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Falls Creek

Falls creek

Falls Creek is also the name of a Baptist Summer Camp in Oklahoma Falls Creek is also the name of a town in central Pennsylvania, former home of Jackson China. Falls Creek Falls Creek Falls Creek is a carfree ski resort in north-eastern Victoria, Australia. It is located about 350 kilometres by road from Melbourne in the Alpine National Park, with the nearest town Mount Beauty, approximately 30 kilometres away at the foot of the ranges. The resort lies between an alititude of 1,500 and 1,600 metres, with the highest lifted point at 1780 metres. Skiing is possible on the nearby peak of Mt McKay at 1,842 metres, travelling by snowcat from the resort. The high plains in the area have been is use for summer cattle grazing since grazing licenses were first issued in 1851. Some of the cattlemens huts still survive and are a tourist attraction in summer. After the Second world war a hydro electric power scheme was started in the Kiewa valley by the State Electricity Commision of Victoria. On land previously used only for summer cattle grazing in the natural alpine grasslands, the first ski lodge was built in 1948 by workers from the scheme. The first lift, a rope tow, was built in 1951 and the first chairlift in Australia was constructed there in 1957. The resort now features 15 ski lifts and 40 kilometres of groomed cross-country skiing trails, ranging from gentle nursery slopes to expert runs. Falls Creek, with its higher altitude, is regarded as having better runs for proficient skiiers than Mount Buffalo or Mount Buller and ranks with Mount Hotham as Victoria's best. However, Australia's notoriously fickle snow conditions ensure that snowmaking using the water from the nearby Rocky Valley Dam is sometimes, particularly early in the season, the main source of skiable snow. Consequently, like all Australian snowfields, Falls Creek's customer base is almost entirely domestic, however many international cross country skiers travel to Falls Creek for the Kangaroo Hoppet, Australia's Worldloppet event on the last Saturday of August. The resort features 4,500 accommodation beds, and consequently a large number of restaurants, bars, and nightclubs to amuse the guests at night. Some apartments are privately owned, but the resort's management requires that they must be available for hire when not occupied. The resort also serves as a summer base to explore the massive national park surrounding the resort.
External links

- [http://www.fallscreek.com.au Falls Creek homepage]
- [http://ausi-ski-bum.com Ausi Ski Bum] Category:Ski resorts in Australia Category:Geography of Victoria

Falls Creek Baptist Conference Center
Falls Creek is a Baptist conference center along Honey Creek in the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma. It is also the largest youth encampment in the United States. Although its mailing address is in Davis, Oklahoma, many locals and attendees consider it to be a completely seperate township (noting its permanent residents, its completely independent waste utilities, its partially independent water and electric utilities, the fact that all letters otherwise properly addressed sent to "Falls Creek, OK" do in fact make it, and Falls Creek's recognition by [http://www.mapquest.com Mapquest], among other reasons). Falls Creek was established in the summer of 1917, when J. B. Rounds and W. D. Moorer used the donated land to host the meeting of the Baptist Young People's Union, with a total of 273 campers. Since then, Falls Creek has grown astronomically, now having well over 40,000 attendees per summer.
External links

- [http://www.fallscreekok.org/ Falls Creek Campaign: For the Sake of the Call]
- [http://www.skopos.org/falls_creek.html Skopos: Falls Creek]
- [http://www.bgco.org/ Baptist General Convention of Oklahoma]

Baptist

A Baptist is a member of a Baptist church. Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. Baptists emphasize a believer's baptism by full immersion, which is performed after a profession of faith in Jesus as Lord and Savior. A congregational governance system gives autonomy to individual local Baptist churches, which are sometimes associated in organizations such as the Southern Baptist Convention. In the late 1990s, there were about 43 million Baptists worldwide with about 33 million in the United States.

Beliefs

Baptist churches do not have a central governing authority, resulting in a wide range of beliefs from one Baptist church to another. Baptist distinctives are beliefs that are common among Baptist churches, some of which are also shared with many other post-reformational denominations. Some historically significant Baptist doctrinal documents include the 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith, the 1833 New Hampshire Baptist Confession of Faith, and the Southern Baptist Convention's Baptist Faith and Message, which are often used as the "official" doctrinal statements of individual local Baptist churches or the starting point for an official statement. See also : List of Baptist Confessions or Doctrinal Statements

Baptist distinctives acrostic

This backronym is used by some Baptist churches as a summary of the distinctives or distinguishing beliefs of Baptists.
- Biblical authority
- Autonomy of the local church
- Priesthood of all believers
- Two ordinances (baptism and communion)
- Individual soul liberty
- Separation of Church and State
- Two offices of the church (pastor and deacon)

Biblical authority

Authority of the Scriptures or sola scriptura states that the Bible is the only authoritative source of God's truth in contrast to the role of Apostolic tradition in the Roman Catholic Church. Any view that cannot be directly tied to a scriptural reference is generally considered to be based on human traditions rather than God's leading. Each person is responsible before God for his or her own understanding of the Bible and is encouraged to work out their own salvation with fear and trembling. Baptists generally consider historic Christian creeds to be on lower footing in comparison to Scripture even though they may in essence agree with them. However, a group or local church may have a general "Statement of Faith" such as the Baptist Faith and Message of the Southern Baptist Convention). Biblical inerrancy is also a common position held by fundamentalist Baptists in addition to contextually literal interpretations of the Bible and other fundamentalist theologies. However, because of the variety allowed under congregational governance, many Baptist churches are neither literalist nor fundamentalist, although most do believe in biblical authority. Most moderate or non-fundamentalist Baptists prefer the term inspired or God-breathed rather than inerrant to describe scripture, referring to the term Paul uses in 2 Timothy 3:16. With regard to the inerrancy of the Scriptures, some Baptists consider that the original autographs (presumed lost) are inerrant and that the original words have been preserved by God on copies made throughout the years since they were written. Most Baptists consider the translations of these manuscripts into other languages (such as English) to be necessary, but not necessarily inerrant. Some Baptists believe that the King James Version of the Bible is an inspired translation and reject the need to know or use the Greek and Hebrew manuscripts. Even though it is only the Bible that is considered authoritative, Baptists also cite other works as illustrative of doctrine. One work which is commonly read by Baptists is the allegory Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan.

Autonomy of the local church (Congregationalism)

Congregationalist church governance gives autonomy to individual local churches in areas of policy, polity and doctrine. Baptist churches are not under the direct administrative control of any other body, such as a national council, or a leader such as a bishop or pope. Administration, leadership and doctrine are usually decided democratically by the lay members of each individual church, which accounts for the variation of beliefs from one Baptist church to another. Exceptions are some Reformed Baptists, who are organized in a Presbyterian system, the Congolese Episcopal Baptists that has an Episcopal system, and some Baptist megachurches who lean towards a strong clergy-led style, in some instances abandoning congregational governance altogether (though as independent congregations within an association, are free to adopt any style). In a manner typical of other congregationalists, many cooperative associations or conventions of Baptists have arisen. These associations were formed for missionary and other charitable work and have no authority over the operations of individual local churches. Local churches decide at what level they will participate in these associations. The largest association in the United States is the Southern Baptist Convention. The second largest is the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc., which is also America's second largest predominantly African-American denomination. There are hundreds of Baptist conventions and many Independent Baptist churches do not fall into any of them, believing such associations to be unscriptural. In addition, there are sometimes very strong disputes within conventions which are often divided between Christian fundamentalists and moderates.

Priesthood of all believers

Priesthood of all believers states that every Christian has direct access to God and the truths found in the Bible without the help of an aristocracy or hierarchy of priests. This doctrine is based on the passage found in [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Peter%202:9;&version=31;50;9; 1 Peter 2:9] and was popularized by Martin Luther during the Protestant Reformation and John Wycliff's Lollards before Luther. Baptists are encouraged, though, to discuss scriptural and other issues with their minister when appropriate. The Baptist position of the priesthood of all believers is one column that upholds their belief in religious liberty.

