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| Liber Linteus |
Liber LinteusThe Liber Linteus (Zagrabiensis), Latin for "Linen Book (of Zagreb)", is the longest Etruscan text and the only extant linen book. It is over two thousand years old, and was preserved only through being unwittingly used as mummy wrappings. The mummy and the manuscript are kept in a refrigerated room at the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Croatia.
Discovery
In 1848 Mihael Barić resigned his post as secretary in the Austro-Hungarian Royal Chancellery and embarked upon a tour of several countries, one of which was Egypt. While there, in 1849, he purchased the mummy of a young girl, and took it home with him to Vienna. Although Barić removed the linen wrappings, he never realised their importance. The mummy remained on display at his home until 1859, when he died.
The executors of Barić's estate donated the mummy to the National Museum in Zagreb. It was here that the German Egyptologist Heinrich Brugsch examined the wrappings and noticed a series of signs - the text of the Liber Linteus - though he did not know what he was looking at.
The wrappings were transported to Vienna in 1891, where Jacob Krall thoroughly examined and reassembled them. It was his work that established that these wrappings were a linen book written in Etruscan.
Structure
The book is laid out in twelve columns from right to left, each one representing a "page". Much of the first three columns is missing, and it is not known where the book begins. Closer to the end of the book the text is almost complete (there is a strip missing that runs the entire length of the book). By the end of the last page the cloth is blank and the selvage is intact, showing the definite end of the book.
There are 230 lines of text, with 1200 legible words. Black ink has been used for the main text, and red ink for lines and diacritics.
In use it would have been folded so that one page sat atop another like a codex, rather than being wound along like a scroll. Julius Caesar is said to have folded scrolls in similar accordion fashion while on campaigns.
Contents
Though the Etruscan language cannot be fully read, certain words can be picked out of the text to give us an indication of the subject matter. Both dates and the names of gods are found throughout the text, giving the impression that the book is a religious calendar. Such calendars are known from the Roman world, giving not only the dates of ceremonies and processions, but also the rituals and liturgies involved. There is even a collection of rituals in Latin (Libri Rituales) translated from the original Etruscan rites, like those in the Liber Linteus.
The theory that this is a religious text, although still untranslated, is strengthened by recurring words and phrases that are surmised to have liturgical or dedicatory meanings. Some notable formulae on the Liber Linteus include a hymn-like repetition of in column 7 as well as variations on the phrase <šacnicleri cilθl špureri meθlumeri enaš> found throughout the text.
Origins
Certain local gods mentioned within the text allow the Liber Linteus's place of production to narrowed to a small area in the southeast of Tuscany near Lake Trasimeno. Four major Etruscan cities were in that area: modern day Arezzo, Perugia, Chiusi and Cortona. All of them would have had temples that could have both produced and used the Liber Linteus.
The age of the book is unknown, though a date of about 250 BCE is given due to the shape of the letters. It must have been made before use of the Etruscan language declined in opposition to Latin, as the cost involved would require temple patrons that yet spoke Etruscan.
The End
As the Etruscan tongue slowly died out the meaning of the Liber Linteus would have been forgotten: first as a text, and then as a sacred object. New calendars were written in Latin, and new customs would have prevailed. Perhaps the community who wrote it, like the language and the book itself, declined and fell into obscurity. For many years the book would have lain untouched, its owners considering it no more than a worthless anachronism.
To Egypt
In the first century BCE, the Roman Empire conquered Egypt. Like the Hellenes before them, Roman settlers embraced many aspects of Egyptian culture, including mummification. Such was the vogue of this burial practice in the first century CE that there was a widespread shortage of cloth. The price of cloth rose sharply, and corpses were wrapped in anything available (one has been found wrapped in a sail).
The community that owned the Liber Linteus would have taken this opportunity to make some money from their old junk, and we may yet thank them for it.
See also
- Tabula Cortonensis - An Etruscan inscription.
- Cippus perusinus - An Etruscan inscription.
- Pyrgi Tablets - An Etruscan inscription.
- Etruscan civilization
- Lemnian language
- Eteocypriot
- Eteocretan
- Etruria
External links
- [http://users.tpg.com.au/etr/etrusk/default.html The Etruscan Liber Linteus]; contains etexts of the book, proposed translations, and notes on haruspicy.
- [http://www.amz.hr/eng/page.asp?id=odjeli&sub=1&sub2=6&url=razne_kolekcije Information on the Liber Linteus from the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb]
- [http://www.amz.hr/eng/page.asp?id=odjeli&sub=1&sub2=2&url=egipatska_zbirka#1 Information on the Zagreb Mummy from the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb]
Category:Manuscripts
Category:Etruscans
Latin (language)
Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. It gained great importance as the formal language of the Roman Empire. All Romance languages, those being most notably Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian, are descended from Latin, and many words based on Latin are found in other modern languages such as English. The Latin alphabet, derived from the Greek, remains the most widely-used alphabet in the world. It is said that 80 percent of scholarly English words are derived from Latin (in a large number of cases by way of French). Moreover, in the Western world, Latin was a lingua franca, the learned language for scientific and political affairs, for more than a thousand years, being eventually replaced by French in the 18th century and English in the late 19th. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the formal language of the Roman Catholic Church to this day, and thus the official national language of the Vatican. The Church used Latin as its primary liturgical language until the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s. Latin is also still used (drawing heavily on Greek roots) to furnish the names used in the scientific classification of living things. The modern study of Latin, along with Greek, is known as Classics.
Main features
Latin is a synthetic inflectional language: affixes (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, which is called declension; and person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect in verbs, which is called conjugation. There are five declensions (declinationes) of nouns and four conjugations of verbs.
There are six noun cases:
#nominative (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative),
#genitive (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English of or the addition of s to a noun),
#dative (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English to or for),
#accusative (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases),
#ablative (separation, source, cause, or instrument, often represented by the English by, with, from),
#vocative (used of the person or thing being addressed).
In addition, some nouns have a locative case used to express location (otherwise expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as in), but this survival from Proto-Indo-European is found only in the names of lakes, cities, towns, small islands, and a few other words related to locations, such as "house", "ground", and "countryside". Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin.
There are six general tenses in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them. The subjunctive mood, however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses. These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative. The following examples are of the first conjugation verb "laudare" ("to praise") in the indicative mood and the active voice:
Primary sequence tenses
# present (laudo, "I praise")
# imperfect (laudabam, "I was praising")
# future (laudabo, "I shall praise," "I will praise")
Secondary sequence tenses
# perfect (laudavi, "I praised", "I have praised")
# pluperfect (laudaveram, "I had praised")
# future perfect (laudavero, "I shall have praised," "I will have praised")
The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in "When I will have run...") and so may also sometimes be included in the primary sequence.
Latin and Romance
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Latin evolved into the various Romance languages. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese.
The Romance languages evolved from Vulgar Latin, the spoken language of common usage, which in turn evolved from an older speech which also produced the formal classical standard. Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive.
Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and vocative.
In Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools as Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In Liceo Classico Ancient Greek is a compulsory subject.
Latin and English
See Latin influence in English for a more complete exposition.
English grammar is independent of Latin grammar, though prescriptive grammarians in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules — such as the prohibition against the split infinitive — have not worked successfully in regular usage. However, as many as half the words in English were derived from Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, hundreds of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English.
During the 16th and on through the 18th century English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words (as if they had spilled from a pot of ink). Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. Imbibe, extrapolate, dormant and inebriation are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word etymology is derived from the Greek word etymologia, meaning "true sense of the word."
Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings - perhaps 25% of the total [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/]. However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as the law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university. After the introduction of the Modern Language GCSE in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.
Latin education
The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the Living Latin movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the Vatican and the University of Kentucky. In Britain the Classical Association encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. In the United States there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the National Junior Classical League (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students. Many would-be international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful Interlingua considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (le latino moderne international e simplificate).
Latin translations of modern literature such as Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, and The Cat in the Hat have also helped boost interest in the language.
See also
About the Latin language
- Latin grammar
- Latin spelling and pronunciation
- Latin declension
- Latin conjugation
- Latin alphabet
- List of Latin words with English derivatives
- Latin verbs with English derivatives
- Latin nouns with English derivatives
- ablative absolute
- Word order in Latin
About the Latin literary heritage
- Latin literature
- Romance languages
- Loeb Classical Library
- List of Latin phrases
- List of Latin proverbs
- Brocard
- List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
- List of Latin place names in Europe
- Carmen Possum
Other related topics
- Roman Empire
- Internationalism
References
- Bennett, Charles E. Latin Grammar (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
- N. Vincent: "Latin", in The Romance Languages, M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
- Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
- Wheelock, Frederic. Latin: An Introduction (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237
External links
- [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
- [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
- [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
- [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
- [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
- [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
- [http://augustinus.eresmas.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
- [http://www.learnlatin.tk LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin
- [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
- [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
- [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin–English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
- [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
- [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
- [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
- [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
- [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&type=text&text=Replace%20Me&from=eng&to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
- [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old & New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English.
Category:Classical languages
Category:Ancient languages
Category:Fusional languages
Category:Languages of Italy
Category:Languages of Vatican City
als:Latein
zh-min-nan:Latin-gí
ko:라틴어
ja:ラテン語
simple:Latin language
th:ภาษาละติน
Linen]]
Linen is a material made from the fibers of the flax (and historically, cannabis) plant.
Flax fiber
Linen is descriptive of yarns spun entirely from flax fibers, or fabrics woven from linen yarns. It is strong, durable, and resists rotting in damp climates. It is one of the few textiles that has a greater breaking strength wet than dry. It has a long "staple" (individual strand length) relative to cotton and other natural fibers.
The fiber in its un-spun state is called flax. After it is spun into yarn it becomes linen.
Measure
The standard measure of bulk linen yarn is the lea. This is a specific length, or indirect grist system, i.e. the number of length units per unit mass. A yarn having a size of 1 lea will give 300 yards per pound. The fine yarns used in handkerchiefs, etc. might be 60 lea, and give 60x300 = 18000 yards per pound. The symbol is NeL.
More commonly used in continental Europe is the Metric system, Nm. This is the number of 1000m lengths per kilogram.
In China they often tend to use the English Cotton system, NeC. This is the number of 840 yard lengths in a pound.
Production history
Up until the 1950s or so the finest linen yarn was made in Scotland, Ireland (Irish linen), and Belgium. The climates of these locations were ideal for natural processing methods called "retting".In Ireland and Scotland the retting took place in retting dams and rivers, and could lead to pollution. In continental Europe where temperatures are higher, dew retting in the fields could take place, this was favoured from an environmental viewpoint.
As years went by many of the finest factories in those areas closed, and most linen is currently made in China.
The decrease in use of linen may be attributed to the increasing quality of synthetic fibers, and a decreasing appreciation of buyers for very high quality yarn and fabric that wrinkles easily and requires high-temperature ironing while damp. Very little top-quality linen is produced now, and most is used in low volume applications like hand weaving and as an art material.
Uses
Linen will withstand washing in hot water and scrubbing, and can be bleached by spreading it in the sun to dry. These properties led to its use from the early Middle Ages for underwear, shirts, chemises, and other clothing worn next to the body (collectively called "body linen"), and also for sheets and pillowcases, napkins, and tablecloths. Although these are now often made of cotton or synthetic fibers, they are still called "linens," "bed linens," and "table linens."
Linen is also used for cloth, canvases, sails, tents, and paper. Due to its strength, in the Middle Ages linen was used for shields and gambeson.
Contrary to popular belief, linen was probably never used as material for the Hoplite cuirass because of its price. Hoplite cuirass was made of leather.
Quality
Linen is available in different quailities varying from almost silk-like to sack-linen.
Linen is usually white to ivory, may be washed at 95°C, and should be ironed when damp.
The natural colour of unbleached linen is, ecru.
A characteristic often associated with linen yarn is the presence of "slubs", or small knots that occur randomly along its length. However, these are actually defects associated with low quality. The finest linen has a very consistent diameter with no slubs.
When being washed for the first time, linen shrinks significantly.
Linguistic note
The word linen is derived from the Latin for the flax plant, which is linum, and the earlier Greek linon. This word history has given rise to a number of other terms:
- line, derived from the use of a linen thread to determine a straight line; other uses such as ocean liner derive ultimately from this use
- lining, due to the fact that linen was often used to create a lining for wool and leather clothing
- lingerie, via French, originally denotes underwear made of linen
- Linnet, a European finch that eats flax seed
- linseed oil, an oil derived from flax seed
- linoleum, a floor covering made from linseed oil and other materials
The word lintel, a supporting member above a door or window, is not related.
In addition, the term in English, flaxen-haired, denoting a very light, bright blonde, comes from a comparison to the color of raw flax fiber.
Category:Textiles
ja:リンネル
Mummy
A mummy is a corpse whose skin and flesh have been preserved by deliberate or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold or dryness, or airlessness.
The best-known mummies are those that have been deliberately embalmed with the specific purpose of preservation, particularly those in ancient Egypt. Egyptians believed the body was home to a person's Ka which was essential in one's afterlife. In Egypt, the bodies were covered in natron to speed up the process of dehydration, and to prevent decomposition.
In China, preserved corpses have been recovered from submerged cypress coffins packed with medicinal herbs.
Mummies formed as a result of naturally occurring environmental conditions, such as extreme cold (Ötzi the Iceman), acid (Tollund Man) or desiccating dryness have been found all over the world. Some of the best-preserved mummies formed under natural conditions date from the Inca period in Peru.
