agudas HaRabbonim), also known as The Union of Orthodox Rabbis of the United States and Canada, is a small Haredi organization that was founded in 1902. It should not be confused with "The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America" (see above) which is a separate organization. While at one time influential within Orthodox Judaism, the Agudath HaRabonnim in the last several decades it has progressively moved further to the right; its membership has been dropping and it has been relatively inactive. Some of its members are rabbis from Chabad (Lubavitch) Judaism; some are also members of the RCA (see above). It is currently most famous for its 1997 declaration (citing Israeli Chief Rabbi