Two ordinances (Baptism and Communion)

Generally, Baptist churches recognize only two Biblical ordinances that are to be performed on a regular basis by churches: baptism and communion. Some churches, including Primitive Baptists and some Free Will Baptists, also practice foot washing as a third ordinance.

Believer's baptism

Baptism, commonly referred to as Believer's baptism, is an ordinance that, according to Baptist doctrine, plays no role in salvation, and is performed after a person professes Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior. It is an outward expression that is symbolic of the inward cleansing or remission of their sins that has already taken place. It is also a public identification of that person with Christianity and with that particular local church. Most Baptist churches use baptism by full immersion, subsequent to salvation, as a criterion for membership. Through Anabaptist influence, Baptists reject the practice of pedobaptism (infant baptism) because they believe parents cannot make a decision of salvation for an infant. Related to this doctrine is the disputed concept of an "age of accountability" when God determines that a mentally capable person is accountable for their sins and eligible for baptism. This is not necessarily a specific age, but is based on whether or not the person is mentally capable of knowing right from wrong. Thus, a person with severe mental retardation may never reach this age, and therefore would not be held accountable for sins. Baptists emphasize baptism by full immersion, the mode presumed to have been used by John the Baptist. This consists of lowering the candidate in water backwards while the baptizer (a pastor or any baptised believer) invokes the Trinitarian formula of Matthew 28:19 or other words concerning a profession of faith. This mode is also preferred for its parallel imagery to the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus. Recognition of baptisms by other modes and Christian groups vary. Many Baptist churches only recognize baptism by full immersion as being valid, while a few will baptise by sprinkling as a practical alternative for the disabled or elderly or in times of drought. Some Baptist churches will recognize adult baptisms performed in other orthodox Christian churches, while others only recognize baptisms performed in Baptist churches. In rare instances, a church may recognize only its own baptisms as valid.

Communion

Communion, which is alternately called "The Lord's Supper", is an ordinance patterned after the Last Supper recorded in the Gospels which Jesus says to "do this in remembrance of Me" (Luke 22:19). Participants communally eat the bread and drink the cup that are representative of the body and blood of Jesus. Baptists emphasize that the remembrance is symbolic of Christ's body and reject literal views of communion such as transubstantiation and consubstantiation held by other Christian groups based on their interpretation of John 6. 1 Corinthians 11:23-34 is also commonly cited as instructional for the practice of Communion. Many Baptists refuse to refer to this ordinance as Communion due to its prominent use by the Roman Catholic Church and instead use the alternate "The Lord's Supper". The bread used in the service may be cubes of unleavened bread, wafers or small crackers, generally of an unleavened variety which is thought to be the type used at the Last Supper. The general Baptist embracing of the Temperance movement, prohibition, and teetotalism in the U.S. led to the practice of using non-alcoholic grape juice for the cup, but some Baptists do use wine. The grape juice is typically served in small individual glasses, though some churches use one large cup for the entire congregation. Many church buildings are equipped with round receptacles on the rear of the pews for depositing the empty glasses after the service. Both "elements" of the bread and the cup are usually served by the pastor to the deacons, and by the deacons to the congregation. The general practice is for the elements to be taken by the congregation as a whole as a symbol of unity, first the bread and then the cup separately, although sometimes both elements are taken together. Communion services may be held weekly, monthly, quarterly, or even annually. It usually takes place at the end of a normal service, but may take place at any time during the service. Participation may be either "closed" (only members of that church can participate), "cracked" (members of other Baptist churches may participate, but not of other denominations), or "open" (anyone professing to be a Christian may participate).

Individual soul liberty

The basic concept of individual soul liberty is that, in matters of religion, each person has the liberty to choose what his/her conscience or soul dictates is right, and is responsible to no one but God for the decision that is made. A person may then choose to be a Baptist, a member of another Christian denomination, an adherent to another world religion, or to choose no religious belief system, and neither the church, nor the government, nor family or friends may either make the decision or compel the person to choose otherwise. And, a person may change his/her mind over time.

Separation of church and state

Main article: Baptists in the history of separation of church and state Baptists who were imprisoned or died for their beliefs have played an important role in the historical struggle for freedom of religion and separation of church and state in England, the United States, and other countries. In 1612 John Smyth wrote, "the magistrate is not by virtue of his office to meddle with religion, or matters of conscience". That same year, Thomas Helwys wrote that the King of England could "command what of man he will, and we are to obey it," but concerning the church -- "with this Kingdom, our lord the King hath nothing to do." In 1614, Leonard Busher wrote what is believed to be the earliest Baptist treatise dealing exclusively with the subject of religious liberty. Baptists were influential in the formation of the first civil government based on the separation of church and state in what is now Rhode Island. Anabaptists and Quakers also share a strong history in the development of separation of church and state. The original objection was opposition of the monarchy or government setting religious agenda for churches or a "National Church" and did not imply a retreat by Christians from the political realm or involvement in the political process. Modern debates about church and state separation involve disagreements about the extent to which Christian groups are able to, or should, set the legal and moral agenda for the government, and conversely whether government is preventing Christians and Christian groups from equal access to public forums. Currently in the United States, Baptist involvement in politics often involves controversies concerning gambling, alcohol, abortion, same-sex marriage, the teaching of evolution and state-sanctioned public prayer in public high schools. In parts of the Southern United States, Baptists form a majority of the population and have successfully banned alcohol sales and prevented the legalization of certain kinds of gambling.

Two offices (Pastor and Deacon)

Generally Baptists only recognize two Scriptural offices, those of pastor and deacon. The office of elder, common in some evangelical churches, is usually considered by Baptists to be the same as that of pastor, and not a separate office. The prevalent view among Baptists is that these offices are limited to men only, following the model of Christ and His apostles. However, the issue of women pastors/deacons has surfaced as controversy in some churches and denominations.

Pastor

In the Baptist church, the primary role of pastor is to deliver the weekly sermon. In smaller churches, the pastor will often visit homes and hospitals to call on ill members, as well as homes of prospective members (especially those who have not made salvation decisions). The pastor will also perform weddings and funerals for members, and at business meetings serve as the moderator. The pastor may also be required to find outside work to supplement his income. Larger churches will usually have one or more "associate" pastors, each with a specific area of responsibility, whereby the overall pastor is considered the "senior" pastor. Some examples are:
- music (the most common)
- youth (in smaller churches, often combined with music)
- children
- administration (in the larger churches) In the majority of instances, the pastor will be married with children (associate pastors may or may not be married, but if not married will find it difficult to be considered for a senior pastor position by other churches).

Deacon

The main role of the deacon is to assist the pastor with members' needs. Deacons also assist during communion. A common practice is for each family to be assigned a specific deacon, to be the primary point of contact whenever a need arises. Some larger megachurches, especially those using cell groups, use the cell group leader(s) to function in the role of deacon(s). Deacons are usually chosen from members who have demonstrated exceptional Christian piety, and serve without pay.

Justification by faith

Justification by faith or sola fide states that it is by faith alone that we receive salvation and not through any works of our own. Baptists have a strong emphasis on the concept of salvation. Baptist theology teaches that humans have been contaminated by the sin of Adam and Eve's rebellion against God and that for this sin we are condemned to damnation. The theology holds that Christ died on the cross to give humans the promise of everlasting life, but that this requires that each individual willfully accepts Christ into his life and repents of sin. Nevertheless, the Baptist view of soteriology runs the gamut from Calvinism to Arminianism.

Beliefs that vary among Baptists

Because of the congregational style of church governance on doctrine, doctrine on the following issues often varies greatly between one Baptist church and another.
- doctrine of separation
- Calvinism/Arminianism
- the nature of Law and Gospel
- the ordination of women
- homosexuality
- the extent to which Church and State should be separate from each other
- the extent to which non-members may participate in communion services
- the extent to which missionary boards should be used to support missionaries
- Eschatology Baptists generally believe in the literal Second Coming of Christ at which time God will sit in judgment and divide humanity between the saved and the lost (the Great White Throne judgment Book of Revelation 20:11) and Christ will sit in judgment of the believers (the Judgment Seat of Christ Second Epistle to the Corinthians 5:10), rewarding them for things done while alive. Amillennialism, dispensationalism, and historic premillennialism stand as the main eschatological views of Baptists, with views such as postmillennialism and preterism receiving only scant support.