Peru of Pharaoh Tutankhamon]]
Etymology
The English word mummy is derived from mediaeval Latin mumia, a borrowing of the Arabic word mūmiyyah (مومية), which means "bitumen". (Because of the blackened skin of unwrapped mummies, bitumen was once thought to be used extensively in ancient Egyptian embalming procedures. Asphalt and tar are forms of bitumen.) The Arabic word was itself borrowed from the Persian word mūmiya, meaning "bitumen"; this is related to another Persian word, mūm, which means "wax". (The ancient Greek historians record that the Persians sometimes mummified their kings and nobility in wax, though this practice has never been documented in Egypt.)
Mummies in Ancient Egypt
Persian]]
In Egypt, the dead were originally not mummified with the extensive process that happened during the first dynasty. The dead were originally buried in reed caskets in the sand. The searing hot sand caused the remains to dry quickly, preventing decomposition. After a while, though, they started constructing wooden tombs, and the extensive process of mummification was made so that the bodies would not decompose in the afterlife. The mummified individual was placed at his/her final resting place through a set of rituals and protocol.
The earliest known 'mummified' individual dates back to approximately 3300 BC, although it is not a 'true' mummy. The body is on display in the British Museum and has been given the nickname of 'Ginger' because he has red hair. Ginger was buried in the hot desert sand with maybe some stones piled on top to prevent the corpse being eaten by jackals. The hot, dry conditions desiccated the body, preventing the muscle and soft tissues from decaying. Ginger was buried with some pottery vessels, which would have held food and drink to sustain him on his long journey to the other world. There are no written records of the religion or gods from that time, and it is not known if it was the intention of the ancient Egyptians that the deceased were being preserved.
However, from the first dynasty onwards, the ancient Egyptians were trying to preserve the bodies of the dead, so their spirit had a body to guide them to the afterlife.
The Egyptians also expanded the practice of mummification to animals. Sacred animals central to cults such as ibis, hawks, and cats were mummified by the thousands.
Egyptian mummification process
Embalmers were given the task to preserve the deceased. Not only did their job require knowledge of human anatomy, they also had to perform rituals at several stages during the process. It is noteworthy that the Egyptians themselves considered embalming so sacred and secret that no record of the process comes from them but rather from foreign observers.
A typical mummification took 70 days in which craftsmen raced to finish the tomb.
The first step in a mummification was the removal of all internal organs which are prone to rapid decay. The brain was removed by breaking the bone at the end of the nose with a chisel and inserting a special hook up the nostrils and into the skull.
Embalmers also removed the stomach, liver, lungs and intestines through a small incision on the left side of the abdomen. Only the heart was left in place. The organs which were removed from the abdomen were stored in so called canopic jars, modelled after the four sons of Horus who would protect the organs, and placed in the tomb during the burial ritual. In later dynasties, these organs were treated and wrapped and returned to the body, but unused canopic jars continued to be placed into tombs. The incision was covered with a metal plate bearing the Eye of Horus (wedjat) which symbolically healed it.
Next, all moisture would be removed from the body, by covering it in natron, a type of salt found on the banks of Lake Wadi Natrun. The result was a dried-out, but recognizable body.
Finally, the body was wrapped in large amounts of linen, some of which contained spells to help the deceased in their passage to the afterlife. After several stages of wrapping, the body would also be coated in warm resin, before wrapping was continued.
To further protect the deceased, magical amulets were placed on specific parts of the body between the layers of wrappings. These included:
- Ankh
- Scarab
- Djed pillar
- PectoralPectoral
Egyptian burial rituals
Finally, the mummy would be interred in varying ways that were dictated by the social status of the deceased. Relatively low-status individuals would simply be mummified and laid in a simple tomb or on a ledge in a larger tomb. Higher-status individuals would be interred in an elaborately decorated case, though perhaps not a stone sarcophagus. The highest-status individuals, such as pharoahs, would be interred in a set of nesting mummy cases and sarcophagi, which were often extremely elaborate.
Open problems
Why did the Egyptians mummify the deceased? When did the process of mummification originate? How was the "Myth of Osiris" tied to mummification?
Mummies in other civilizations
A number of other civilizations are known to have
practised the art of mummification.
- Aztecs
- Incas, a practice also adopted by peoples they conquered, e.g. Chachapoyas.
- Japan, see external link [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8237299 Buddhist mummies in Japan, PubMed].
- Tibetans, who reserved this honor for people who reached a highest level of enlightenment.
Chinese mummy
Main article: Tarim mummies
Chinese mummies of an Indo-European type have been found in the Tarim Basin dating to as early as 1600 BC and suggesting very ancient contacts between East and West. It has been suggested that these mummified remains may have been the work of the ancestors of the Tocharians whose Indo-European language remained in use in the Tarim Basin (Modern day Xinjiang in China) until the 8th century AD (see Silk Road: Tocharians).
An ancient mummy dubbed the "handsome Yingpan man" was found in China's remote northwest province of Xinjiang. Archaeologists from the Xinjiang Archeological Institute found the mummified body when they opened a coffin in a graveyard dating back 1,900 years, according to Xinhua news agency. The mummy had thick brown hair, a shrunken face and body, and gray and brown skin. Its beard, eyebrows and eyelashes were clearly discernible and its clothes were intact and retained their bright color.
The mummified man, believed to have lived during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), was 1.8 meters (nearly six feet) tall and might have died at about 25 years of age. His coffin which had colorful paintings on the outside was discovered together with over 150 ancient tombs dating back to the Eastern Han Dynasty at Yingpan near Lop Nur in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. This coffin along with five others had been shipped to Urumqi, the regional capital, and were kept in the institute, unopened, for three years. The mummy is believed to be significant for the study of economic and cultural exchanges between China and Western countries in ancient times.
The "handsome Yingpan man" is thought to be comparable to the "beautiful Loulan woman," a 3,800-year-old female mummy discovered in 1980 at the Tiebanhe Delta, about 200 kilometers east of Yingpan, said the report. Loulan was an ancient kingdom along China's Silk Road in Xinjiang, about 200 kilometers east of Yingpan.
Natural mummies
Natural mummification is fairly rare, due to the requirement for certain specific conditions, but it has produced some of the oldest known mummies. The most famous ancient mummy is Ötzi the Iceman, frozen in a glacier in the Ötztaler Alps around 3300 BC and found 1991. An even older but less well preserved mummy was found in Spirit Cave, Nevada in 1940 and carbon-dated to around 7400 BC.
England, Ireland, Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark have all produced a number of bog bodies, mummies of people deposited in sphagnum bogs apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, the cold temperature and the lack of oxygen combine to tan the body's skin and preserve the skeleton. Such mummies are remarkably well preserved, with skin and internal organs surviving as well as skeletons; it is even possible to determine what their last meal was by examining their stomach contents.
In 1972, eight remarkably preserved mummies were discovered at an abandoned Inuit settlement called Qilakitsoq, in Greenland. The "Greenland Mummies" consisted of a six-month old baby, a four year old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around 500 years ago. Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found.