Comparisons with other denominations

Baptists share certain emphasis with other groups such as evangelism and missions. While the general flavor of any denomination changes from city to city, this aspect of Baptist churches is much more prominent than in most Anglican, Methodist, Lutheran and Presbyterian churches. The Pacifism of the Anabaptists and the Quakers is not an ideal held by most Baptists. The Baptist Peace Fellowship of North America was organized in 1984 to promote peace, justice, and non-violence, but it does not speak for all Baptists that accept the ideal of pacifism. Moreover, Baptists are strongest in the southern United States, an area known for strong support of the military and thus generally not supportive of pacifist views. In Australia, the Baptist Union is very close to the Campbell-Stone Church of Christ. The two groups share similar theology, even sharing a Bible college.

Worship style

The focus of Baptist church services is the sermon. This can be seen in traditional Baptist church architecture--the pulpit, which is symbolic of proclamation of the Word of God, is the largest piece of furniture and centered on the platform, while the communion table placed below it in a symbolically "subservient" position (in sharp contrast to the Roman Catholic church which places the communion table at the center of the platform, since communion is the focus of its services, while the pulpit is off to one side). However, some of the modern megachurches have abandoned traditional architecture in favor of an entertainment-type stage, where a small podium and chair are brought out after the musical worship is complete. Sermons often range in time from 30-60 minutes. They range in style from expository sermons that focus on one biblical passage and interpret its meaning, to topical sermons which address an issue of concern and investigate several biblical passages related to that topic. The sermon is often surrounded by periods of musical worship lead by a song leader, choir or band. Musical style varies between hymns and Contemporary Christian music with many churches choosing a blend of the two. The choice in music style is often correlated to the predominant age of the members, with older congregations preferring traditional hymns played with piano and/or organ (the latter is becoming less frequent due to fewer organists) and featuring a choir, while younger congregations prefer contemporary music with modern instruments and no choir. Larger churches may have a full orchestra along with the choir. Some fundamentalist Baptists will only sing hymns (which usually includes songs in their hymnals written between the 1700s and the 1950s) and generally oppose the use of drums and/or electric guitar in their services because they associate those instruments with rock music. Other common features in a Baptist church service include the collection of offering, an altar call, a period of announcements and Communion. Most Baptist congregations are small in number with membership under 200 people while other congregations are megachurches with membership in the tens of thousands.

Origins

There are several views about the origins of Baptists within the Baptist church.

Landmarkist

Landmarkism is the belief that Baptist churches and traditions have preceded the Catholic Church and have been around since the time of John the Baptist and Christ. Proponents believe that Baptist traditions have been passed down through a succession of visible congregations of Christians that were Baptist in doctrine and practice, but not necessarily in name. This view is theologically based on Matthew 16:18 , "...and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." and a rejection of Catholicism as part of the historical origins of Baptists. This succession grants Baptist churches the status of being unstained and separate from what they see as the corruptions of Catholicism and other denominations. It also allows for the view that Baptists predate the Catholic church and is therefore not part of the Reformation or the Protestant movement. Alexander Campbell of the Restoration Movement was a strong promoter of this idea. J. M. Carroll's The Trail of Blood, written in 1931, is commonly presented to defend this origin's view. Several groups considered to be part of this Baptist succession were groups persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church throughout history including Montanists, Novatianists, Donatists, Paulicians, Albigensians, Catharists, Waldenses, and Anabaptists. While some of these groups shared a few theological positions with current Baptists, many held positions that would now be considered heretical by current Baptists. It is also difficult to show historical connections between those groups which were often separated by large gaps in geography and time. The works of John T. Christian offer the best presentation of this viewpoint.

Anabaptist

Anabaptists (Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites) were a group in the 1500s that rejected infant baptism and "rebaptized" members as adults. They share many teachings of the early Baptists, such as the believer's baptism and religious freedom and were probably influential in the development of many Baptist characteristics. While their names suggest some connection, some Anabaptists differed from the Baptists on many other issues such as pacifism and the communal sharing of material goods. It is difficult to say how much influence the Anabaptists had on the actual formation of Baptist churches. One of the strongest relationships between the two groups happened when John Smyth's General Baptists attempted but failed to merge with the Mennonites. The works of William Roscoe Estep offer the best presentation of this viewpoint.

Separatist

This view suggests that Baptists were originally separatists in the Puritan reaction to perceived corruptions in the Church of England in the 1600s. In 1609, John Smyth led a group of separatists to the Netherlands to start the General Baptist church with an Arminian theology. In 1616, Henry Jacob led a group of Puritans in England with a Calvinist theology to form a congregational church that would eventually become the Particular Baptists in 1638 under John Spilsbury. Both groups had members who sailed to America as pilgrims to avoid religious persecution in England and Europe and who started Baptist churches in the early colonies. The Particular and General Baptists would disagree over Arminianism and Calvinism until the formation of the Baptist Union of Great Britain in the 1800s under Andrew Fuller and William Carey for the purpose of missions. American Baptists soon followed suit. This is the most common view held by modern Baptists, which is found represented in the works of H. Leon McBeth and many others.

The name "Baptist"

Baptist comes from the Greek word 'baptistès' (to submerge), and the Latin 'baptista', and is in direct connection to 'the baptiser', 'John the Baptist'. As a first name it is used in Europe from the 12th century also as Baptiste, Jan-Baptiste, Jean-Baptiste, John-Baptist. In the Netherlands as of the 17th century, but mainly as of the 18th century as a combination like Jan Baptist or Johannes Baptist. As last name it is used as of the 13th century . Also commonly used as Baptiste, Baptista, Batiste, Battista.

Questions of labeling

Some Baptists object to the application of the labels Protestant, denomination, Evangelical and even Baptist to themselves or their churches, while others accept those labels. Those who reject the label Baptist prefer to be labeled as Christians who attend Baptist churches. Also, a recent trend is to eliminate the name "Baptist" from the church name, as it is perceived to be a "barrier" to reaching persons of no church background who have negative views of Baptists. Conversely, others accept the label Baptist because they identify with the distinctives they consider to be uniquely Baptist, and believe those who are removing the name "Baptist" from their churches are "compromising with the world" in order to attract more members. The name Protestant is rejected by some Baptists because some Baptists believe they do not have a direct connection to Luther, Calvin or the Roman Catholic Church. They do not feel that they are "protesting" anything; Landmark Baptists believe they actually pre-date the Roman Catholic Church. Other Baptists accept the Protestant label as a demographic concept that describes churches who share similar theologies of sola scriptura, sola fide, the priesthood of all believers and other positions that Luther, Calvin and traditional reformers held in contrast to the Roman Catholic Church in the 1500s. The label denomination is rejected by some because of the local autonomous governance system used by Baptist churches. Being a denomination is viewed as having a hierarchy that substitutes for the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church. Another reason for the rejection of the label is the influence of the Restoration period on Baptist churches, which emphasized a tearing down of denominational barriers. Other Baptists accept the label, feeling that it does not carry a negative connotation but rather is merely a synonym for a Christian or religious group. The label Evangelical is rejected by some fundamentalist Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that is not fundamentalist enough. It is rejected by some liberal Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that is too conservative. It is accepted by moderate Baptists who identify with the revival in the United States in the 1700s known as the First Great Awakening.

Other resources

- [http://www.sbc.net/ Southern Baptist Convention]
- [http://www.sbhla.org/info.htm/sbhla/ Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives]
- [http://www.bpnews.net/bpn/ Baptist Press]
- [http://www.abc-usa.org/abhs/ American Baptist Historical Society]
- [http://www.baptisthistory.org/ Baptist History and Heritage Society]
- [http://www.centerforbaptiststudies.org/ The Center for Baptist Studies]
- [http://www.baptistlife.com/ BaptistLife.Com]
- [http://www.valpo.edu/geomet/pics/geo200/religion/baptist.gif Map of USA showing Percentage of Baptist Population in each county]
- [http://www.fbcj.com First Baptist Church of Jackson] Category:Baptist Category:Anabaptism Category:Protestantism Category:Christianity ko:침례교 ja:バプテスト教会

Oklahoma

Oklahoma is a Midwest state of the United States (with strong Southern, Western, and Midwestern influences) and its U.S. postal abbreviation is OK; others abbreviate the state's name Okla. As of 2000, the population is 3,450,654.

Geography

Oklahoma is bounded on the east by Arkansas and Missouri, on the north by Kansas and northwest by Colorado (both at 37°N), on the far west by New Mexico (at 103°W), and on the south and near-west by Texas. The panhandle's southern boundary is at 36.5°N, then turning due south along 100°W to the southern fork of the Red River), completing the round trip back to Arkansas. Oklahoma City is the capital and largest city. Oklahoma's natural terrain is very diverse, ranging from oak and hickory mixed forest in the wetter eastern part of the state, to the post oak and blackjack oak savannah territory of the Cross Timbers, to the plains and semi-arid regions of western Oklahoma and the panhandle. The state is one of the six states on the Frontier Strip. Frontier Strip

Oklahoma regions

There have been several schemes used to breakdown Oklahoma into regions. The Oklahoma Tourism Department divides the state down into six "countries" for tourism promotion purposes: Red Carpet Country (Northwestern Oklahoma and The Panhandle), Great Plains Country (Southwestern Oklahoma), Frontier Country (Central Oklahoma, including the Oklahoma City Metropolitan area), Green Country (Northeastern Oklahoma, including the Tulsa Metropolitan area), Kiamichi Country (Southeastern Oklahoma), and Lake & Trail Country (South Central Oklahoma). Popular but "unofficial" regional designations include Green Country (most often used to refer to Northeastern Oklahoma but used by some to refer to all of Eastern Oklahoma), Little Dixie (Southeastern Oklahoma), Western Oklahoma, and the Oklahoma Panhandle. From a bioregional perspective, Oklahoma is recognized by the EPA as having 11 different ecoregions (one of only four U.S. states to have more than 10 ecoregions). These ecoregions are: Western high plains, Southwestern Tablelands, Central Great Plains, Tall Grass Prairie, Cross Timbers, Caves & Prairie, Ozark Highlands, Ozark Forest, Hardwood Forest, Ouachita Mountains, and Cypress Swamps & Forests. Oklahoma has some of the strongest thunderstorms in the entire world, because of the cold and warm airmasses colliding east of the Rocky Mountains, making the state the heart of Tornado Alley.

Interstate Highways

- Interstate 35
- Interstate 235
- Interstate 40
- Interstate 240
- Interstate 44
- Interstate 244
- Interstate 444 (unsigned)