Some of the best-preserved mummies date from the Inca period in Peru some 500 years ago, where children were ritually sacrificed and placed on the summits of mountains in the Andes. The cold, dry climate had the effect of dessicating the corpses and preserving them virtually intact for centuries.
Mummies in recent times
Andes]]
Mummies have been an object of intense interest in the West since archaeologists began finding them in large numbers. 19th-century aristocrats would often entertain themselves by buying mummies, having them unwrapped, and holding observation sessions. These sessions destroyed several mummies, because the exposure to the air caused them to disintegrate.
In the 1830s Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, left instructions to be followed upon his death which led to the creation of a sort of modern-day mummy. He asked that his body be displayed to illustrate how the "horror at dissection originates in ignorance"; once so displayed and lectured about, he asked that his body parts be preserved, including his skeleton (minus his skull, for which he had other plans), which was to be dressed in the clothes he usually wore and "seated in a Chair usually occupied by me when living in the attitude in which I am sitting when engaged in thought." His body, outfitted with a wax head created because of problems preparing his head as Bentham requested, is on display in the University College London.
Egyptian mummies were much sought-after by museums worldwide in the 19th and early 20th centuries and many exhibit mummies today. Notably fine examples are exhibited at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, at the Ägyptisches Museum in Berlin, and at the British Museum in London. The Egyptian city of Luxor is also home to a specialised Mummification Museum. The mummified remains of what turned out to be Ramesses I ended up in a "Daredevil Museum" near Niagara Falls on the United States–Canada border; records indicate that it had been sold to a Canadian in 1860 and exhibited alongside displays such as a two-headed calf for nearly 140 years, until a museum in Atlanta, Georgia, which had acquired the mummy along with other artifacts, determined it to be royal and returned it to Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities. It is currently on display in the Luxor Museum.
Luxor Museum
Mummies were also believed to have medicinal properties, and were sold as pharmaceuticals in powdered form. However, they were not used as fuel for steam locomotives, and the idea that they were came from a joke by Mark Twain. However, during the First World War, mummy wrapping linens were manufactured into paper.
Science has also taken notice of mummies. Dr. Bob Brier, an Egyptologist, has been the first modern scientist to successfully recreate a mummy using the Egyptian method. Mummies have been used in medicine, to calibrate CAT scan machines at levels of radiation that would be too dangerous for use on living people. In fact, mummies can be studied without unwrapping them using CAT scan and X-ray machines to form a picture of what's inside.
They have been very useful to biologists and anthropologists, as they have provided a wealth of information about the health and life expectancy of ancient peoples. In particular, mummies have demonstrated that even 5,000 years ago, humans were anatomically indistinguishable from their present-day counterparts. This has had important repercussions for the study of human evolution.
Scientists interested in cloning DNA of mummies have recently reported findings of clonable DNA in an [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=3990798&itool=iconabstr Egyptian mummy] dating to circa 400 BC. Although analyzing the hair of Ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10091248&itool=iconabstr], Ancient Egyptian mummies from circa 3200 BC show signs of severe anemia and hemolitic disorders [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11148985&itool=iconabstr]. Some have claimed that traces of cocaine, hashish and nicotine have also been found in the skin and hair of Egyptian mummies [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7702279&itool=iconabstr]. But these claims are unlikely to be true. These drugs come from New World plants and they weren’t available in Africa during the time of the Pharos. There is no evidence of pre-Columbian trans-Atlantic trade, and there is no further evidence of these drugs in Old World civilization until after the voyage of Columbus [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/010126.html 4] .
Mummies in fiction
During the 20th century, horror films and other mass media popularized the notion of a curse associated with mummies. Films representing such a belief include the 1932 film The Mummy starring Boris Karloff, as well as two remakes, one released in 1959 and another in 1999. The belief in cursed mummies probably stems in part from the supposed curse on the tomb of Tutankhamun.
Famous mummies
Tutankhamun]]
From Egypt
- Tutankhamun
- Ramses I
- Nesperennub
- Amenophis III
- Thutmosis II
- Pieter Lukasse
Others
- Ötzi the Iceman
- Tollund Man
- Alexander the Great
- Jeremy Bentham
- Christian Friedrich von Kalbutz
- Lazy Lewis
See also
- Embalming
- Bog body
- Sarcophagus
- Opening of the mouth ceremony
- Forged Persian princess
- Chinchorro mummification
References
Books
- Barber, Elizabeth Wayland. 1999. The Mummies of Ürümchi. 1999. London. Pan Books. Also: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393045218.
- Budge, E.A.Wallis. 1925. The Mummy, A Handbook of Egyptian Funerary Archaeology. Dover Publ. Inc., New York, Dover Ed. 1989, (512 pgs.) ISBN 0486259285.
- Davis-Kimball, Jeannine, with Behan, Mona. 2002. Warrior Women: An Archaeologist’s Search for History’s Hidden Heroines. Warner Books, New York. First Trade Printing, 2003. ISBN 0446679836.
- Mallory, J. P. and Mair, Victor H. 2000. The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. Thames & Hudson. London. 2000. ISBN 0500051011.
- Pringle, Heather. 2001. Mummy Congress: Science, Obssession, and the Everlasting Dead. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-028669-1.
- Taylor, John H. 2004. Mummy: the inside story. The British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-1962-8.
Online
- [http://www.answers.com/mummy Mummies] at Answers.com.
- [http://science.howstuffworks.com/mummy.htm Mummies] at Howstuffworks.com.
- [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/020222.html The Straight Dope on mummies supposedly being used as a fuel source]
- [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/010126.html The Straight Dope on claims that Egyptian mummies show evidence of cocaine use]
External links
- [http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmnh/mumm
Zagreb
Zagreb (pronounced: ) is the capital city of Croatia. The city's population was 779,145 in 2001. It is situated between the southern slopes of Medvednica mountain and the northern bank of the Sava river, it is 120 m above sea level, located at .
Its favourable geographic position in the southwestern part of the Pannonian Basin, which extends to the Alpine, Dinaric, Adriatic and Pannonic regions, provides an excellent connection for traffic between Central Europe and the Adriatic Sea.
The traffic position, concentration of industry, scientific and research institutions and industrial tradition underlie its leading economic position.
Zagreb seats central state administrative bodies and almost all government ministries.
government ministries
Population
government ministries
Zagreb is the largest city in Croatia and the only one whose metropolitan area exceeds one million people. There are 1,088,841 people in the Zagreb metropolitan area, which includes the smaller cities of Samobor, Velika Gorica and Zaprešić.
The majority of its citizens are Croats with 91.94% (2001 census). The same census has a population of 40,066 residents belonging to ethnic minorities. Ethnic minorities and their composition is the following: 18,811 Serbs (2.41%), 6,204 Bosniaks (0.80%), 3,389 Albanians (0.43%), 3,225 Slovenians (0.41%), 1,946 Roma (0.25%), 1,131 Montenegrins (0.17%), 1,315 Macedonians (0.17%), and the rest belong to other minor ethnic communities.