U.S. Highways

History

Pre-European Amerindian cultures

Oklahoma was inhabited by Native American tribes including the Kitikiti'sh (Wichita) Quapaw, Caddo and Osage. Descendants of these peoples still live in the state. In the 16th century Spanish explorers became the first documented Europeans to visit the area (there is evidence to suggest that viking explorers passed through in the 6th century, but this has yet to be accepted widely by the scientific and historical community).Later, Oklahoma was part of the vast territorial swapping between European powers France and Spain.
"Five Civilized Tribes"
In the 1830s Oklahoma, as the Indian Territory, served as the relocation area for the policy of Indian Removal started by Andrew Jackson. The end of the Trail of Tears (Tsa La Gi) was "Indian Territory". There were already many tribes living in the territory, whites, and escaped slaves as well. The "Five Civilized Tribes," so named due to their early adaptations to Christianity and European clothing, technology, and trade, were not the only ones forced to Oklahoma. Nations such as the Delaware, from the northeast U.S., Kiowa, Comanche, and others were forced to move to Oklahoma. The name Oklahoma comes from the language of the Choctaw people, who were removed from Mississippi to "Indian Territory" by the United States Government in the early to mid-1800s. "Oklahoma" is a combination of two Choctaw words: okla which means "people," (as in the term "Miliki okla," which means "American people"), and homa, "homma," or "humma," various spellings of the Choctaw word which means, among other denotations, "red." The name was suggested by Allen Wright, Principal Chief of the Choctaw Nation from 1866 to 1870. The "Five Civilized Tribes" set up towns such as Tulsa, Tahlequah, and Muskogee, which became some of the larger towns in the state. They also brought their African slaves to Oklahoma, which added to African-American population in the region. During the American Civil War many tribes were internally split between Confederates and the United States. However, in 1861 the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles, Quapaws, Senecas, Caddos, Wichitas, Osage Nation, and Shawnees signed treaties of alliance with the Confederacy. There were several battles fought in Oklahoma.
Cowboys and Indians
After the Civil War, in 1866, the federal government forced the tribes into new treaties. Most of the land in central and western Indian Territory was ceded to the government. Some of the land was given to other tribes, but the central part, the so-called Unassigned Lands, remained with the government. Another concession allowed railroads to cross Indian lands. Furthermore the practice of slavery was outlawed. Some nations were integrated racially and otherwise with their slaves, but other nations were extremely hostile to the former slaves and wanted them exiled from their territory. In the 1870s a movement began by people wanting to settle the government lands in the Indian Territory under the Homestead Act of 1862. They referred to the Unassigned Lands as Oklahoma and to themselves as Boomers. In the 1880s, early settlers of the state's very sparsely populated Panhandle region tried to form the Cimarron Territory, but lost a lawsuit against the federal government, prompting a judge in Paris, Texas, to unintentionally create a moniker for the area. "That is land that can be owned by no man," the judge said, and after that the panhandle was referred to as No Man's Land until statehood arrived decades later. In 1884, in United States vs. Payne, the United States District Court in Topeka, Kansas, ruled that settling on the lands ceded to the government by the Indians under the 1866 treaties was not a crime. The government at first resisted but the Congress soon enacted laws authorizing settlement. Congress passed the Dawes Act, or General Allotment Act, in 1887 requiring the government to negotiate agreements with the tribes to divide Indian lands into individual holdings. Under the allotment system, tribal lands left over would be surveyed for settlement by non-Indians. Following settlement, many whites accused Republican officials of giving preferential treatment to ex-slaves in land disputes.
Land runs
On March 23 1889, President Benjamin Harrison signed legislation by the U.S. Congress which would open up the Unassigned Lands (some 2 million acres (8,000 km²), for settlement on April 22nd. It was to be the first of a number of "Land runs" (due to widespread cheating later land openings were conducted by means of a lottery). Some of the settlers were called "Sooners" because they had already staked their land claims before the land was officially opened for settlement. The Organic Act of 1890 created the Oklahoma Territory out of the Unassigned Lands and No Man's Land. In 1893 the government purchased the rights to settle the "Cherokee Outlet," or "Cherokee Strip," from the Cherokee Nation. The Cherokee Outlet was part of the lands ceded to the government in the 1866 treaty but with the Cherokees retaining access. Chicago meat-packing plants had leased it from the Cherokees for huge cattle ranches. The Cherokee Strip was opened to settlement by land run in 1894. Also, in 1893, Congress set up the Dawes Commission to negotiate agreements with each of the Five Civilized Tribes for the allotment of tribal lands to individual Indians. Finally, the 1898 Curtis Act abolished tribal jurisdiction over all of Indian Territory.
Statehood
On November 16 1907, Oklahoma Territory combined with Indian Territory to become the 46th U.S. state. In the early 1900s the oil business began to get underway. Huge pools of underground oil were discovered in places like Glenpool. Many whites flooded into the state to make money. Many of the "old money" elite families of Oklahoma can date their rise to this time. The prosperity of the 1920s can be seen in the surviving architecture from the period, including one mansion which was converted into the Philbrook Museum of Art. For Oklahoma, the early 1900s were also somewhat turbulent politically. Many different groups had flooded into the state and were trying to figure out how to live. There were also "black towns", in which blacks tried to make a life of their own, separate from whites. The white towns were also segregated. Northern Tulsa was known as Black Wall Street because of the vibrant business, cultural, and religious community that had sprung up there. The Oklahoma Socialist Party did achieve a fair degree of success in this era (the party had its highest per-capita membership in Oklahoma at this time with 12,000 dues paying members in 1914), including the publication of dozens of party newspapers and the election of several hundred local elected officials. Much of their success came from their willingness to reach out to Black and American Indian voters (they were the only party to continue to resist Jim Crow laws), and their willingness to alter traditional Marxist ideology when it made sense to do so (the biggest changes were the party's support of widespread small-scale land ownership, and their willingness to use religion positively to preach the "Socialist gospel"). The state party also delivered Presidential candidate Eugene Debs some of his highest vote counts in the nation. The party was later crushed into virtual non-existence during the "white terror" that followed the ultra-repressive environment following the Green Corn Rebellion and the World World I era paranoia against anyone who spoke against the war or capitalism. The Industrial Workers of the World tried to gain headway during this period, but achieved little success. The Ku Klux Klan was also active, denouncing Blacks, Catholics, and Jews. There were several race riots, including the Tulsa Race Riot, one of the worst in American history.
Dust Bowl Era
During the height of the Great Depression, drought and non-ecologically-friendly agricultural practices led to the Dust Bowl, when massive dust storms blew away the soil from large tracts of arable land and deposited it on nearby farms and ranches, distant states, the Atlantic Ocean, and even occasionally Great Britain. The resulting crop failures forced many small farmers to flee the state altogether. Although the most persistent dust storms primarily affected the Panhandle, much of the state experienced occasional dusters, intermittent severe drought, and occasional searing heat. Towns as far-flung as Alva, Altus, and Poteau each recorded temperatures of 120 °F during the epic summer of 1936. Advances in agro-mechanical technology simultaneously enabled less labor-intensive crop production. Many large landowners and planters had more labor than they needed with the new technology, and the federal Agricultural Adjustment Act paid them to reduce production. Plantation owners throughout the American South and much of eastern and southern Oklahoma released their sharecroppers of their debts and evicted them. With few or no local opportunities available for them, many emancipated but destitute blacks and whites fled to the relative prosperity of California to work as migrant farm workers and, after the onset of World War II, in factories. The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck, photographs by Dorothea Lange, and songs of Woody Guthrie tell tales of woe from the era. The negative images of the "Okie" as a sort of rootless migrant laborer living in a near-animal state of scrounging for food greatly offended many Oklahomans. These works often mix the experiences of former sharecroppers of the western American South with those of the exodusters fleeing the fierce dust storms of the High Plains. Although they primarily feature the extremely destitute, the vast majority of the people, both staying in and fleeing from Oklahoma, suffered great poverty in the Depression years. Some Oklahoma politicians denounced The Grapes of Wrath (often without reading it) as an attempt to impugn the morals and character of Oklahomans. The term "Okie" in recent years has taken on a new meaning in the past few decades, with many Oklahomans (both former and present) wearing the label as a badge of honor (as a symbol of the Okie survivor attitude). Others (mostly alive during the Dust Bowl era) still see the term negatively because they see the "Okie" migrants as quitters and transplants to the West Coast.
Urbanization
Major trends in Oklahoma history after the Depression era included the rise again of tribal sovereignty (including the issuance of tribal automobile license plates, and the opening of tribal smoke shops, casinos, grocery stores, and other commercial enterprises), the building of Tinker Air Force Base, the rapid growth of suburban Oklahoma City and Tulsa, the drop in population in Western Oklahoma, the oil boom of the 1980s and the oil bust of the 1990s. The constitution of Oklahoma said it will be dry. In this century came the gradual elimination of the prohibition of alcoholic beverages, first through defining non-alcoholic beverages containing 3.2% alcohol or less (this effectively eliminated the Federal government prohibition from the 20's), then through the legalization of stronger alcoholic beverages sold only in bottles, and finally in the legalization of "liquor by the drink" in the 1980s. Currently, Oklahoma's liquor laws are still fairly unusual in that only 3.2% alcohol by weight drinks can be sold in grocery/convenience stores, while higher-alcohol-content beverages must be sold at room temperature in liquor stores with limited hours of operations 10 a.m. to 9 p.m. Monday through Saturday. In 1995 Oklahoma became the scene of the Oklahoma City bombing, in which a Gulf War veteran named Timothy McVeigh bombed the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, killing 168 people. Oklahoma City has also been the home of Spiritual Walk for Peace, an ongoing series of peaceful peace demonstrations in downtown Oklahoma City conducted by members of the city's religious/peace communities.
Demographics
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2003, Oklahoma's population was estimated at 3,511,532 people.
Race and ancestry
The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census: The five largest ancestry groups in Oklahoma are German (14.5%), American (13.1%), Irish (11.8%), English (9.6%), Native American (7.9%, with Cherokees as the largest tribe). Southeastern and south-central Oklahoma are inhabited principally by Southerners of American ancestry. German-Americans are present in the state as well, especially in the northwestern part of the state. American Indians predominate in eastern Oklahoma. Oklahomans of British ancestry dominate Tulsa and some other areas. Blacks are a plurality in Lawton and Oklahoma City, while Pittsburg county has many Irish-Americans. Oklahoma City has the largest Asian and Asian American populations. A few western counties have significant Mexican American populations. 6.8% of Oklahoma's population were reported as under 5, 25.9% under 18, and 13.2% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 50.9% of the population. Descendants of these people still live in Oklahoma today. Counties with the names of these tribes also exist. Oklahoma has the second highest number of Native Americans/Amerindians in the country estimated at 395,219 as of 2003. Only California has a higher Amerindian population at 682,720 [http://eire.census.gov/popest/data/states/ST-EST2002-ASRO-04.php]. Oklahoma also has the second highest concentration of Native Americans/Amerindians in the nation with 11.4% of the state's population, topped only by Alaska at 19% of that state's population. [http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-15.pdf].
Rural flight
Oklahoma, in common with five other Midwestern states (Nebraska, Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota and Iowa), is feeling the brunt of falling populations in many communities. 89% of the total number of cities in those states have fewer than 3000 people; hundreds have fewer than than 1000. Between 1996 and 2004 almost half a million people, nearly half with college degrees, left the six states. "Rural flight" has led to offers of free land and tax breaks as enticements to newcomers in some of these states. The effects of rural flight in Oklahoma have mostly been felt in Western Oklahoma (those areas west of Interstate 35).
Religion
Oklahoma is an overwhelmingly Protestant Christian state. The religious affiliations of the people of Oklahoma are:
- Christian – 85%
- Protestant – 77%
- Baptist (mostly Southern) – 32%
- Methodist – 12%
- Churches of Christ – 4%
- Pentecostal – 4%
- Presbyterian – 3%
- Assemblies of God – 3%
- Other Protestant – 19%
- Roman Catholic – 7%
- Other Christian – 1%
- Other Religions – 1%
- Non-Religious – 14%
Economy
Oklahoma is a major fuel and food-producing state. Thousands of oil and natural gas wells dot the Oklahoma landscape. Millions of white-faced beef cattle graze on Oklahoma's flat plain and low hills. Fertile fields produce vast crops of wheat. Its agricultural outputs are cattle, wheat, milk, poultry, and cotton. Its industrial outputs are transportation equipment, machinery, electric products, rubber and plastic products, and food processing. Its 1999 total gross state product was $86 billion, placing it 29th in the nation. Its 2000 per capita personal income was $23,517, 43rd in the nation. Oklahoma City suburb Nichols Hills is ranked first on Oklahoma locations by per capita income at $73,661. Oklahoma City is the principal economic engine of the state, centered on the finance, retail, governance, entertainment, and tourism sectors. The city has numerous manufacturing and processing plants as well as a growing biotech research and health center. Oklahoma City has a large aviation market and its location at the intersection of I-35, I-40, and I-44 makes Oklahoma City an important distribution and shipping point. Oklahoma City is home to many corporate and regional headquarters including Devon, Chesapeake Energy, Kerr-McGee, Six Flags, Sonic, SBC, The Hertz Corporation, BancFirst, OGE Energy, Bank of Oklahoma, Hobby Lobby, Dobson Communications, Express Personnel Services, Oklahoma Publishing Company, Globe Life and Accident Insurance, AOL, and Big Daddy's BBQ Sauce. Tulsa is centered around energy, aerospace and telecommunications and the city has the nation's most inland waterport. Companies based in Tulsa include Williams, Oneok, Wiltel, QuikTrip, Mazzio's Corporation, Dollar-Thrifty, and Vanguard. Other employers include MCI, TV Guide, SBC Communications, Dish Network, DirecTV, USCellular, Cingular, and Onex. Tulsa is also home to an American Airlines maintenance center, the largest airline maintenance base in the world.
Law and government