History
Macedonians
While the human habitats were present at the wider city area since the Neolithic (including the well-preserved Roman town of Andautonia), its modern name was recorded for the first time in the 11th century (1094). In that year the Hungarian King Ladislaus founded a bishopric on the Kaptol hill. An independent secular community developed on a neighbouring hill Gradec (Grič). The settlements suffered greatly under the Mongol invasion of 1242, but when they abruptly left, King Bela IV declared Gradec a royal autonomous city in order to attract foreign artisans.
During the 14th and 15th centuries, the two communities actively tried to best each other - economically and politically. The bishopric would excommunicate Gradec which might respond by burning Kaptol. They only worked together for the occasional large commercial venture - such as the three yearly fairs each lasting two weeks. These two mediaeval hills, Gradec and Kaptol, finally merged into one community, Zagreb, in the early 17th century. They now form the cultural centre of the modern city (the economic and traffic centre has shifted southwards since). The bishopric of Kaptol has since become the Archbishopric of Zagreb.
The construction of the railway embankment (1860) enabled the old suburbs, which did not represent an urban whole up to then, to merge gradually into Donji Grad, characterized by a regular block pattern. During the Austro-Hungarian era Zagreb was called by its German name Agram.
Working-class quarters emerged between the railway and the Sava and residential quarters on the hills of the southern slopes of Medvednica between the two World Wars.
The blocks between the railway and the Sava were built after the Second World War followed from the mid-1950s by new residential areas south of the Sava river, the so-called Novi Zagreb (New Zagreb). The city also expanded towards the west and the east and "consumed" what were once mere villages at Dubrava, Podsused, Jarun, Blato etc.
The cargo railway hub and the international airport Pleso were built south of the Sava river. The biggest industrial zone (Žitnjak) in the southeast represents an extension of the industrial zones on the eastern outskirts of the city, between the Sava and the Prigorje region.
Urbanized lines of settlements connect Zagreb with the centres in its surroundings: Sesvete, Zaprešić, Samobor, Dugo Selo and Velika Gorica. Sesvete is the closest one to become a part of the conurbation and is in fact already included in the City of Zagreb rather than the Zagreb county (which excludes the city).
Economy
Much of the Croatian industry is concentrated in Zagreb, including metal processing, electrical appliances, textiles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals (Pliva), printing and leather industries, wood processing, paper etc.
The city is relatively prosperous by Eastern European standards, albeit the average incomes and prices are still lower than farther in the West.
In 2005 the average unemployment rate in Zagreb was around 8%, which was half the national average.
City government
The City of Zagreb has the status of a county within Croatia. The city government is led by the Mayor who is elected by the City Assembly.
The current Mayor of Zagreb is Milan Bandić (SDP).
The City Assembly is composed of 51 representatives, presided by Tatjana Holjevac (ind. rep.), coming from the following political parties:
- Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP) 19
- Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) 7
- Croatian Party of Rights (HSP) 6
- Croatian People's Party (HNS) 4
- Croatian Party of Pensioners (HSU) 3
- Croatian Peasant Party (HSS) 3
- Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS) 1
- Democratic Centre (DC) 1
- Independent 7
Based on the results of elections held in 2005.
Transport
2005
2005
There are three main transit connections:
- the western, towards Ljubljana, Slovenia and on to Western Europe;
- the eastern, towards Slavonia and on to Southeastern Europe and the Near East; and
- the southern, towards Rijeka, Croatia's biggest port in the Kvarner bay and Split in Dalmatia, the second largest Croatian city and also an important port.
The railway running along the Sutla river and the Zagorje main road (Zagreb - Maribor - Vienna), as well as traffic connections with the Pannonian region and Hungary (the Zagorje railroad, the roads and railway to Varaždin - Čakovec and Koprivnica) are linked with the truck routes.
The southern railway connection to Split operates on a line via the Lika region (renovated in 2004 to allow for a five-hour journey); a faster line along the Una river valley is currently out of use and in decay due to unsettled border crossing issues with Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The railway and the expressway along the Sava river that run to Slavonia and further to Belgrade are the fastest traffic lines in the country.
The city has a reasonably well developed road network with several of the main lines up to four tracks wide and a full-profile expressway encircling most of the city. There is some congestion in the city centre and parking is also a problem. Cars parked on the pavements often make it hard for pedestrians to get past.
Public transportation in the city is organized in two layers: the inner parts of the city are mostly covered by trams and the outer suburbs are linked with buses. The public transport company, ZET (Zagrebački Električni Tramvaj, Zagreb Electric Tram), receives a subsidy from the city council and so the fares are relatively cheap but they can get very crowded at peak times.
A single funicular near the city centre is something of a tourist attraction. Taxis are generally only used for transport from the railway station and the airport due to their relatively high price. In recent years, the state rail operator HŽ (Hrvatska željeznica, Croatian Railways) has been trying to organize a net of suburban trains in metropolitan Zagreb area. As of 2004, it's been partially organized in directions east-west and vice versa.
Surroundings
As of 2004
The wider Zagreb area has been constantly inhabited ever since the prehistoric period, witnessed by the archaeological findings in the Veternica cave from the Paleolithic and the excavation of the remains of a destroyed Roman town of Andautonia near the present village of Ščitarjevo.
Picturesque ex-villages on the slopes of Medvednica: Šestine, Gračani and Remete are arranged around the city like beads of a necklace, and maintain their rich tradition even today: folk costumes, Šestine umbrellas, gingerbread products, etc.
The Medvednica mountain (Zagrebačka gora), with its highest peak Sljeme (1,033 m), provides a panoramic view of metropolitan Zagreb, the Sava and the Kupa valleys, the region of Hrvatsko Zagorje. From the top of the mountain, and during fair weather, the vista reaches as far as Velebit mountain and snow-capped peaks of the Julian Alps in nearby Slovenia. There are several mountain huts offering accommodation and restaurants providing refreshment for hikers. Skiers visit Sljeme which has four ski-runs, three ski-lifts and a chairlift.
The old Medvedgrad, a medieval burg built in the 13th century and recently restored, represents a special attraction of the Medvednica hill. It overlooks the western part of the city and also has the Shrine of the Homeland, a memorial place with eternal flame, where Croatia pays reverence to all its heroes fallen for homeland in its history, customarily on the national holidays.
Travel agencies organize guided excursions to the surroundings as well as the sightseeing of Zagreb.
Tourism
homeland
Zagreb is a substantial tourist centre, not only in terms of transit from West and Central Europe to the Adriatic Sea but also as a tourist destination.
Since the end of the war it has attracted a fair number of tourists, but many tourists that visit Croatia skip Zagreb in favor of the beaches along the Adriatic coast and the even older historic cities such as Dubrovnik, Šibenik, Zadar and others.
Nevertheless, Zagreb celebrated its 900th birthday in 1994 and it is not only rich in cultural and historical monuments, museums and galleries, but it also has a variety of modern shops, and offers good quality of diversified restaurants as well as sports and recreation facilities. It is a big centre of congress tourism, economic and business events and trade fairs not only in Croatia but also in this part of Europe. Being an important junction point, it has road, air, railway and bus connections with European metropolises and all bigger cities and tourist resorts in Croatia.
The historical part of the town, the Upper Town and Kaptol, are a unique urban core even in European terms, and thus represent the target of sightseeing tours. The old town's streets and squares can be reached on foot, starting from Ban Josip Jelačić Square, the central part and the heart of Zagreb, or by a funicular on nearby Tomićeva Street. The old core of the town includes many famous buildings, churches, museums and institutions as well as pleasant restaurants and coffee bars.
Museums
Zagreb's many museums reflect the history, art and culture not only of Zagreb and Croatia, but also of Europe and the world. Around thirty collections in museums and galleries comprise more than 3.6 million various exhibits, excluding church and private collections.
The Archaeological Museum (Nikola Šubić Zrinski Square 19) possesses over 400,000 objects, not all of them being exhibited. The holdings include evidence of Croatian presence in this area as well as rare samples which have made the museum known to the whole world. The most famous are the Egyptian collection, the Zagreb mummy and bandages with the oldest Etruscan inscription in the world (Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis), as well as the numismatic collection. A part of the museum is set aside for the collection of stone monuments dating back predominantly to the Roman period.
numismatic street in Zagreb]]
The Croatian Museum of Natural Sciences (Demetrova Street 1) holds the world's most extensive collection of the remains of Neanderthal man found at one site - the remains, stone weapons and tools of prehistoric Krapina man. The Technical Museum (Savska Street 18) maintains the oldest preserved machine in this area, dating from 1830 which still operates. Valuable historical collections are found in the Croatian Historical Museum, the Museum of the City of Zagreb, the Museum of Arts and Crafts, the Ethnographic Museum, the Croatian School Museum, the Croatian Hunting Museum, the Croatian Sports Museum, the Croatian Post and Telecommunications Museum, the HAZU (Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts) Glyptotheque (collection of monuments), and the HAZU Graphics Cabinet.
Many visitors find the Mimara Museum (Roosevelt Square 5), housing the donation by Wiltrud and Ante Topić Mimara, very attractive. Of the total of 3,700 varied works of art, more than 1,500 exhibits constitute permanent holdings, dating from the prehistoric period up to the 20th century. The HAZU Strossmayer Gallery of Old Masters (Zrinski Square 11) offers permanent holdings presenting European paintings from the 14th to the 19th centuries, and the Ivan Meštrović Studio, (Mletačka Street 8) with sculptures, drawings, lithography portfolios and other items, was a donation of this great artist to his homeland.
The Museum of Contemporary Art (Catherine's Square 2) follows and presents contemporary trends in fine arts. The Museum and Gallery Centre (Jesuit Square 4) introduces on various occasions the Croatian and foreign cultural and artistic heritage. The Art Pavilion (King Tomislav Square 22) is the oldest exhibition complex in the Slavic south, with regularly organized exhibitions. The exhibitions are also held in the impressive Meštrović's building on Hrvatskih Velikana Square — the Home of the Croatian Fine Artists. The Museum of Naïve Art (Ćirilometodska Street 3) houses more than one thousand works by a hundred and odd authors of the Croatian naïve art. The World Centre "Wonder of Croatian Naïve Art" (Ban Jelačić Square 12) exhibits masterpieces of Croatian naïve art as well as works of new generation of artists. The Modern Gallery (Hebrangova Street 1) comprises all relevant fine artists of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Other cultural sites and events
The city offers rich cultural and artistic enjoyment. There are about 20 permanent or seasonal theatres and stages. The Croatian National Theatre built in 1895 is the most impressive building among them. The most renowned concert hall is named "Vatroslav Lisinski", after the composer of the first Croatian opera.
Vatroslav Lisinski
Zagreb hosts many domestic and international events. Animafest, the World Festival of Animated Films, takes place each even year, and the Music Bienniale, the international festival of avant-garde music, every odd year. The Festival of the Zagreb Philharmonic and the famous flowers exhibition Floraart (end of May or beginning of June), the Old-timer Rally, the Week of the Contemporary Dance, as well as Eurokaz, the international festival of contemporary theatre (in June) represent annual events. In the summer, theatre performances and concerts, mostly in the Upper Town, are organized, either indoors or outdoors. The stage on Opatovina hosts the Zagreb Histrionic Summer.
Zagreb is also the host of Zagrebfest, the oldest Croatian pop-music festival, as well as of several traditional international sports events and tournaments. The Day of the City of Zagreb (16th of November) is celebrated every year with special festivities, esp. on the Jarun lake near the southwestern part of the city. Entertainment can be found in many discotheques, night clubs, casinos, etc.
Souvenirs and gastronomy
Numerous shops, boutiques, store houses and shopping centres offer a variety of good quality clothes. Zagreb's offerings include crystal, china and ceramics, nice wicker or straw baskets, top-quality Croatian wines and gastronomic products.
Some of the peculiar Zagreb souvenirs include:
- the tie or cravat, an accessory likely named after Croats who wore characteristic scarves around their necks, in the Thirty Years' War in the 17th century
- the ball-point pen, a tool developed from the inventions by Slavoljub Eduard Penkala who was a citizen of Zagreb
Many Zagreb restaurants offer various specialities of national and international cuisine. Domestic products which deserve to be tasted include turkey, duck or goose with mlinci (a kind of pasta), štrukli (cottage cheese strudel), sir i vrhnje (cottage cheese with cream), kremšnite (custard slices in flaky pastry), and traditional nut cake.
As Zagreb is relatively close to the sea, restaurants offer fresh seafood. There are many fast-food restaurants and stands in Zagreb, so those who prefer this type of food will not be disappointed.
Recreation and sports
fast-food
There are several sports and recreational centres in Zagreb. Recreational Sports Centre Jarun, situated on Lake Jarun to the southwest of the city, has fine shingle beaches, a world-class regatta course, a jogging lane around the lake, several restaurants and a discotheque. Its sports and recreation opportunities include swimming, sunbathing, waterskiing, angling and other water sports, but also beach volleyball, football, basketball, handball, table tennis, and miniature golf.
Sports Park Mladost, situated along the embankment of the Sava river, has an Olympic-size swimming pool, smaller indoor and outdoor swimming pools, a sunbathing terrace, 16 tennis courts as well as basketball, volleyball, handball, football and field hockey courts. A volleyball sports hall is within the park.
Sports and Recreational Centre Šalata, only several hundred metres from the heart of the city, is most attractive for tennis players. It comprises a big tennis court and eight smaller ones, two of which are roofed over with the so-called "balloon", and another two equipped with lights. The Centre also has swimming pools, basketball and football playgrounds, a gym and fitness centre, and a four-lane bowling alley. Outdoor ice-skating is a popular winter recreation at Šalata. There are also several fine restaurants within and near the Centre.