State government
The capital of the state is Oklahoma City and its governor is Brad Henry (Democrat). Other Executive Branch elected officials include Lieutenant Governor Mary Fallin (Republican), State Auditor and Inspector Jeff McMahan (Democrat), Attorney General Drew Edmondson (Democrat), State Treasurer Scott Meacham (Democrat), Superintendent of Public Instruction Sandy Garrett (Democrat), Labor Commissioner Brenda Reneau (Republican), Insurance Commissioner Kim Holland (Democrat), and the three member State Corporation Commission which currently consists of Bob Anthony (Republican), Jeff Cloud (Republican), and Denise Bode (Republican). Oklahoma's state legislature consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate has 48 members serving four-year terms, while the House has 101 members with two year terms. The state has term limits for their legislature that restrict any one person to a total of twelve years service in both the house and senate. In the 2005–2006 state legislature, control is split between the major parties, the Democrats control the Senate (26 to 22) while the Republicans control the House (57 to 44). This changes the government's make-up since before the 2004 election the Democrats controlled both chambers since 1921. The state's judicial branch consists of the Oklahoma Supreme Court, the Court of Criminal Appeals, and 77 District Courts which serve one county apiece. Oklahoma is unusual in that it has two courts of last resort, the state Supreme Court hears civil cases, and the state Court of Criminal Appeals hears criminal cases (the state of Texas uses a similar system). Judges of those two courts, as well as the Court of Civil Appeals are appointed by the Governor upon the recommendation of the state Judicial Nominating Commission, and are subject to a non-partisan retention vote on a six-year rotating schedule. Due to Oklahoma's restrictive ballot access laws (deemed by many to be the most restrictive in the nation), no third parties have access to the primary ballots, however the state does have the following active third parties: Oklahoma Libertarian Party, Green Party of Oklahoma, Oklahoma Constitution Party. There are also organizers from the Communist Party USA working in the state.
Local governance
The state is divided into 77 counties which deliver local government. Each is governed by a three member commission. Other county elected officials are the tax assessor, clerk, court clerk, treasurer, and sheriff. Cities and towns are established under the rights granted in the Oklahoma statutes (in comparison, Oklahoma gives municipal governments a great deal of latitude in chartering new governments). Towns are municipalities of under 1000 residents, while cities have more than 1000 residents. Major cities are also allowed to form "charter governments," in which the voters choose the form of government they want to use in place of the statutory forms. Other local government units in Oklahoma include independent and dependent school districts, Technology Center Districts (once known as VOTECH), community college districts, rural fire departments, rural water districts, and other special use districts.
National politics
After the 2000 census the Oklahoma delegation to the U.S. House was reduced from six to five representatives. For the 109th Congress (2005–2006) there are no changes in party strength, and the delegation has four Republicans and one Democrat. Oklahoma's two U.S. senators are James M. Inhofe (Republican) and Tom Coburn (Republican). The U.S. Representatives are John Sullivan (Republican) of District 1, Dan Boren (Democrat) of District 2, Frank D. Lucas (Republican) of District 3, Tom Cole (Republican) of District 4, and Ernest Istook (Republican) of District 5. Interestingly, Oklahoma has been a staunch Republican state in national politics recently, voting for the Republican in every election since 1964. (although the 1976 Carter-Ford race was close). In 2004, George W. Bush carried every county in the state. His victory in winning Oklahoma's 7 electoral votes was by the overwhelming margin of 32 percentage points and 65.6% of the vote. Yet, despite this, there are still more registered Democrats in Oklahoma than Republicans.
Culture
George W. Bush The various government sponsored arts, community, and tourism programs emphasize Oklahoma's Native American heritage heavily. Other ethnic celebrations include those of Yukon & Prague (celebrating the Czech heritage of some early immigrants), Tulsa's Greek Holiday, the Tulsa Scottish Games, Shalomfest (in Tulsa), Tulsa's German Oktoberfest, the Mennonite Relief Sale (in Enid, OK), traditional Asian, African American, and Hispanic celebrations in Oklahoma City as well as the Pride parade and festival in the city's GLBT district, and the Juneteenth Celebrations found all across the state.
Education
See also: ::
- List of Oklahoma school districts by county ::
- List of school districts in Oklahoma ::
- List of private schools in Oklahoma ::
- List of vocational technical schools in Oklahoma ::
- List of colleges and universities in Oklahoma
Colleges and universities

- Cameron University
- East Central University
- Heritage College & Heritage Institute
- Langston University
- Mid-America Christian University
- Northeastern State University
- Northwestern Oklahoma State University
- Oklahoma Baptist University
- Oklahoma Christian University
- Oklahoma City University
- Oklahoma Panhandle State University
- Oklahoma State University - Center for Health Sciences
- Oklahoma State University - Oklahoma City
- Oklahoma State University - Okmulgee
- Oklahoma State University - Stillwater
- Oklahoma State University - Tulsa
- Oklahoma Wesleyan University
- Oral Roberts University
- Rose State College
- Seminole State College
- St. Gregory's University
- Southeastern Oklahoma State University
- [http://www.snu.edu Southern Nazarene University]
- Southwestern Oklahoma State University
- University of Central Oklahoma
- University of Oklahoma
- University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
- University of Oklahoma, Tulsa
- University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma
- University of Tulsa

Important cities and towns

- Oklahoma City MSA
- Bethany
- Blanchard
- Choctaw
- Del City
- Edmond
- El Reno
- Guthrie
- Harrah
- Jones
- Kingfisher
- Midwest City
- Moore
- Mustang
- Newcastle
- Nichols Hills
- Nicoma Park
- Noble
- Norman
- Piedmont
- Spencer
- Tuttle
- The Village
- Warr Acres
- Yukon
- Tulsa MSA
- Bixby
- Broken Arrow
- Catoosa
- Claremore
- Collinsville
- Coweta
- Glenpool
- Jenks
- Owasso
- Sand Springs
- Sapulpa
- Skiatook
- Sperry
- Outside the two major MSAs
- Ada
- Altus
- Ardmore
- Bartlesville
- Chickasha
- Duncan
- Durant
- Elk City
- Enid
- Guymon
- Lawton
- McAlester
- Miami
- Muskogee
- Okmulgee
- Ponca City
- Shawnee
- Stillwater
- Tahlequah
- Woodward