Tennis Centre Maksimir, in the part of the city called Ravnice to the east of the centre, consists of two sports blocks. The first comprises a tennis centre situated in a large tennis hall with four courts. There are 22 outdoor tennis courts with lights. The other block offers multipurpose sports facilities: apart from tennis courts, there are handball, basketball, indoor football grounds, as well as track and field facilities, a bocci ball alley and table tennis opportunities.
Recreational swimmers can enjoy a smaller-size indoor swimming pool in Daničićeva Street, and an newly opened indoor olympic-sized pool at Utrine sports centre in Novi Zagreb. Skaters can skate in the skating rink on Trg Sportova (Sports Square) and on the lake Jarun Skaters' park. Hippodrome Zagreb offers recreational horseback riding opportunities, while horse races are held every weekend during warmer part of the year (spring, summer, autumn).
There is a number of smaller sports centres and playgrounds as well as gyms and fitness centres throughout the city.
Districts
The major city districts ("gradske četvrti" in Croatian):
Miscellaneous
Croatian
Croatian
Zagreb is the site of the University of Zagreb founded in 1669. The faculty buildings as well as dorms are scattered all around the city. Zagreb also hosts several faculties, parts of various polytechnic schools, as well as dozens of gymnasiums and other high schools.
The most popular football clubs from the city are NK Dinamo (with the home stadium in Maksimir) and HNK Zagreb (with the home stadium in Kranjčevićeva street).
Zagreb is also home to the eponymous film-producing company, Zagreb Film.
Zagreb is officially twinned with the following towns and cities:
- Mainz, Germany, since 1967
- St. Petersburg, Russia, since 1968
- Tromsø, Norway, since 1971
- Kyoto, Japan, since 1972
- Krakow, Poland, since 1975
- Lisbon, Portugal, since 1977
- Pittsburgh, United States of America, since 1980
- Shanghai, China, since 1980
- Budapest, Hungary, since 1994
- Vienna, Austria, since 1994
- Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 2001
- Ljubljana, Slovenia, since 2001
External links
- [http://www.europestartpage.com/zagreb10.htm Attractions] Most popular attractions in Zagreb
- [http://www.zagreb-touristinfo.hr/ Metropolitan Zagreb]
- [http://www.zagreb-touristinfo.hr/?id=94&l=e&nav=nav4 Zagreb Museums and Galleries]
- [http://vlmp.museophile.com/croatia.html Croatian Museums and Galleries]
- [http://www.posta.hr/marke_e.asp?trazi=1994&cmbPretraga=datum_izdanja&cmbVrstaPretrage=1&strana=3 Historic Zagreb on Stamps]
- [http://www.zv.hr/index_en.html Zagreb Fairs]
- [http://www.zagreb-info.com/ Zagreb Katalog]
- [http://www.zagreb.hr/ Official website of the City of Zagreb]
- [http://www.spansko.net/ Spansko neighbourhood community]
- [http://www.burger.si/Croatia/Zagreb/Zagreb.html Zagreb Panoramas]
Category:Capitals in Europe
Category:Cities in Croatia
ko:자그레브
ja:ザグレブ
simple:Zagreb
th:ซาเกร็บ
Croatia
The Republic of Croatia is a crescent-shaped country in Europe bordering the Mediterranean, Central Europe and the Balkans. Its capital is Zagreb. In recent history, it was a republic in the SFR Yugoslavia, but it achieved independence in 1991. It is a candidate for membership of the European Union.
Name
Croatia is the Latinized version of the native name of the country: Hrvatska. The letter "r" in the first syllable "hrv" is rolled or continuant, which is a linguistic trait strange to languages such as English, making the word seemingly impossible to pronounce by some of those speakers.
However, not all other languages use the Latinized version, many use a form more similar to the native one. For example:
- Hrvaška in Slovenian
- Хрватска (≅ Hrvatska) in Serbian and Macedonian
- Хърватска (≅ Hŭrvatska) in Bulgarian
- Horvátország in Hungarian
- Chorvatsko in Czech
- Chorvátsko in Slovak
- Chorwacja in Polish
- Horvātija in Latvian
- Хорватия (≅ Horvatiya) in Russian
- Horvaatia in Estonian
- Հորվաթիա (≅ Horvat'ia) in Armenian
- ჰორვატია (≅ Horvatia) in Georgian
- Horwatiýa in Turkmen
- Hırvatistan in Turkish
The country code for Croatia is HR (per ISO 3166), so Croatian Internet domains end with .hr.
History
Main article: History of Croatia
The Croats are largely Slavic people who lived in an area of what is today Galicia (in Ukraine and Poland). From there they migrated further south to present-day Croatia during the 7th century. Nominally under East Roman and then Frankish authority, Croatia eventually became a strong independent kingdom under king Tomislav in 925, but in 1102 the Croatians ended a decade-long dynastic struggle by agreeing to submit themselves to Hungarian authority.
By the mid-1400s, the Hungarian kingdom was gravely hurt by the Ottoman expansion as much of the mountainous country now known as Bosnia and Herzegovina fell to the Turks. At the same time, Dalmatia became mostly Venetian. Dubrovnik was a city-state that was firstly Byzantine (Roman) and Venetian, but later, unlike other Dalmatian city-states, it became independent as Republic of Dubrovnik, even if it was often under the suzerainty of neighboring powers.
The Battle of Mohács in 1526 led the Croatian Parliament to invite the Habsburgs, under Ferdinand I, to assume control over Croatia. Habsburg rule eventually did prove to be successful in thwarting the Ottomans, and by the 18th century, much of Croatia was free of Turkish control. The odd crescent shape of the Croatian lands remained as a mark, more or less, of the frontier to the Ottoman advance into Europe. Istria, Dalmatia and Dubrovnik all eventually passed to the Habsburg Monarchy between 1797 and 1815.
Following World War I and the demise of Austria-Hungary, Croatia joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (which became Yugoslavia in 1929). Yugoslavia was invaded during World War II and Croatia was turned into a fascist puppet-state named the Independent State of Croatia. After the defeat of the Axis powers, Yugoslavia became a federal socialist state under the strong hand of Josip Broz Tito.
Although Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991, it had to endure four-to-five years of sporadic and often bitter fighting with the Yugoslav People's Army and the Army of the internationally unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina. The Croatian major offensives in 1995, Operation Storm and Operation Flash, defeated the separatists and ended the war, restoring the territories of Krajina to Croatia. As a result, several hundred thousands of Croatian Serbs fled and their property was subsequently seized or destroyed. Some of the most prominent officials in charge of operations Flash and Storm, such as General Ante Gotovina, have been charged with war crimes by the ICTY. Between 1992 and late 1995, various Croatian forces were also involved in the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Peaceful integration of the remaining separatist territories was completed in 1998 under UN supervision.
Politics
Political system
Main article: Politics of Croatia
Since the adoption of the 1990 Constitution, Croatia has been a parliamentary democracy.
The President of the Republic (Predsjednik) is head of state and elected for a five-year term. In addition to being the commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the Prime minister with the consent of the Parliament, and has some influence on foreign policy.
The Croatian Parliament (Sabor) is a unicameral legislative body of up to 160 representatives, all elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The plenary sessions of the Sabor take place from January 15 to July 15, and from September 15 to December 15.
The Croatian Government (Vlada) is headed by the Prime minister who has 2 deputy prime ministers and 14 ministers in charge of particular sectors of activity. The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies of the republic.
Croatia has a three-tiered judicial system, consisting of the Supreme Court, county courts, and municipal courts. The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding the Constitution.
See also: Foreign relations of Croatia
European Union
Main article: Croatian accession to the European Union
Croatia applied for European Union membership in 2003 and the EU leaders accepted it as an official candidate country in late 2004. The actual accession negotiations started in late 2005.
With regard to economy, Croatia has similar or better standing than other candidate countries and some of the newer EU member states. However, Croatian accession faces various political obstacles - mostly remnants of the recent war, particularly the cooperation with the ICTY.
Counties
ICTY
Main article: Counties of Croatia
Croatia is divided into 20 counties (Croatian: županija) and the city district of the capital, Zagreb
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# Zagreb county (Zagrebačka županija)
# Krapina-Zagorje county (Krapinsko-zagorska županija)
# Sisak-Moslavina county (Sisačko-moslavačka županija)
# Karlovac county (Karlovačka županija)
# Varaždin county (Varaždinska županija)
# Koprivnica-Križevci county (Koprivničko-križevačka županija)
# Bjelovar-Bilogora county (Bjelovarsko-bilogorska županija)
# Primorje-Gorski Kotar county (Primorsko-goranska županija)
# Lika-Senj county (Ličko-senjska županija)
# Virovitica-Podravina county (Virovitičko-podravska županija)
# Požega-Slavonia county (Požeško-slavonska županija)
# Brod-Posavina county (Brodsko-posavska županija)
# Zadar county (Zadarska županija)
# Osijek-Baranja county (Osječko-baranjska županija)
# Šibenik-Knin county (Šibensko-kninska županija)
# Vukovar-Srijem county (Vukovarsko-srijemska županija)
# Split-Dalmatia county (Splitsko-dalmatinska županija)
# Istria county (Istarska županija)
# Dubrovnik-Neretva county (Dubrovačko-neretvanska županija)
# Međimurje county (Međimurska županija)
# Zagreb (Grad Zagreb)
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See also: List of cities in Croatia
Geography
Main article: Geography of Croatia
Croatia is situated between central, southern and eastern Europe. It has a rather peculiar shape that resembles a crescent or a horseshoe which helps account for its many neighbours: Slovenia, Hungary, the Serbian part of Serbia and Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Montenegrin part of Serbia and Montenegro, and Italy across the Adriatic. Its mainland territory is split in two non-contiguous parts by the short coastline of Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum.
Its terrain is diverse, containing:
- plains, lakes and rolling hills in the continental north and northeast (Central Croatia and Slavonia, part of the Pannonian plain);
- densely wooded mountains in Lika and Gorski Kotar, part of the Dinaric Alps;
- rocky coastlines on the Adriatic Sea (Istria, Northern Seacoast and Dalmatia).
Croatia has a mixture of climates. In the north and east it is continental, Mediterranean along the coast and a semi-highland and highland climate in the south-central region.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Croatia
Croatia has an economy based mostly on various services and some, mostly light industry. Tourism is a notable source of income.
The estimated Gross Domestic Product per capita in purchasing power parity terms for 2004 was USD 11,200 or 41.6% of the EU average for the same year.
The Croatian economy is post-communist. In the late 1980s, at the beginning of the process of economic transition, its position was favourable, but it was gravely impacted by de-industrialization and war damages.
Main problems include massive structural unemployment followed by an insufficient amount of economic reforms. Of particular concern is the gravely backlogged judiciary system combined with inefficient public administration, especially involving land ownership.
The country has since experienced faster economic growth and has been preparing for membership in the European Union, its most important trading partner.
In February 2005, Croatia implemented the Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU and is advancing further towards full EU membership. The country expects some major economic impulses and high growth rates in the following next years (currently Croatia suffers most from its high export deficit and considerable debt). Some big trading companies have already taken advantage of the liberalization of the Croatian market. Croatia is expecting a boom in investments, especially greenfield investments.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Croatia
The population of Croatia has been stagnating over the last decade. The 1991-1995 war in Croatia had previously displaced large parts of the population and increased emigration. The natural growth rate is minute or negative (less than +/- 1%), as the demographic transition has been completed half a century ago. Life expectancy rate is around 75 years, and the literacy rate is at 98.5%, both of which are reasonably high.
Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats (89.6%). Minority groups include Serbs (4.5%), Bosniaks (0.5%), Hungarians (0.4%) and others. The predominate religion is Catholicism (87.8%), with some Orthodox (4.4%) and Sunni Muslim (1.3%) minorities.
The official and common language, Croatian, is a South Slavic language, using the Latin alphabet. Other languages are spoken by less than 5% of the population.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Croatia
Croatian culture is based on a thirteen century long history during which the country has attained many monuments and cities, which gave birth to a good number of brilliant individuals. The country includes six World Heritage sites and eight national parks. Three Nobel prize winners came from Croatia, as did numerous important inventors and other notable people — notably, some of the first fountain pens came from Croatia. Nikola Tesla was born in Croatia.
Interestingly enough, Croatia also has a place in the history of neckwear as the origin of the necktie (cravat). The country has a long artistic, literary and musical tradition. Of particular interest is also the diverse cuisine.
See also
- Communications in Croatia
- Transportation in Croatia: recent highway construction progress, buses, railways and airports in Croatia
- Military of Croatia
- Holidays in Croatia
- Tourism in Croatia
- Reporters without borders' press freedom index rankings: 33 (2002), 69 (2003), 54 (2004)
External links
- [http://www.croatia.hr/ Croatian National Tourist Board @ croatia.hr]
- [http://www.hr/hrvatska/general.en.shtml General information about Croatia @ www.hr]
- [http://www.hrvatska.net/ Croatia travel hub @ hrvatska.net]
- [http://www.vlada.hr/ The Croatian government's official website @ vlada.hr]
- [http://www.fivestars.hr/photo_gallery/croatian_coast_ivo_pervan/ Picture Gallery @ fivestars.hr]
- [http://www.mythinglinks.org/euro~east~Balkans~Croatia.html Culture Links @ mythinglinks.org]
- [http://www.showcaves.com/english/hr/index.html Speleology @ showcaves.com]
- [http://www.romwell.com/travel/advisory/europe/croatia/crocastles.shtml Castles @ romwell.com]
- [http://www.map-of-croatia.co.uk/ Map of Croatia]
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