Oklahoma state symbols

Professional sports teams
Due to the devastation of New Orleans, Louisiana in 2005, the NBA's New Orleans Hornets relocated to Oklahoma City are currently known as the New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets. The Hornets are the first major professional sports league franchise to play in the state. The minor league baseball teams are:
- Oklahoma RedHawks (AAA in Oklahoma City)
- Tulsa Drillers (AA in Tulsa) Other Oklahoma City teams include
- Oklahoma City Blazers (Ice Hockey: CHL)
- Oklahoma City Yard Dawgz (Arena Football League: AF2)
- Oklahoma City Lightning (Women's Football: NWFA)
- New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets (National Basketball Association)
- Oklahoma Storm (Basketball: United States Basketball League) Other Tulsa teams include
- Tulsa Oilers (Ice Hockey: CHL)
- Tulsa Talons (Arena Football: AF2)
- Tulsa 66ers (Basketball: NBA Development League)
See also

- Home to the Worlds Tallest Hill
- List of people from Oklahoma
- Partial list of Oklahoma casinos
References

- U.S. Census Bureau.
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/40000.html Oklahoma QuickFacts]. Geographic and demographic information.
- [http://www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0056/tab51.pdf Oklahoma - Race and Hispanic Origin: 1890 to 1990] (PDF)
External links

-
- [http://www.ok.gov/ Oklahoma's Official Web Site]
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/40000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
- [http://www.oktourism.com Oklahoma Tourism]
- [http://urbanok.9.forumer.com/ Urban OK Forums]
State political parties
Political parties in Oklahoma (and their websites) are:
- [http://www.oklp.org Libertarian Party]
- [http://www.okgop.com Republican Party]
- [http://www.reformpartyofoklahoma.org Reform Party]
- [http://www.okdemocrats.org/ Democratic Party]
- [http://www.okgreens.org Green Party] Category:States of the American West
- Category:States of the United States ko:오클라호마 주 ja:オクラホマ州 th:มลรัฐโอคลาโฮมา

Auto-free zone

Car-free zones are also known as auto-free zones and pedestrianised zones. Many communities have come to recognize that it is desirable to have areas that are not dominated by the automobile. Converting a street or an area to car-free use is called pedestrianization. Some examples of different types of carfree areas are:

North America

]] In North America, the creation of pedestrian-friendly urban environments is still in its infancy. Few cities have pedestrian zones, but some have pedestrianized single streets. Many pedestrian streets are surfaced with cobblestones, or pavement bricks, thus discouraging any kind of wheeled traffic, including wheelchairs. They are rarely completely free of motor vehicles. Often, all of the cross streets are open to motorized traffic, which thus intrudes on the pedestrian flow at every street corner. In a few pedestrian streets with no cross street cars or trucks deliveries are made by trucks by night. Some examples are part of Prince Arthur street in Montreal and the Sparks Street Mall area of Ottawa, Canada.

The United States of America

In the 1960s and early 1970s many mid-sized cities in the United States experimented with installing pedestrian malls in their downtown areas, as a response to the commercial success of self-contained edge-of-town shopping malls. Downtown retailers wanted to preserve their businesses; the cities wanted to defend their tax base. In 1959 Kalamazoo Michigan became the first American city to adopt a pedestrian mall for their downtown area, closing two blocks of Burdick Street to automobile traffic. Ironically, they were working from a plan by Victor Gruen Associates, the same firm responsible for the first modern shopping mall in the country, Northland Shopping Mall in suburban Detroit. Some notable examples are Ann Arbor, Michigan, Oak Park, Illinois, the Third Street Promenade in Santa Monica, California, Ithaca Commons in Ithaca, New York, the Pearl Street Mall in Boulder, Colorado, St. Charles, Missouri, Salem, Massachusetts, Iowa City, Iowa, the Fulton Mall in Fresno, California and many others. Typically these downtown pedestrian malls were three or four linear blocks simply blocked off to private street traffic, with fountains, benches, sittable planters, bollards, playgrounds, interfaces to public transit and other amenities installed to attract shoppers. Most of these experiments were judged as failures by the downtown retailers and re-converted to streets within twenty years. However, some of these areas are still popular attractions today. The Pearl Street Mall in Boulder continues to thrive with its college crowd atmosphere and the Third Street Promenade in Santa Monica thrives on tourist traffic. The Downtown Mall in Charlottesville, Virginia, now a vital business, entertainment, and retail area, spent roughly twenty years as a somewhat depressed stretch until an ice skating rink and multiplex opened on it in the mid-1990s. The San Antonio Riverwalk is a special-case pedestrian street, one level down from the automobile street. The Riverwalk winds and loops under bridges as two parallel sidewalks lined with restaurants and shops, connecting the major tourist draws from Alamo Plaza to Rivercenter, to Hemisphere Plaza, to the Transit Tower. Most downtown buildings have street entrances and separate river entrances one level below. This separates the unavoidable automotive service grid (delivery and ambulance/police vehicles) and pedestrian traffic below. It's an extensive system which achieves a nice balance among retail, commercial, office, greenspace and cultural uses. It gives the city an intricate network of bridges, walkways and old staircases, providing haptic and visual complexity. From an urban planning standpoint, the Riverwalk may be the best pedestrian-only realm on the continent, no motor vehicles or bicycles allowed. In the last decades of the 20th century many urbanists have listed and explained what they see as the virtues of pedestrian streets. Urban renewal activists have often pushed for the creation of auto-free zones in parts or in all of the sectors of a metropolitan area.

Europe

A large number, perhaps the majority, of European towns and cities have made part of their historic centers carfree since the early 1960s. Central Copenhagen is one of the largest and oldest examples: the auto-free zone is centered on Strøget, a pedestrian shopping street, but it is in fact not a single street but a series of interconnected avenues which create a very large auto-free zone, although it is crossed in places by streets with vehicular traffic. Most of these zones allow delivery trucks to service the businesses located there during the early morning, and street-cleaning vehicles will usually go through these streets after most shops have closed for the night. Another example of a European pedestrian street is Laisves Aleja in Kaunas, Lithuania.

Venice

Venice on the Adriatic Sea offers one of the largest auto-free zones in any urban area in the world. Though its canals are filled with motorized boats of all sizes which offer many of the inconveniences (and conveniences) of automobiles, the number of boats is appreciably smaller than the number of cars, trucks, and buses that would be typical of other wealthy cities based on motorized road transport. Adriatic Sea]]

Italy

There are a great many auto-free zones in Southern European hill towns and villages, such as the Cinque Terre in Italy, since many, if not most of the streets are too steep and/or narrow for automobile circulation.

Islands

A number of islands, including the islands of Borkum in the North Sea, Sark in the Channel Islands, and Paquetá Island in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, enforce a ban on motor vehicles. Brazil]]

Neighborhoods

Several dozen new carfree neighborhoods have been built in recent decades, mostly in Europe. An example is Vauban, a neighborhood of 5,000 in Freiburg, Germany. Germany of Fes (J.H. Crawford)]]
- North Africa contains some of the largest carfree areas in the world. Fes-al-Bali, a medina of Fes, Morocco, with its population of 156,000, may be the world's largest contiguous completely carfree area, and the medinas of Cairo, Casablanca, Meknes, Essaouira, and Tangier are quite extensive.
- Towns in many low-income countries are effectively largely carfree simply because cars are uncommon in those countries. As cars become more common, however, many of these towns are suffering from the ill effects that accompany motorization. The most serious instances can be found in Africa, where road death rates, expressed in terms of fatalities per vehicle, reach extreme values.
- Auto-free zones are fewer in North America. One example is the residential area of the Toronto Islands. A number of cities have created single pedestrian streets. Mackinac Island, between the upper and lower peninsula of Michigan, prohibits motorised vehicles on the island, except for emergency vehicles. Travel on the island is largely by foot, bicycle, or horse-drawn carriage. An 8.5 mile road, M-185, rings the island, and numerous roads cover the interior. M-185 is one of the only highways in the United States without motorized vehicles. Downtown Crossing in Boston is a shopping district which prohibits automobiles during daytime hours. Memorial Drive, a busy road in Cambridge, MA is closed to car traffic each sunday during the Summer to allow pedestrians, bikers and rollerskaters an opportunity to use the road. Cambridge, MA) on Mackinac Island]] Auto-free zones have a great variety of attitudes or rules towards human powered vehicles such as bicycles, inline skates, skateboards and push scooters. Some have a total ban on anything with wheels, others ban certain categories, others segregate the human-powered wheels from foot traffic, and others still have no rules at all. Many of the Middle Eastern examples have no wheeled traffic, but use donkeys for freight transport.

South America

Buenos Aires

Several square blocks of downtown Buenos Aires are car-free, contributing to a lively shopping and restaurant district where street performers and tango dancers abound.

External links

- [http://www.worldcarfree.net World Carfree Network]
- [http://www.carfree.com Carfree.com]
- [http://www.autofrei-wohnen.de Carfree areas worldwide, from Autofrei Wohnen] (in German with a few English pages or english subtitles) Category:Urban studies and planning

Ski resort

A ski resort is a ski area with a village and/or high-end accommodations and other amenities at the base of the mountain. A ski area is a place where one goes to participate in the sports of skiing and snowboarding. Normally located in high mountain areas (or at least on well-built-up hills) for optimum snow coverage, they have become ubiquitous in areas where skiing is a popular pastime. The runs or trails in these ski areas are usually marked and known as pistes. Ski areas typically have one or more chair lifts for moving skiers rapidly to the top of hills, and to interconnect the various pistes. Rope tows can also be used on short slopes (usually beginner hills or "bunny slopes"). A mountain resort is a place to holiday or vacation located in the mountains. Common activities at a mountain resort include skiing, snowboarding and the like.

Victoria, Australia

Victoria is a state located in the south-eastern corner of Australia. It is the smallest mainland state in area, but the most densely populated and urbanised. Victoria began as a farming community in the 1800s, until the discovery of gold transformed it into a leading industrial and commercial centre. In 2005, Victoria's population reached 5,012,700 - making it the second most populous Australian state, after New South Wales. Melbourne is Victoria's capital and largest city, with more than 70 per cent of all Victorians living there.

History

After the founding of the colony of New South Wales in 1788, the continent was divided into an eastern half - named New South Wales, and a western half, named New Holland, but under the administration of the colonial government in Sydney. Victoria's first settlement was at Portland, on the west coast of what is now Victoria, Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman. In 1851 gold was discovered at Anderson's Creek near Melbourne, at Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at many sites across Victoria. This triggered one of the largest gold rushes the world has ever seen. Victoria grew rapidly in both population and economic power. The colony was granted independence from New South Wales in the same year. In 1901 Victoria became a state in the Commonwealth of Australia. Melbourne was the capital of Australia while Canberra was under construction.

Government

Victoria has a parliamentary form of government based on the Westminster System. Legislative power resides in the Parliament consisting of the Governor (the representative of the Queen), the executive (the Government), and two legislative chambers. While Queen Elizabeth II is Victoria's head of state, it is in practice a ceremonial role. The Parliament of Victoria consists of the lower house Legislative Assembly, the upper house Legislative Council and the Queen of Australia. Eighty-eight members of the Legislative Assembly are elected to four-year terms from single-member electorates. The Legislative Council consists of 44 members elected to eight-year terms from 22 two-member electorates. Legislative Council elections are staggered so that half the members face election every four years. The Premier of Victoria is the leader of the political party or coalition with the most seats in the Legislative Assembly. The Premier is the public face of government and, with Cabinet, sets the legislative and political agenda. Cabinet consists of representatives elected to either house of parliament. It is responsible for managing areas of government reserved for the states by the Australian Constitution, such as education, health and law enforcement. The Governor of Victoria has a ceremonial role representing Queen Elizabeth II. The post is usually filled by a retired prominent Victorian. The governor acts on the advice of the Premier and Cabinet. Victoria has a written constitution. Enacted in 1975, but based on the 1855 colonial constitution, it establishes the parliament as the state's supreme law-making body. The Victorian Constitution can be amended by the parliament without voter approval. From November 2006, Victorian voters will elected members to the upper house under a revamped system. The Legislative Council will consist of 40 seats, with five representatives each elected from eight new multi-member districts. Minor parties are expected to benefit most from the changes.

Local Government

Victoria is incorporated into 79 municipalities for the purposes of local government, including 39 shires, 32 cities, seven rural cities and one borough. Shire and city councils are responsible for functions delegated by the Victorian parliament, such as city planning, road infrastructure and waste management. Council revenue comes mostly from property taxes and government grants.

Politics

The Australian Labor Party, Liberal Party of Australia and National Party of Australia are Victoria's major political parties. Traditionally, Labor is strongest in Melbourne's inner, working class and western suburbs. The Liberals' main support lies in Melbourne's more affluent eastern and outer suburbs, and some regional centres. The Nationals are strongest in Victoria's regional and rural areas.

Economy

Historically and to some extent in contemporary times, Victoria has been home to gold mining and brown coal mining and offshore oil drilling. Outside the manufacturing and service centre of Melbourne, agriculture dominates the Victorian economy, with its comparatively rich soils and temperature and wet climates compared to the rest of Australia. Major export agricultural activities include beef and dairy cattle, wool and lamb production and wheat (primarily in the drier western half of the state), with irrigated fruit and vegetable growers around Melbourne and along the Murray River. Wine grape production grew rapidly during the 1990s.

Geology and geography

1990s 1990s] Victoria's northern border is the south bank of the Murray River, the river itself being part of New South Wales. It also rests at the southern end of the Great Dividing Range, which stretches along the east coast and terminates west of Ballarat. It is bordered by South Australia to the west. In this space are topographically, geologically and climatically diverse areas ranging from the wet, temperate climate of Gippsland in the southeast to the snow-covered Victorian alpine areas which rise to almost 2000 m (with Mount Bogong the highest peak at 1986 m) and extensive semi-arid plains to the west and north-west. There is an extensive series of river systems in Victoria owing to its relatively high (relative to the rest of Australia) rainfall. Most notable is the Murray River system. Other rivers include: Ovens River, Goulburn River, King River, Campaspe River, Loddon River, Wimmera River, Elgin River, Barwon River, Thompson River, Snowy River, Latrobe River, Yarra River, Maribyrnong River, Mitta River and Kiewa River. The state symbols include the Pink Heath (state flower), Leadbeater's Possum (state animal) and the Helmeted Honeyeater (state bird). The state's capital, Melbourne, contains approximately 70% of the state's population and dominates its economy, media, and culture. For other cities and towns, see List of localities (Victoria) and Local Government Areas of Victoria.

Tourism

Local Government Areas of Victoria] Local Government Areas of Victoria Some major tourist destinations in Victoria include: Ballarat, Beechworth, Bendigo, Buchan Caves, Echuca, Fairy penguins, Geelong, Gippsland Lakes, Gliding, Great Ocean Road, Maldon, Melbourne Casino, Melbourne Cricket Ground, Murray River golf clubs, Port Fairy Folk Festival, Puffing Billy, Skiing in Victoria, Sovereign Hill, The Twelve Apostles. Other popular activies include whale watching, hang-gliding and hot air ballooning.

Culture and sport

Victoria is regarded as the home of Australian Rules Football, with 10 of the 16 clubs of the major league (see Australian Football League) based in Victoria, and the traditional Grand Final held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.

External links

- [http://www.arts.monash.edu.au/ncas/multimedia/gazetteer/index.html Australian Places] - a gazetteer of Australian cities, towns and suburbs, many of which are in Victoria
- [http://www.vic.gov.au Government website]
- [http://www.victoria.org.au/ Victorian Information and History]
- [http://www.visitvictoria.com Official tourism website]
- [http://www.victrip.com.au/ Public Transport]
- [http://www.theage.com.au/photogallery/2004/08/05/1106074819040.html Photos of Victoria]
- Category:Former British colonies ko:빅토리아 주 ja:ヴィクトリア州 simple:Victoria

Melbourne

Melbourne is the state capital and largest city in the Australian